66

The Name and Nature of Translation Studies is an expanded version of a paper

presented in the Translation Section of the Third International Congress of Applied
Linguistics, held in Copenhagen, 2!2" August #$2% &irst issued in the A''TS
series of the Translation Studies Section, (epartment of )eneral Literar* Studies,
+niversit* of Amsterdam, #$2, presented here in its second pre!pu,lication form
-#$./% A slightl* different version appeared in Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics,
0 -#1$/, pp% #!22% A (utch translation 3as pu,lished under the title 4at is
vertaal3etenschap5 In 6enard T% Tervoort -ed%/, Wetenschap & Taal: Het
verschijnsel taal van verschillende zijden benaderd (7uider,erg8 Coutinho, #$$/,
pp% 21!".%
67
The Name the Nature of Translation Studies
1
%
Science, 7ichael 7ul9a* points out, tends to proceed ,* means of discover* of
ne3 areas of ignorance%
2
The process ,* 3hich this ta9es place has ,een fairl*
3ell defined ,* the sociologists of science and research%
0
As a ne3 pro,lem or set
of pro,lems comes into vie3 in the 3orld of learning, there is an influx of
researches from ad:acent areas, ,ringing 3ith them the paradigms and models that
have proved fruitful in their o3n fields% These paradigms and models are then
,rought to ,ear on the ne3 pro,lem, 3ith one of t3o results% In some situations the
pro,lem proves amena,le to explicitation, anal*sis, explication, and at least partial
solution 3ithin the ,ounds of one of the paradigms or models, and in that case it is
annexed as a legitimate ,ranch of an esta,lished field of stud*% In other situations
the paradigms or models fail to produce sufficient results, and researches ,ecome
a3are that ne3 methods are needed to approach the pro,lem%
In this second t*pe of situation, the result is a tension ,et3een researches
investigating the ne3 pro,lem and colleagues in their former fields, and this
tension can graduall* lead to the esta,lishment of ne3 channels of communication
and the development of 3hat has ,een called a ne3 disciplinar* utopia, that is, a
ne3 sense of a shared interest in a common set of pro,lems, approaches, and
o,:ectives on the part of a ne3 grouping of researches% As 4%;% <agstrom has
indicated, these t3o steps, the esta,lishment of communication channels and the
development of a disciplinar* utopia, ma9e it possi,le for scientists to identif*
3ith the emerging discipline and to claim legitimac* for their point of vie3 3hen
appealing to universit* ,odies or groups in the larger societ*%
2
%2
Though there are no dou,t a fe3 scholars 3ho 3ould o,:ect, particularl* among
the linguists, it 3ould seem to me clear that in regard to the complex of pro,lems
clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations,
.
the second
situation no3 applies% After centuries of incidental and desultor* attention from a
scattering of authors, philologians, and literar* scholars, plus here and there a
theologian or an idios*ncratic linguist, the su,:ect of translation has en:o*ed and
68
constant increase in interest on the part of scholars recent *ears, 3ith the Second
4orld 4ar as 9ind of turning point% As the interest has solidified and expanded,
more and more scholars have moved into the field, particularl* from the ad:acent
fields of linguistics, linguistics philosoph*, and literar* studies, ,ut also from such
seemingl* more remote disciplines as information theor*, logic, and mathematics,
each of them carr*ing 3ith him paradigms, =uasi!paradigms, models, and
methodologies that he felt could ,e ,rought to ,ear on this ne3 pro,lem%
At first glance, the resultant situation toda* 3ould appear to ,e one of great
confusion, 3ith no consensus regarding the t*pes of models to ,e tested, the 9ind
of methods to ,e applied, to varieties of terminolog* to ,e used% 7ore than that,
there is not even li9emindedness a,out the contours of the field, the programs set,
the discipline as such% Indeed, scholars are not so much as agreed on the ver*
name of the ne3 field%
Nevertheless, ,eneath the superficial level, there are a num,er of
indications that for the field of research focusing on the pro,lems translating and
translations <agstrom>s disciplinar* utopia the ta9ing shape% If this is salutar*
development -and I ,elieve that it is/, it follo3s that it is 3orth 3hile to further the
development ,* consciousl* turning our attention to matters that are serving to
impede it%
%0
;ne of these impediments is the lac9 of appropriate channels of communication%
&or scholars and researchers in the field, ,ut channels that do exist still tend to run
via the older disciplines -3ith their attendant norms in regard to models, methods,
and terminolog*/, sold that papers on the su,:ect of translation are dispersed over
periodicals in a 3ide variet* of scholarl* fields and :ournals for practising
translators% It is clear that there is a need for other communication channels,
cutting across the traditional disciplines to reach all scholars 3or9ing in the field,
from 3hatever ,ac9ground%
2%
6ut I should li9e to focus our attention on the other impediments to the
development of a disciplinar* utopia% The first of these, the lesser of the t3o in
importance, is the seemingl* trivial matter of a name for this field of research% It
3ould not ,e 3ise to continue referring to the discipline ,* its su,:ect matter as
has ,een done at this conference, for the map, as the )eneral Semanticists
constantl* remind us, is not the territor*, and failure to distinguish the t3o can
onl* further confusion%
Through the *ears, diverse terms have ,een used in 3ritings dealing 3ith
translating and translations, and one can find references in ?nglish to the
69
art or the craft of translation, ,ut also to the principles of translation, the
fundamentals or the philosoph*% Similar terms recur in &rench and )erman% In
some cases the choice of term reflects the attitude, point of approach, or
,ac9ground of the 3riter@ in other it has ,een determined ,* the fashion of the
moment in the scholarl* terminolog*%
There have ,een a fe3 attempts to create more learned terms, most of
them 3ith the highl* active suffix !olog*% Aoger )offin, for instance, has
suggested the designation translatolog* in ?nglish, and either its cognate or
traductologie in &rench%
"
6ut since the Bolog* suffix derives from )ree9, purists
re:ect a contamination of this 9ind, all the Late Latin in the case of translatio or
Aenaissance &rench in that of traduction% Cet )ree9 alone offers no 3a* out, for
metaphorolog*, metaphaseolog*, or metaphastics 3ould hardl* ,e of aid to
us in ma9ing our su,:ect clear even to universit* ,odies, let alone to other groups
in the larger societ*%
$
Such other terms as translatistics or translitics, ,oth of
3hich have ,een suggested, 3ould ,e more readil* understood, ,ut hardl* more
accepta,le%
2%2
T3o further, less classicall* constructed terms have come to the fore in recent
*ears% ;ne of these ,egan its life in a longer form, the theor* of translating or
the theor* of translation -and its corresponding forms8 Theorie des
D,ersetEens, thForie de la traduction/% In ?nglish -and in )erman/ it has since
gone the 3a* of man* such terms, and is no3 usuall* compressed into translation
theor* -bersetzungstheorie/% It has ,een a productive designation, and can ,e
even more so in future, ,ut onl* if it is restricted to its proper meaning% &or, as I
hope to ma9e clear in the course of this paper, there is much valua,le stud* and
research ,eing done in the discipline, and a need for much more to ,e done, that
does not, strictl* spea9ing, fall 3ithin the scope of theor* formation%
2%22
The second term is one that has, to all intents and purposes, 3on the field in
)erman as a designation for the entire discipline%
1
This is the term
bersetzungs!issenschaft, constructed to form a parallel to "prach!isseschaft,
Literatur!issenschaft, and man* other Wissenschaften% In &rench, the compara,le
designation, science e la traduction, has also gained ground, as have parallel
terms in various other languages%
;ne of the first to use parallel sounding term in ?nglish 3as ?ugene Nida,
3ho in #"2 chose to entitle his theoretical hand,oo9 To!ards a science of
translating#
#
It should ,e noted, though, that Nida did not
70
intend the phrase as a name for the entire field of stud*, ,ut onl* for one aspect of
the process of translating as such%
G
;thers, most of them not native spea9ers of
?nglish, have ,een more ,old, advocating the term science of translation -or
translation science/ as the appropriate designation for this emerging discipline as
a 3hole% T3o *ears ago this recurrent suggestion 3as follo3ed ,* something li9e
canoniEation of the term 3hen 6ausch, Hlegraf, and 4ills too9 the decision to
ma9e it the main title to their anal*tical ,i,liograph* of the entire field%

It 3as a decision that I, for one, regret% It is not that I o,:ect to the term
bersetzungs!issenchaft, for their are fe3 if an* valid arguments against that
designation for the su,:ect in )erman% The pro,lem is not that the discipline is not
a Wissenschaft, ,ut that not all Wissenschaft can properl* ,e called science% Iust
as no one toda* 3ould ta9e issue 3ith the terms Sprach3isseschaft and
Literatur3issenschaft, 3hile more than a fe3 3ould =uestions 3hether linguistics
has *et reached a stage of precision, formaliEation, and paradigm formation such
that it can properl* ,e descri,ed as a science, and 3hile practicall* ever*one
3ould agree that literar* studies are not, and in the foreseea,le future 3ill not ,e, a
science in an* true sense of the ?nglish 3ord, in the same 3a* I =uestion 3hether
3e can 3ith an* :ustification use designation for the stud* of translating and
translations that places it in the compan* of mathematics, ph*sics, and chemistr*,
or even ,iolog*, rather than that of sociolog*, histor*, and philosoph* B or for that
matter of literar* studies%
2%0
There is, ho3ever, another term that is active in ?nglish in the naming of ne3
disciplines% This is the 3ord studies% Indeed, for disciplines that 3ithin the old
distinction of the universities tend to fall under the humanities or arts rather than
the sciences as fields of learning, the 3ord 3ould seem to ,e almost as active in
?nglish as the 3ord 4issenschaft in )erman% ;ne need onl* thin9 of Aussian
studies, American studies, Common3ealth studies, population studies,
communications studies% True, the 3ord raises a fe3 ne3 complications, among
them the fact that it is difficult to derive an ad:ectival form% Nevertheless, the
designation translation studies 3ould seem to ,e the most appropriate of all
those availa,le in ?nglish, in its adoption as the standard term for the discipline as
a 3hole 3ould remove a fair amount of confusion and misunderstanding% I shall
set the example ,* ma9ing use of it in the rest of this paper%
71
0
A greater impediment than the lac9 of a generall* accepted name in the 3a* of the
development of translation studies is the lac9 of an* general consensus as to the
scope and structure of the discipline% 4hat constitutes the field of translation
studies5 A fe3 3ould sa* it coincides 3ith comparative -or contrastive/
terminological and lexicographical studies@ several loo9 upon it as practicall*
identical 3ith comparative or contrastive theor*% 6ut surel* it is different, if not
al3a*s distinct, from the case of emerging disciplines, there has as *et ,een little
meta!reflection on the nature of translation studies as such B at least that has made
its 3a* into print and to m* attention% ;ne of the fe3 cases that I have found is
that of 4erner Holler, 3ho has given the follo3ing delineation of the su,:ect8
D,ersetEungs3issenschaft ist Eu verstehen als Jusammenfassung und
D,er,egriff fKr alle &orschungs,emKhungen, die von 'hLnomenen MD,ersetEen>
und D,ersetEung> ausgehen oder auf diese 'hLnomene Eielen% -Translation
studies is to ,e understood as a collective and inclusive designation for all research
activities ta9ing the phenomena of translating and translation as their ,asis or
focus%
2
/
0%
&rom this delineation it follo3s that translation studies is, as no one I suppose
3ould den*, an empirical discipline% Such disciplines, it has often ,een pointed
out, have t3o ma:or o,:ectives, 3hich Carl )% <empel has phrased as to descri,e
particular phenomena in the 3orld of our experience and to esta,lish general
principles ,* means of 3hich the* can ,e explained and predicted%
0
As a field of
pure research B that is to sa*, research pursued for its o3n sa9e, =uite apart from
an* direct practical application outside its o3n terrain B translation studies thus has
t3o main o,:ectives8 -/ to descri,e the phenomena of translating and
translation-s/ as the* manifest themselves in the 3orld of our experience, and -2/
to esta,lish general principles ,* means of 3hich these phenomena can ,e
explaining to and predicted% The t3o ,ranches of pure translation studies
concerning themselves 3ith these o,:ectives can ,e designated descriptive
translation studies -(TS/ or translation description -T(/ and theoretical
translation studies -ThTS/ or translation theor$ -TTh/%
0%
;f these t3o, it is perhaps appropriate to give force consideration to descriptive
translation studies, as the ,ranch of the discipline 3hich constantl* maintains the
closest contact 3ith the empirical phenomena
72
under stud*% There 3ould seem to ,e three ma:or 9inds of research in (TS, 3hich
ma* ,e distinguished ,* their focus as product!oriented, function!oriented, and
process!oriented%
0%
%roduct&oriented 'T", that area of research 3hich descri,es existing translations,
has traditionall* ,een an important area of academic research in translation
studies% The starting point for this t*pe of stud* is the description of individual
translations, or text!focused translation description% A second phase is that all
comparative translation description, image comparative and anal*ses are made of
various languages% Such individual and comparative descriptions provide the
materials for surve*s of larger corpuses of translations, for instance those made
3ithin a specific period, language, andNor text are discourse t*pe% In practice the
corpus has usuall* ,een restricted in all three 3a*s8 seventeenth!centur* literar*
translations into &rench, or medieval ?nglish 6i,le translations% 6ut such
descriptive surve*s can also ,e larger in scope, diachronic as 3ell as
-approximatel*/ s*nchronic, and one of the eventual goals of product!oriented
(TS might possi,l* ,e a general histor* of translations B ho3ever am,itious such
a goal ma* sound at this time%
0%2
(unction&oriented 'T" is not interested in the description of translations in
themselves, ,ut in the description of their function in the recipient social!cultural
situation8 it is a stud* of contexts rather than texts% 'ursuing such =uestions as
3hich texts 3ere -and, often as important, 3ere not/ translated at certain time in a
certain place, and 3hat influences 3ere exerted in conse=uence, this area of
research is one that has attracted less concentrated attention than the area :ust
mentioned, though it is often introduced as a 9ind of su,!theme or counter!theme
in histories of translations and literar* histories% )reater emphasis on it could lead
to the development of a field of translation sociolog* -or B less felicitous ,ut more
accurate, since it is a legitimate area of translation studies as 3ell as also sociolog*
B socio!translation studies/%
0%0
%rocess&oriented 'T" concerns itself 3ith the process or act of translation itself%
The pro,lem of 3hat exactl* ta9es place in the little ,lac9 ,ox of the translator>s
mind as he creates a ne3, more or less matching text in another language has
,een the su,:ect of much speculation on the part of translation>s theorists, ,ut there
has ,een ver* little attempt at s*stematic
73
investigation of this process on their la,orator* conditions% Admittedl*, the
process is an unusuall* complex one, one 3hich, if I% A% Aichards is correct, ma*
ver* pro,a,l* ,e the most complex t*pe of event *et produced in the evolution of
the cosmos%
2
6ut ps*chologists have developed an are developing highl*
sophisticated methods for anal*sing and descri,ing other complex mental process,
and it is to ,e hoped that in the future this pro,lem, too, 3ill ,e given closer
attention from a leading to an area of stud* that might ,e called in translation
ps*cholog* or ps*cho!translation studies%
0%2
The other main ,ranch of pure translation studies, theoretical translation studies
or translation theor$, is, as its name implies, not interest in descri,ing existing
translations, o,served translation functions, or experimentall* determined
translating process, ,ut in using the results of descriptive translation studies, in
com,ination 3ith the information availa,le from related fields and disciplines, to
evolve principles, theories, and models 3hich 3ill serve to explain and predict
3hat translating and translations are and 3ill ,e%
0%2
The ultimate goal of the translation theorist in the ,road sense must undou,tedl*
,e to develop a full, inclusive theor* accommodating so man* elements that I can
serve to explain and predict all phenomena falling 3ithin the terrain of translating
and translation, to the exclusion of all phenomena falling outside it% It hardl*
needs to ,e pointed out that a general translation theor$ in such a true sense of the
term, if indeed it is achieva,le, 3ill necessaril* ,e highl* formaliEed and, ho3ever
the scholar ma* strive after econom*, also highl* complex%
7ost of the theories that have ,een produced to date are in realit* little
more than prolegomena to such a general translation theor*% A good share of
them, in fact, are not actuall* theories at all, in an* scholarl* sense of the term, ,ut
an arra* of axioms, postulates, and h*potheses that are so formulated as to ,e ,oth
too inclusive -covering also non!translator* acts and non!translations/ and too
exclusive -shutting out some translator* acts and some 3or9s generall* recogniEed
as translations/%
0%22
;thers, though the* too ma* ,ear the designation of general translation theories
-fre=uentl* preceded ,* the scholar>s protectivel* cautions to3ards/ are in fact
not general theories, ,ut partial or specific in their scope, dealing 3ith onl* one or
a fe3 of the various aspects of translation theor* as a 3hole% It is in this area of
partial theories that the most
74
significant advances have ,een made in recent *ears, and in fact it 3ill pro,a,l* ,e
necessar* for a great deal of further research to ,e conducted in them ,efore 3e
can even ,egin to thin9 a,out arriving at true general theor* in this sense I have
:ust outlined% %artial translation theories are specified in a num,er of 3a*s% I
3ould suggest, though, that the* can ,e grouped together into six main 9inds%
0%22
&irst of all, there are translation theories that I have called, 3ith a some3hat
unorthodox extension of the term, )ediu)&restricted translation theories,
according to the medium that is used% 7edium!restricted theories can ,e further
su,divided into theories of translation as performed ,* humans -human
translation/, as performed ,* computers -machine translation/, and performed ,*
the t3o in con:unction -mixed or machine!aided translation/% <uman translation
,rea9s do3n into -and restricted theories or OtheoriesO have ,een developed for/
oral translation or interpreting -3ith the further distinction ,et3een consecutive
and simultaneous/ and 3ritten translation% Numerous examples of valua,le
research into machine and machine!aided translation are no dou,t familiar to us
all, and perhaps also several into oral human translation% That examples of
medium!restricted theories of 3ritten translation do not come to mind so easil* is
largel* o3ing to the fact that their authors have the tendenc* to present them in the
guise of unmar9ed or general theories%
0%222
Second, there are theories that area!restricted% Area&restricted theories can ,e of
t3o closel* related 9inds@ restricted as to the languages involved or, 3hich is
usuall* not =uite the same, and occasionall* hardl* at all, as to the cultures
involved% In ,oth cases, language restriction and culture restriction, the degree of
actual limitation can var*% Theories are feasi,le for translation ,et3een, sa*,
&rench and )erman -language!pair restricted theories/ as opposed to translation
3ithin Slavic languages -language!group restricted theories/ or from Aomance
languages to )ermanic languages -language!group pair restricted theories/%
Similarl*, theories might at least h*potheticall* ,e developed for translation 3ithin
S3iss culture -one!culture restricted/, or for translation ,et3een S3iss and 6elgian
cultures -cultural!pair restricted/, as opposed to translation 3ithin 3estern ?urope
-cultural!group restricted/ or ,et3een languages reflecting a pre!technological
culture and the languages of contemporar* 4estern culture -cultural!group pair
restricted/% Language!restricted theories have close affinities 3ith the 3or9 ,eing
done in comparative linguistics and st*listics -though it must al3a*s ,e
remem,ered that a language!pair
75
translation grammar must ,e a different thing from a contrastive grammar
developed for the purpose of language ac=uisition/% In the field of culture!restrict
theories there has ,een little detailed research, though culture restrictions, ,* ,eing
confused 3ith language restrictions, sometimes get introduced into language!
restricted theories, 3here the* are out of place in all ,ut those rare case 3here
culture and language ,oundaries coincide in ,oth the source and target situations%
It is moreover no dou,t true that some aspects of theories that are presented as
general in realit* pertain onl* to the 4estern cultural area%
0%220
Third, there are ran*&restricted theories, that is to sa*, theories that deal 3ith
discourse or texts as 3holes, ,ut concern themselves 3ith lo3er linguistic ran9s or
levels% Traditionall*, a great deal of 3riting on translation 3as concerned almost
entirel* 3ith the ran9 of the 3ord, and the 3ord and the 3ord group are still the
ran9s at 3hich much terminologicall*!oriented thin9ing a,out scientific and
technological translation ta9es place% 7ost linguisticall*!oriented research, on the
other hand, has until ver* recentl* ta9en the sentence as its upper ran9 limit,
largel* ignoring the macro!structural aspects of entire texts as translation
pro,lems% The clearl* discerni,le trend a3a* from sentential linguistics in the
direction of textual linguistics 3ill, it is to ,e hoped, encourage linguisticall*!
oriented theorists to move ,e*ond sentence!restricted translation theories to more
complex tas9 of developing text!ran9 -more Oran9!freeO/ theories%
0%222
&ourth, there are text!t$pe -or discourse!t*pe/ restricted theories, dealing 3ith the
pro,lem of translating specific t*pes are genres of lingual messages% Authors and
literar* scholars have long concerned themselves 3ith the pro,lems intrinsic to
translating literar* texts or genres of literar* texts@ theologians, similarl*, have
devoted much attention to =uestions of ho3 to translate the 6i,le and other sacred
3or9s% In recent *ears some effort has ,een made to develop specific theor* for
the translation of scientific texts% All these studies ,rea9 do3n, ho3ever, ,ecause
3e still lac9 an*thing li9e a formal theor* of message, text, or discourse t*pes%
6oth 6Klers theor* of t*pes of communication, as further developed ,* the 'rague
structuralists, and the definitions of language varieties arrived at ,* linguists
particularl* of the 6ritish school provides material for criteria in defining text
t*pes that 3ould lend themselves to operationaliEation more aptl* than the
inconsistent and mutuall* contradictor* definitions or traditional genre theories%
;n the other hand, the traditional theories
76
cannot ,e ignored, for the* continue to pla* a large part in creating the expectation
criteria of translation readers% Also re=uiring stud* is the important =uestion of
text t*pe s9e3ing or shifting in translation%
0%22.
&ifth, there are ti)e&restricted theories, 3hich fall into t3o t*pes8 theories
regarding the translation of contemporar* texts from an older period% Again there
3ould seem to ,e a tendenc* to present one of the theories, that having to do 3ith
contemporar* texts, in the guise of general theor*@ the other, the theor* of 3hat
can perhaps ,est ,e called cross!temporal translation, is a matter that has led to
much disagreement, particularl* among literaril* oriented theorists, ,ut to fe3
generall* valid conclusions%
0%22"
&inall*, there are proble)&restricted theories, theories 3hich confine themselves
to one or more specific pro,lems 3ithin the entire area of general translation
theor*, pro,lems that can range from such ,road and ,asic =uestions as the limits
of variance and invariance in translation or the nature of translation e=uivalence
-or, as I should prefer to call it, translation matching/ to such more specific to
matters as the translation of metaphors or of proper names%
0%20
It should ,e noted that theories can fre=uentl* ,e restricted in more than one 3a*%
Contrastive linguists interested in translation, for instance, 3ill pro,a,l* produce
theories that are not onl* language!restricted ,ut ran9! and time!restricted, having
to do 3ith translation ,et3een specific pairs of contemporar* temporal dialects at
sentence ran9% The theories of literar* scholars, similarl*, usuall* are restricted as
to medium and text t*pe, and generall* also as to culture group@ the* normall*
have to do 3ith 3ritten texts 3ithin the -extended/ 4estern literar* tradition% This
does not necessaril* reduce the 3orth of such partial theories, for even a
theoretical stud* restricted in ever* 3a* ! sa* a theor* of the manner in 3hich
su,ordinate clauses in contemporar* )erman novels should ,e translated into
3ritten ?nglish ! can have implications for the more general theor* to3ards 3hich
scholars must surel* 3or9% It 3ould ,e 3ise, though, not to lose sight of such a
trul* general theor*, and 3iser still not to succum, to the delusion that a ,od* of
restrict theories ! for instance, a complex of language!restricted theories of ho3 to
translate sentences ! can ,e an ade=uate su,stitute for it%
77
0%2
After it this rapid overvie3 of the t3o main ,ranches of pure research in
translation studies, I should li9e to turn to that ,ranch of the discipline 3hich is, in
6aconPs 3ords, Oof useO rather than Oof lightO8 applied translation studies%
.
0%22
In this discipline, as in so man* others, the first thing that comes to mind 3hen one
considers the implications tha extend ,e*ond the limits of the discipline itself is
that of teaching% Actuall*, the teaching of translating is of t3o t*pes 3hich need
to ,e carefull* distinguished% In the one case, translating as ,eing used for
centuries as a techni=ue in foreign!language teaching and test of foreign!language
ac=uisition% I shall return to this t*pe in a moment% In the second case, a more
recent phenomenon, translating these taught in schools and courses to train
professional translators% This second situation, that of translator training, has
raised a num,er of =uestions that fairl* cr* for ans3ers8 =uestions that have stood
the primaril* 3ith teaching methods, testing techni=ues, and curriculum planning%
It is o,vious that the search for 3ell!founded, relia,le ans3ers to these =uestions
contri,utes a ma:or area -and for the time ,eing, at least, the ma:or area/ of
research in applied translation studies%
0%22
A second, closel* related area has to do 3ith the needs for translation aids, ,oth
for use in translator training and to meet re=uirements of the practising translator%
The needs are man* and various, ,ut fall largel* into t3o classes8 -/
lexicographical and terminological aids and -2/ grammars% 6oth these classes of
aids have traditionall* ,een provided ,* scholars in other, related disciplines, and
it could hardl* ,e argued that 3or9 on them should ,e ta9en over in toto as areas
of applied translation studies% 6ut lexicographical aids often fall far short of
translation needs, and contrastive grammars developed for language!ac=uisition
purposes are not reall* an ade=uate su,stitute for variet*!mar9ed translation!
matching grammars% There 3ould seem to ,e a need for scholars in applied
translation studies to clarif* and define the specific re=uirements that aids of these
9inds should fulfil if the* are to meet the needs of practising and prospective
translators, and to 3or9 together 3ith lexicologists and contrastive linguists in
developing them%
0%20
A third area of applied translation studies is that of translation polic$% The tas9 of
the translation scholar in this area is to render informed advice to
78
others in defining the place and role of translators, translating, and translation in
societ* at large8 such =uestions, for instance, as determining the social and
economic position of the translator is and should ,e, or -and here I return to the
point raised a,ove/ 3hat part is translating should pla* in the teaching and
learning of foreign languages% In regard to that last polic* =uestion, since it should
hardl* ,e the tas9 of translation studies to a,et the use of translating in places
3here it is d*sfunctional, it 3ould seem to me that priorit* should ,e given to
extensive and rigorous research to assess the efficac* of translating as a techni=ue
and testing method in language learning% The chance that it is not efficacious
3ould appear to ,e so great that in this case it 3ould seem imperative for program
research to ,e preceded ,* polic* research%
0%22
A fourth, =uite different area of applied translation studies in that of translation
criticis)% The level of such criticism is toda* still fre=uentl* ver* lo3, and in
man* countries still =uite uninfluenced ,* developments 3ithin the field of
translation studies% (ou,tless the activities of translation interpretation and
evaluation 3ill al3a*s elude the grasp of o,:ective anal*sis to some extent, and so
continue to reflect the intuitive, impressionist attitudes and stances of the critic%
6ut closer contact ,et3een translation scholars and translation critics could do a
great deal to reduce the intuitive element to a more accepta,le level%
0%0
After this ,rief surve* of the main ,ranches of translation studies, there are t3o
further points that I should li9e to ma9e% The first is this8 in 3hat has preceded,
descriptive, theoretical, and applied translation studies have ,een presented as
three fairl* distinct ,ranches of the entire discipline, and the order of presentation
might ,e ta9en to suggest that their import for one another is unidirectional,
translation description suppl*ing the ,asic data upon 3hich translation theor* is to
,e ,uilt, and the t3o of them providing the scholarl* findings 3hich are to ,e put
to use in applied translation studies% In realit*, of course, the relation is a
dialectical one, 3hich each of the three ,ranches suppl*ing materials for the other
t3o, and ma9ing use of the findings 3hich the* in turn provide it% Translation
theor*, for instance, cannot do 3ithout the solid, specific data *ielded ,* research
in descriptive and applied translation studies, 3hile on the other hand one cannot
even ,egin to 3or9 in one of the other t3o fields 3ithout having at least and
intuitive theoretical h*pothesis as onePs starting point% In vie3 of this dialectical
relationship, it follo3s that, though the needs of a
79
given moment ma* var*, attention to all three ,ranches is re=uired if the discipline
is to gro3 and flourish%
0%02
The second point is that, in each of the three ,ranches of translation studies, there
are t3o further dimensions that I have not mentioned, dimensions, ,ut of
translation studies itself% ;ne of these dimensions is historical8 there is a field of
the histor* of translation theor*, in 3hich some valua,le 3or9 has ,een done, ,ut
also one of the histor* of translation description and of applied translation studies
-largel* a histor* of translation teaching and translator training/ ,oth of 3hich are
fairl* 3ell virgin territor*% Li9e3ise there is a dimension that might ,e called the
methodological or meta!theoretical, concerning itself 3ith pro,lems of 3hat
methods and models can ,est ,e used in research in the various ,ranches of the
discipline -ho3 translation theories, for instance, can ,e formed for greatest
validit*, or 3hat anal*tic methods can ,est ,e used to achieve the most o,:ective
and meaningful descriptive results/, ,ut also devoting its attention to such ,asic
issues as 3hat the discipline itself comprises%
This paper has made a fe3 excursions into the first of these t3o
dimensions, ,ut all in all it is meant to ,e a contri,ution to the second% It does not
as9 a,ove all for agreement% Translation studies has reached a stage 3here it is
time to examine the su,:ect itself% Let the meta!discussion ,egin%
Notes
1
4ritten in August #$2, this paper is presented in its second pre!pu,lication form 3ith onl* a fe3 st*listics revisions%
(espite the intervening *ears, most of m* remar9s can, I ,elieve, stand as the* 3ere formulated, thought in one or t3o
places I 3ould phrase matters some3hat differentl* if I 3ere 3riting toda*% In section 0%222, for instance, su,se=uent
developments in textual linguistics, particularl* in )erman*, are note3orth*% 7ore directl* relevant, the dearth of meta!
reflection on the nature of translation studies, referred to at the ,eginning of section 0, is some3hat less stri9ing toda* that
#$2, again than9s largel* to )erman scholars% 'articularl* relevant is 4olfram 4ilss> as *et pu,lished paper methodische
'ro,leme der allgemeinen und ange3andten D,ersetEungs3issenschatft, read at a collo=uium on translation studies held in
)ermershein, 4est )erman*, 0!2 7a* #$.%
2
7ichael 7ul9a*, Cultural )ro3th in Science, in 6arr* 6arnes -ed%/, "ociolog$ of "cience: "elected +eadings
-<armonfs3orth, 7iddlesex8 'enguin@ 7odern Sociolog* Aeadings/, pp% 2"!2 -a,riged reprint of Some Aspects of
Cultural )ro3th in The Natural Sciences, "ocial +esearch, 0" Q#"#R, No% /, =uotation p% 0"%
3
See e%g% 4%;% <agstrom, The (ifferentiation of (isciplines, in 6arnes, pp% 2!2. -reprinted from <agstrom, The
"cientific ,o))unit$ QNe3 Cor98 6asics 6oo9s, #".R, pp% 222!22"/%
4
<agstrom, p %20%
5
<ere and Throughout, these terms are used onl* in the strict sense of interlingual translating and translation% ;n the three
t*pes of translation in the ,roader sense of the 3ord, intralingual, interlingual, and intersemiotic, see Aoman Ia9o,son, ;n
Linguistic Aspects of Translation, in Aeu,en A% 6ro3er -ed%/, -n Translation -Cam,ridge, 7ass%8 <arvard +niversit*
'ress, #.#/, pp% 202!20#%
6
Aoger )offin, 'our une formation universitaire sui generis du traducteur8 AFflexions sur certain aspects
mFthodologi=ues et sur la recherche scientifi=ue dans le domaine de la traduction, .eta, " -#$/, .$!"1, see esp% p% .#%
7
See the <agstrom =uotation in section % a,ove%
8
Though, given the lac9 of a general paradigm, scholars fre=uentl* tend to restrict the meaning of the term to onl* a part of
the discipline% ;ften, in fact, it 3ould seem to ,e more or less s*non*mous 3ith translation theor*%
9
?ugene Nida, To!ards a Theor$ of Translating/ !ith "pecial +eference to %rinciples and %rocedures Involved in 0ible
Translating -Leiden8 6rill, #"2/%
10
Cf% Nida>s later enlightening remar9 on his use of the term8 the science of translation -or, perhaps more accuratel* stated,
the scientific description of the process involved in translating/, ?ugene A% Nida, Science of Translation, Language, 2.
Q#"#R, 210!2#1, =uotation p% 210 n% @ m* italics/%
11
H%!Aichard 6aush Iosef Hlegraf, and 4olfram 4ilss, The "cience of Translation: An Anal$tical 0ibliograph$ -TK,ingen8
TK,inger 6eitrSge Eur Linguisti9/% Tol% I -#$G@ T6L, No% 2/ covers the *ears #"2!#"#@ Tol% II -#$28 T6L, No% 00/ the
*ears #$G!#$ plus a supplement over the *ears covered ,* the first volume%
12
4erner Holler, D,ersetEen, D,ersetEung und D,ersetEer% Ju sch3edischen S*mposien K,er 'ro,leme der D,ersetEung,
0abel, $ -#$/, 0!, =uotation p% 2% See further in this article -also p% 2/ the summar* of a paper D,ertsetEungspraxis,
D,ertstEungtheorie und D,ersetEungs3issenschaft presented ,* Holler at the Second S3edish!)erman Translator>s
S*mposium, held in Stoc9holm, 20!22 ;cto,er #"#%
13
Carl )% <empel, (unda)entals of ,oncept (or)ation in 1)pirical "cience -Chicago8 +niversit* of Chicago 'ress, #"$@
International ?nc*clopedia of Social Science, &oundations of the +nit* of Sciences, II, &ase% $/, p% %
14
I% A% Aichards, To3ards a Theor* of Translating, in Arthur &% 4right -ed%/, "tudies in ,hinese Thought -Chicago8
+niversit* of Chicago 'ress, #.0@ also pu,lished as .e)oirs of the A)erican Anthropological Association, .. Q#.0R,
7emoir $./, pp% 22$!2"2%
15
6acon>s distinction 3as actuall* not ,et3een t3o t*pes of research in the ,roader sense, ,ut of experiments8
?xperiments of +se as against ?xperiments of Light% See S% 'it Corder, 'ro,lems and Solutions in Applied
Linguistics, paper presented in a plenar* session of the #$2 Copenhagen Congress of Applied Linguistics%