0 A Geoarchaeological (Ripley)

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 13, No.
8, 793818 (1998)
1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0883-6353/98/080793-26
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GEA(Wiley) RIGHT BATCH
A Geoarchaeological Approach to Using
Surface Sites for Paleoenvironmental
Reconstructions
J.L. Ripley
Department of Geography, The University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin 53706
Archaeological sites that have only surface scatters are usually considered to be of little or
no use in reconstructing paleoenvironmental conditions during episodes of human occupa-
tion. However, geoarchaeological research at the Skare site in south-central Wisconsinreveals
that these sites can be used to provide information about the timing of paleoenvironmental
changes and their affect on the location of human occupations. Geomorphic investigations
revealed the presence of Alsols formed in late Wisconsin loess on upland and low bench
positions; morphologically younger Mollisols formed in alluvial and colluvial sediments on
lowalluvial plain positions; and beach sediments that represent the low-water stand of Glacial
Lake Yahara. Semiquantitative age control for timing the formation of these soils and the lake
level(s) of Glacial Lake Yahara is based on the location of diagnostic artifacts (Early Paleoin-
dian to Late Woodland) recovered during ten separate surface collections. Early and Late
Paleoindian artifacts all occur on Alsols and are only found above the low-water stand of
Glacial Lake Yahara, indicating that loess deposition and subsequent soil formation happened
sometime between 12,000 and 11,000 yr B.P., and that Glacial Lake Yahara remained near the
low-water stand at least until 9500 yr B.P. Early Archaic artifacts are present belowthe low-
water stand and provide ages for lowering of the lake to be between 8000 and 9500 yr B.P.
Middle Archaic artifacts are present on Mollisols and provide an age of soil formation to be
between 5000 and 3000 yr B.P. A majority of Woodland artifacts occur on these Mollisols and
are present along the oodplain of the Yahara River, possibly representing a change in sub-
sistence strategy and settlement patterns relative to Paleoindian and Archaic occupations.
The agreement of soil morphological and sedimentological data with semiquantitative age
data of diagnostic artifacts provides evidence that archaeological surface scatters can be
useful tools in dating soils and landforms associated with these sites. 1998 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
Multicomponent archaeological sites that have only surface scatters continue to
be a topic of considerable research (Schoeld, 1991; Zvelebil et al., 1992; Dunnell
and Simek, 1995; Shott, 1995; Sullivan, 1995). While archaeological data from these
sites may indicate prehistoric peoples were present on the same landscape at sev-
eral different times in the past, the ability to derive more detailed archaeological
information is often limited (Shott, 1995). This restriction on obtaining more mean-
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GEA(Wiley) LEFT BATCH
ingful archaeological results is most commonly due to a lack of spatial and temporal
control for a given site. Simply, a lack of stratigraphy often makes determination
of chronological succession at a site difcult, and the occurrence of several chro-
nologically separate occupations on the same surface allows for continual spatial
overlap of artifacts through time.
Due to the archaeological uncertainty associated with surface scatter sites, fur-
ther analyses of paleoenvironmental conditions during periods of human occupa-
tion are rarely pursued. Without tightly constrained archaeological information,
reconstructing the evolution of paleoenvironmental conditions for a specic site is
usually not worthwhile, as no correlation between past environmental change and
human occupations can be produced. What makes this situation especially unfor-
tunate is that a majority of archaeological sites throughout the world occur as
surface scatters (Dunnell and Simek, 1995).
Recent geoarchaeological investigations at the Skare archaeological site in south-
central Wisconsin suggests that surface sites should not necessarily be considered
to have little or no potential for reconstructing past environmental conditions and
the archaeological records associated with them. Data from the Skare site indicate
that when elevation and spatial data for artifacts and geomorphic features are
tightly controlled, and artifact typologies can be extended to encompass the same
time-span as the record of environmental change, multicomponent surface sites
can produce meaningful relationships between landscape evolution and human
occupation.
STUDY AREA
The Skare site is situated on a 35 acre upland agricultural eld underlain by a
thick (50 m) deposit of Late Wisconsin glacial diamicton. Topography of the site
is mostly undulating with western aspect slopes of low to moderate relief (26%),
and elevations that range from 257 m (845 ft) in northwest sections of the site,
to 264 m (868 ft) at the tops of knobs in eastern portions of the eld. The site is
bordered to the north by Mud Lake, and to the west by the Yahara River. The
existence of the site as an upland eld surrounded by relatively lower landsurface
elevations is related to changes in local drainage systems that occurred during Late
Wisconsin deglaciation of the region.
Directly west of the site lie the Johnstown Terminal and Milton Recessional
Moraines. This moraine system extends from the southeast to the northwest and
formed prior to 13,000 yr B.P. concomitant with the retreat of the Green Bay lobe
(Figure 1) (Clayton and Moran, 1982; Mickelson et al., 1983; Clayton and Attig,
1997). As the Green Bay lobe continued its northeasterly retreat, it eventually
moved into an area known as the Yahara Lowland, which formed during preglacial
times by streams that cut down through the existing Cambrian sandstone (Alden,
1918). As the Green Bay lobe sat in this lowland, streams and rivers were subjected
to major shifts in drainage patterns, ultimately damming uvial systems in the
northeast end of the valley and forming Glacial Lake Middleton (Figure 1) (Mick-
elson, 1983).
GEOARCHAEOLOGY, PALEOENVIRONMENT, AND SURFACE SITES IN WISCONSIN
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 795
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Figure 1. Location of the Skare site and glacially related features in the study area. The Skare site
exists as an upland eld surrounded by low landscape elevations due to the drainage of Glacial Lake
Yahara and subsequent erosion of surrounding diamicton deposits (Modied from Mickelson and Mc-
Cartney, 1979).
Eventually, the Green Bay lobe retreated far enough to the northeast to allow
water stored in Glacial Lake Middleton to drain back through the direction of its
original channel. As this occurred, the lake level of Glacial Lake Middleton dropped
in response to increased outow through its previously used channel, allowing a
new and much larger Glacial Lake Yahara to form to the southeast (Figure 1).
Eventually, water owed southeast from Glacial Lake Yahara and downcut part of
the Milton Moraine that was damning it in the south. Since that change in ow
direction, the Yahara river has continued to cut down through glacial diamicton of
the area and subsequently lowered regional lake levels.
RESEARCH QUESTION
The presence of Glacial Lake Yahara is an important part of the paleoenviron-
mental reconstruction associated with the Skare site. While the timing of the lake
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is not exactly known, several radiocarbon ages from this region indicate that the
Green Bay Lobe was in the Yahara Lowland between 15,000 and 12,000 yr B.P. and
that Glacial Lake Yahara formed during the later part of this time-span (Black, 1970;
Maher, 1982; Winkler, 1985, 1988; Winkler et al., 1986; Clayton and Attig, 1989;).
Furthermore, several poorly developed shorelines have been identied throughout
the study area (Mickelson, 1983), but no attempts to numerically or relatively date
them have been attempted. The opportunity to examine the relationship between
these paleoenvironmental changes and the archaeological record throughout the
late Quaternary seemed a possibility as previous surface collections at the site
produced artifacts ranging from Early Paleoindian (10,500 yr B.P.) to Late Wood-
land times (400 yr B.P.) (Ritzenthaler, 1966, Wendt, 1985).
Research for this project was divided into two separate objectives designed to
(1) provide an understanding of the paleoenvironment and geomorphic processes
that affected the Skare site and (2) develop a history of human occupation at the
site from Paleoindian times to present. The rst objective was achieved by deter-
mining geomorphic changes that occurred in the region since the retreat of the
Green Bay lobe. This included determining the presence and/or position of Glacial
Lake Yahara shorelines; dening soil orders represented at the site and the pedo-
logic processes involved in their formation; and detecting periods of landscape
stability and instability throughout the late Quaternary.
To achieve the second objective, it was necessary to conduct several archaeo-
logical surface surveys and typologically dene recovered artifacts to produce a
chronology of human occupation through diagnostic cross-dating. The spatial limits
of individual cultural traditions at the site were determined by interpreting intrasite
diagnostic artifact distributions.
Somewhat unique to this project is that geoarchaeological methods are being
applied to a surface scatter site. Unfortunately, fewMidwest projects are conducted
with this type of focus, especially when compared to the southwest and east coast
regions. Hajic (1985) states that the Midwest has not had a long tradition of earth
science/archaeology interaction due to the geomorphic nature of many Midwestern
archaeological sites. The fact that many of these sites are not deeply stratied has
perpetuated a feeling among archaeologists that shallow sites are not stratigraph-
ically complex enough to warrant the special skills of geomorphologists and ge-
ologists, and do not contain older archaeological material because only stratied
sites can produce material of great antiquity.
METHODS
In order to accomplish the research objectives of this project, a number of qual-
itative and quantitative research methods were implemented. The rst involved
constructing a detailed topographic map of the site, that was used to locate geo-
morphic features not visible on standard United States Geological Survey 7.5 min
(1:24,000) topographic quadrangles. This map was constructed through intensive
surveying of the site, and serves as a precise digital elevation model (DEM), where
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archaeological materials and geomorphic features can be compared with elevations
of former Glacial Lake Yahara.
Soil core samples taken from selected areas of the site were extracted using
Giddings and GeoProbe hydraulic soil coring devices. These soil samples were
described in terms of color using the Munsell color reference system, along with
structure, roots, pores, mottling, and general horizonation. Particle size was deter-
mined at whole Phi intervals, and combined wet sieving for the sand fraction with
pipette analysis for the silt and clay fraction (Janitzky, 1986). Walkley-Black anal-
ysis was used to determine organic carbon content (Janitzky, 1986), and calcium
and magnesium carbonate content were determined through Chittick analysis
(Machette, 1986).
A total of ten archaeological surface surveys were conducted in hopes of recov-
ering a representative sample of diagnostic artifacts and non-diagnostic waste-
akes. The provenience of diagnostic artifacts was recorded by creating a quadrant
grid system (50 50 m) and taking azimuth bearing and horizontal distance read-
ings on each artifact relative to its position within a quadrant.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
Core sampling occurred along an east west transect that ranged in elevation
from 262 to 259 m. This transect was selected in hopes of locating subsurface
remnant features of Glacial Lake Yahara; determining varying degrees of soil prole
development relative to topographic position; providing information about relative
ages of different soils located throughout the site; and determining the affects his-
torical agricultural practices on landform morphology. Soil data are divided into
three groups based on their topographic position: (1) upland soils (264262 m);
(2) low bench soils (262260 m); and (3) low alluvial plain soils (260258 m).
Sedimentology
Soil cores taken from the site commonly display sedimentary features at depths
below 150 cm and always have at least one of the following characteristics: laminar
beds of tan, silty and ne sand diamicton; poorly sorted, sandy, light tan gravely
diamicton, with 20% coarse fragments; and/or poorly sorted, sandy, reddish-brown
gravely diamicton, with 20% coarse fragments. In many cases, soils at the site ex-
hibit combinations of these diamicton features, with coarse fragment diamictons
usually occurring deepest in the cores. The laminar beds of silt and ne sand diam-
icton are the result of uctuating low and moderate energy glaciouvial and/or
glaciolacustrine processes, while sandy-coarse fragment diamictons represent a
thin cap of supraglacial sediment atop much coarser ground moraine deposits,
commonly several hundred feet thick in the Yahara River Valley (Alden, 1918).
Two cores taken fromthe site contain sedimentary features formed by processes
other than those for the soils described above. These features are present in Core
95-6 (Figure 2) between 114 and 165 cm, and in Core 95-9 between 128 and 155 cm.
In general, these features consist of well-sorted, very pale-brown ne and medium
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Figure 3. North end prole of the Skare site with locations of representative core samples. Depth of
beach deposits found in Cores 95-6 and 95-9 are represented by the dashed line. These deposits occur
in close proximity to Glacial Lake Yaharas low-water stand of 259.7 m. Upland, low bench, and low
alluvial plain soil divisions are indicated across the top of the gure.
sand that displays subhorizontal laminations. These deposits coarsen upwards
through the prole, from silt to ne and medium sand. Sedimentary features with
characteristics similar to those listed above are described by several authors as
being formed in low-energy prograding beach environments (Collinson and Thomp-
son, 1982; Fouch and Dean, 1982; Boggs, 1987).
Using the DEM, it is possible to determine the elevation of the beach sediments
found in Cores 95-6 and 95-9. Beach sediments from Core 95-6 are located between
114 and 165 cm depth, and contour lines from the survey indicate the core was
extracted at 260 m (855 ft), placing these sediments at an elevation of 259.5
m (851 ft). Core 95-9 is located at an elevation of 261 m (856 ft), with beach
sediments located between 128 and 155 cm, placing the top of these sediments at
an elevation of 259.7 m (852 ft).
Mickelson (1983) explains that the original water elevation of Glacial Lake Ya-
hara was 262 m (860 ft). This high-water stand was apparently only present for
a short while, occurring immediately after the drainage of Glacial Lake Middleton.
This interpretation is based on the fact that very few well developed shoreline or
beach deposits are present at this elevation anywhere in the area. When waters
from Glacial Lake Yahara eventually cut through the Milton Moraine to the south,
the lake dropped quickly to an elevation of 259.7 m (852 ft), where it apparently
stayed for an extended period of time, due to the presence of better developed
shorelines. Beach sediments from Cores 95-6 and 95-9 support this idea, as the
elevation of these features (259.5 and 259.7 m, respectively) places them in
close proximity to the proposed low-water stand (Figure 3).
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Soil Geomorphology
Upland Soils
Pedologic features in Core 1A are representative of soils located on upland areas
at the site (Table I and Figure 4). Cores from upland positions indicate soils in this
position are Typic Hapludalfs that typically lack true A horizons, but have BA and
well-developed Bt horizons, with no noticeable E horizons. The Ap and BAhorizons
are the result of intensive plowing that began sometime in the early 1830s. Contin-
ued mixing, due to plowing of the E horizon with the A and upper Bt horizons, has
led to the formation of the BA horizon.
Results from particle size analyses show that upland soils contain low amounts
of sand (3%) throughout most of the solum, while silts dominate the entire soil
matrix (70%) down to the lower depths of the prole (Figure 4). High percentages
of silt in these soils are the result of Late Wisconsin loess deposition that has
provided the parent material for most of the soils found at the site. Clay percentages
for these soils are similar throughout most of the prole, but show a marked in-
crease at 4555 cm. This clay increase, along with a change in structure from
weak to medium subangular blocky, are the result of translocation of clay sized
particles weathered in upper horizons of the soil and moved downward in an aque-
ous suspension, where they precipitate out as clay minerals in the B horizon (Bir-
keland, 1984; Buol et al., 1989; Gerrard, 1992). The presence of thickened clay skins
in cores from upland positions at the Skare site are good evidence for clay trans-
location of this type.
Organic matter accumulated in the Ap horizons imparts dark brown color, but
organic matter content decreases with depth, allowing yellowish-brown colors of
the BA and Bt horizons to dominate. Color change that occurs in the BA and Bt
horizons is related to the presence iron oxide minerals in the form of goethite
(FeOOH). Goethite is the most frequently occurring and thermodynamically stable
iron oxide found in soils, and upon formation generally imparts a yellowish-brown
color on the surrounding soil matrix (Birkeland, 1984). Favorable conditions for
the formation of goethite include cool temperatures, moist soil conditions, and high
amounts of organic matter. Mottles of manganese and iron oxides in the 2Bt and
in some cases BC horizons are redoximorphic features, indicative of changing cli-
matic conditions through time and/or lowering of the local water table.
Calcium carbonate concentrations from upland soils show trace amounts of car-
bonate in their soil proles (Figure 4). Signicant increases in both calcite and
dolomite occur at depths 120.00 cm in the BC and C horizons, where calcite
increases to 9% and dolomite increases to 38%. Low percentages of carbonate
in the upper soil prole is the result of leaching processes that removed carbonate
minerals from the Bt horizons formed in Late Wisconsin carbonate-rich loess (Ja-
cobs et al., 1997; Leigh and Knox, 1994). Dramatic increases in carbonate percent-
ages at lower depths in the soils reect a transitional area between the leached
solum and unweathered carbonate-rich glacial diamicton.
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RIPLEY
802 VOL. 13, NO. 8
short
standard
short
standard
Low Bench Soils
Pedologic features in Core 95-6 are representative of sola in low bench positions
at the site (Table I and Figure 2). These soils have a general horizonation similar
to upland soils and are also considered Typic Hapludalfs. Differences between low
bench soils and those in upland positions appear mainly in the Bt horizon and
corresponding particle size data. Low bench position soils have a Bt horizon that
extends from 25 to 68 cm depth, while soils fromupland positions have Bt horizons
that extend from 40 to 97 cm depth.
Considering the landscape position of low bench soils, a deeper soil prole and
somewhat thicker Bt would be expected, as soils in lower landscape positions
normally accumulate runoff sediments from more highly erosive upland landscape
positions. In time, these runoff sediments accumulate and inltration capacities
increase, creating deeper soil proles and thickened Bt horizons. However, low
bench soils at the Skare site display a thinner Bt and a shallower depth to nonpe-
dogenic sediments, relative to upland and low bench soils.
A possible reason for this may be due to the agricultural practices used at the
site since the early 1830s. The eld where the Skare site is located was subjected
to straight rowagricultural practices that did not take into account changes in slope
of the landscape. Thus, if straight row farming began on a eld that originally had
areas of low and moderate slopes, low slope positions might through time evolve
into more moderate slopes, and moderate slopes would become even more exag-
gerated, eventually forming erosional features such as rills or gullies. At the Skare
site, upland soils are associated with slopes of 02%, while areas with low bench
soils have exaggerated slopes (26%). Thus, the more exaggerated slopes of low
bench soils reect a stronger erosional component and lower inltration capacities
than the upland soils, and are losing more sediment relative to upland position
soils. This situation created shallower proles and thinner Bt horizons in lowbench
soils relative to upland soils.
Low Alluvial Plain Soils
Pedologic features in Core 95-14 are representative of sola located on lowalluvial
plain positions (Table I and Figure 5). Soils from low alluvial plain positions are
considered Typic Hapludolls and exhibit much different pedologic characteristics
than those discussed for upland and low bench soils. These soils have overthick-
ened A horizons that typically extend to greater than half a meter in depth. This
overthickened A horizon contains high amounts of organic carbon and is a product
of both alluvial and pedogenic processes. Parent material for these soils accumu-
lated through deposition of lateral and vertical accretion alluvial sediments as well
as accumulation of deposits from upslope positions through time.
Coarser sediments present at lower depths in these soils represent lateral accre-
tion deposits associated with point bars that formed during periods in the past
when the Yahara River was transporting more suspended load relative to bedload
sediments, and lateral channel migration was more pronounced (Knox, 1983). Finer
RIPLEY
804 VOL. 13, NO. 8
short
standard
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short
standard
sized particles constitute the majority of the overthickened A horizon, and are the
result of overbank sedimentation from the wide and shallow Yahara River, and
accumulation of colluvial sediments eroded from upslope A horizons. These ner
A horizon sediments have through time also aided in the accumulation and reten-
tion of organic matter. Depth-to-carbonate proles for these soils shows relatively
little carbonate throughout most of the solum, but display an increase at the lowest
depths in the core where coarse dolomite bedrock lag deposits are present. Based
on morphologic characteristics, weak pedogenic development, and a parent ma-
terial that is not derived from late Wisconsin loess, low alluvial plain soils are
considered to be relatively young with soil formation beginning sometime in the
middle to late Holocene.
Archaeology
Artifacts recovered from 10 individual surface surveys (Table II) indicate human
occupation occurred at the Skare site during each established cultural tradition in
Wisconsin. Cumulatively, these artifacts reect major changes in technological
toolkits of the inhabitants throughout the Paleoindian, Archaic, and Woodland
traditions, and allow relative chronologic control for estimating human occupation
at the site during those periods. These toolkit changes may be indicative of adap-
tations made in response to variations in both the paleoenvironment and cultural
manifestations of the inhabitants through time. Ages assigned to the artifacts dis-
cussed in the following paragraphs are adopted from Hofman et al. (1989); Morrow
(1984); and Justice (1987), unless otherwise cited.
Paleoindian Artifacts
Seven artifacts found at the site are considered representative of the Paleoindian
Tradition (Table II). Two artifacts are Early Paleoindian and belong to Gainey and
Folsom complexes. Although relatively rare in Wisconsin, both Gainey and Folsom
complex artifacts have been documented throughout the southern half of the state
(Stoltman, 1992; Overstreet, 1991; Wendt, 1985; Stoltman and Workman, 1968; Ritz-
enthaler, 1966). The Gainey artifact provides a maximum age of 11,000 yr B.P. for
human occupation at the site. This age is considered reasonable for Early Paleoin-
dian occupation in the study area, as cold periglacial conditions had probably di-
minished by this time. The Folsom artifact provides a slightly later age for occu-
pation, as groups associated with this style of point are considered to be present
from 10,800 to 10,200 yr B.P.
Remaining Paleoindian artifacts cumulatively represent nearly the entire time-
span of the Late Paleoindian tradition. The artifacts are Dalton, Agate Basin, Cody
Knife, and two undetermined point styles. The Dalton artifact provides the earliest
possible age for Late Paleoindian occupation between 9500 and 8500 yr B.P.. The
Agate Basin artifact accounts for the middle to late sequence of Late Paleoindian
time, as the Agate Basin form is between 10,000 and 9000 yr B.P. (Frison, 1991).
The Cody Knife artifact also represents the end of the Late Paleoindian tradition
RIPLEY
806 VOL. 13, NO. 8
short
standard
Table II. Inventory of artifacts collected at the Skare Site.
Artifact Location
a
Artifact Style
b
Relative Age
(yr B.P.)
Archaeological
Tradition
c
Chert Type
d
lb Gainey 11,00010,800 ep hq
lb Folsom 10,80010,200 ep ex
lb Agate basin 95009000 lp ex
us Dalton 95008500 lp bur
lb Cody 88008400 lp gal
us upt lp gal
lb upt lp mol
lb Thebes 95008000 ea htg
lb Thebes 95008000 ea htg
lb St. Charles 95008000 ea htg
lb Hardin barbed 95008000 ea hq
us Jakie 70005000 ma pdc
us Godar 55003500 ma htg
lb Turin 55003500 ma htg
us Raddatz 50003000 ma hq
us Raddatz 50003000 ma htpdc
lb Raddatz 50003000 ma htg
lb Raddatz 50003000 ma gal
lap Raddatz 50003000 ma hq
lap Raddatz 50003000 ma pdc
lap Raddatz 50003000 ma htg
lb Durst 32002600 la htg
lb Waubesa contracting 22001900 ew htg
lb Waubesa contracting 22001900 ew pdc
lb Snyder 23001800 emw bur
lb Steuben 19001500 mmw htg
lap Creston 19001100 lmw htg
lb Creston 19001100 lmw gal
lb Creston 19001100 lmw htpdc
lap Koster 14001100 mlw gal
lap Koster 14001100 mlw htpdc
lap Net impressed lw
lap Net impressed lw
lap Cord impressed lw
lap Cord impressed lw
lap Shell temper 1200400 on
lap upt lw pdc
lb upt lw pdc
lap upt lw htg
a
Location is relative to soil positions described in the text: us, upland soils; lb, low bench soils; lap, low
alluvial plain soils.
b
Artifacts without diagnostic features: upt, undetermined point type.
c
Archaeological traditions with subdivisions: ep, Early Paleoindian; lp, Late Paleoindian; ea, Early Ar-
chaic; ma, Middle Archaic; la, Late Archaic; ew, Early Woodland; emw, Early Middle Woodland; mmw,
Middle Middle Woodland; lmw, Late Middle Woodland; lw, Late Woodland; mlw, Middle Late Woodland;
on, Oneota.
d
Chert types: ex, exotic to the region; hq, hixton quartzite; bur, burlington; gal, galena; htg, heat treated
galena; mol, moline; pdc, prairie du chien; htpdc, heat treated prairie du chien.
short
standard
as these artifacts are considered to be between 8800 and 8400 yr B.P. Combining
the ages associated with Early and Late Paleoindian artifacts at the site, the Pa-
leoindian Tradition is represented at the site between 11,000 and 8400 yr B.P.
Archaic Artifacts
The Archaic Tradition is represented by 16 diagnostic artifacts (Table II). Four
of these artifacts are associated with the Early Archaic stage, 11 are associated
with the Middle Archaic stage, and one is associated with the Late Archaic stage.
Early Archaic artifacts are Thebes, Hardin Barbed, and St.Charles. Thebes and St.
Charles artifacts provide earliest ages for Early Archaic stage occupation at the
Skare site, occurring between 9500 and 8000 yr B.P.The Hardin Barbed point is
thought to represent a slightly later period of occupation between 9500 and 8000
yr B.P. (Stoltman, 1986).
Middle Archaic Stage artifacts are Jakie, Godar, Turin, and Raddatz. Jakie points
are representative of the early part of the Middle Archaic Stage, considered to be
between 7000 and 5000 yr B.P.. Godar and Turin points represent later periods of
occupation at the site, 5500 to 3500 yr B.P. Raddatz points represent the latest part
of the Middle Archaic Stage and are generally between 5,000 and 3,000 yr B.P.
A Durst Stemmed point is the only artifact associated with the Late Archaic Stage
in Wisconsin. This artifact is correlative with the Durst Phase in Wisconsin, believed
to have existed between 3200 and 2600 yr B.P.
Woodland Artifacts
Twenty-ve artifacts represent the Woodland Tradition at the Skare site (Table
II). Of these artifacts, two are associated with the Early Woodland Stage, seven are
associated with the Middle Woodland Stage, and ve are associated with the Late
Woodland Stage. Eleven pieces of ceramics found at the site are also considered
representative of the Woodland Tradition. Early Woodland points are two Waubesa
Contracting Stem points considered to be between 2200 and 1900 yr B.P.
Middle Woodland Stage artifacts are Snyder, Steuben, and Creston. Snyder points
are considered to be the earliest Middle Woodland points from the site, as they are
between 2300 and 1800 yr B.P. Steuben and Creston points represent middle and
late substages of the Middle Woodland Tradition, and represent the time between
1900 and 1500 yr B.P. and 1900 and 1100 yr B.P., respectively.
Late Woodland Stage artifacts are represented by two Koster points, and three
undened Late Woodland points. Koster points represent the middle to late period
of the Late Woodland Stage, associated with ages between 1400 and 1100 yr B.P.
Ceramics recovered from the site have cord-marked surfaces, typical of Late-Early
Woodland and Late Woodland Stages; net impressed decoration typical of Late-
Middle Woodland to Late Woodland Stages; and leached shell temper smooth-body
sherds typical of Late Woodland Oneota culture 1200400 yr B.P. Archaeological
materials associated with Early, Middle, and Late Woodland Stages at the Skare
RIPLEY
808 VOL. 13, NO. 8
short
standard
site cumulatively represent human occupation for a majority of the time-span as-
sociated with the Woodland Tradition.
DISCUSSION
Coupling of Geomorphic and Archaeological Data
Late Quaternary to Early Holocene
Beach sediments found at the site indicate that the earliest paleoenvironmental
variable affecting the Skare site was the formation of Glacial Lake Yahara. The
length of time Glacial Lake Yahara stood at either the proposed high-water stage
of 262 m (860 ft), or the lower elevation stand of 259.7 m (852 ft) has been in
question since their identication. While the high-water stand was thought to be
relatively short-lived, the low-water stand, based on the morphology of shorelines
at this level, may have been present on the order of many hundred to thousands
of years (Mickelson, 1983). The DEM constructed during this project was used to
estimate how the Skare site would have been inuenced by both the high- and low-
water elevational stands.
Based on the elevations used for this reconstruction, most of the Skare site would
have been inundated with water during Glacial Lake Yaharas high water stand
(Figure 6). Thus, Paleoindian occupation at the site during this time can probably
be ruled out. However, the low-water stand left much of the site exposed and
available for habitation (Figure 6). Consequently, archaeological data indicates that
all (Early and Late) Paleoindian artifacts from the site occur at elevations above
the 259.7 mshoreline (Figure 7). These archaeological data allowfor the lake levels
to be semiquantitatively dated, and indicate that the high-water stand of Glacial
Lake Yahara had fallen by at least 11,000 yr B.P., and that the lake probably re-
mained at the low-water stand until at least 9500 yr B.P. This glacial lake setting
was probably used by the earliest inhabitants of the Skare site, as the area would
have been a prime attraction for fauna during late Pleistocene and early Holocene
times (Palmer and Stoltman, 1976; Stoltman and Barreis, 1983; Overstreet, 1993).
Concomitant with the lowering of Glacial Lake Yaharas high-water stand, upland
elevations at the site became subaerially exposed, allowing deposition of Late Wis-
consin loess to occur. With Glacial Lake Yahara originally forming 12,000 yr B.P.
and archaeological evidence placing early occupation at the site sometime around
11,000 yr B.P., loess deposition and subsequent soil development for upland and
low bench soils can be estimated to have occurred between 12,000 and 11,000 yr
B.P. Burial of Glacial Lake Yahara beach sediments by Late Wisconsin loess oc-
curred after the lake had fallen below the low-water stand, allowing for colluvial
and wind-blown loess accumulations to cover the sub-aerially exposed deposits.
While climate and time are considered to be inuential factors in forming the
pedogenic features of soils found at the Skare site, relief seems to be most inu-
ential in creating the morphologic differences between the soils, such as the thicker
Bt in the upland rather than low bench position soils. Subsequent to plowing of
the eld during post-settlement times, youthful rills formed at the northern end of
short
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RIPLEY
810 VOL. 13, NO. 8
short
standard
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the site that increased erosion potential and decreased inltration capacities of low
bench soils. However important relief has been in the formation of soils at the
Skare site, there do not appear to be any periods of increased instability that would
have led to the formation of buried soil horizons within upland or low bench soils.
This may be a function of the relatively low slope conditions, or the result of ag-
ricultural plowing that erased any signal of buried soil horizons at the site.
Early to Middle Holocene
While Paleoindian artifacts are only present on surfaces whose elevations are
above the low-water stand of 259 m, Archaic age artifacts occur on surfaces above
and below the low-water stand. In general, artifacts associated with the Archaic
tradition do not display a signicant cluster in any specic area of the site (Figure
7). Artifacts from each stage are present in the central, north, and western areas
of the site, while almost no artifacts of any type appear in the eastern and south-
ernmost sections of the site. Also worthy of mention is the general lack of early
artifacts in the westernmost area of the site. The spatial and elevational distribution
of Archaic artifacts is thought to indicate a pattern of occupation inuenced by the
lowering of Glacial Lake Yahara during Early Holocene times. Continual lowering
of the lake level would allow more of the site to become subaerially exposed and
not constrain inhabitants to areas that were previously underwater.
Although the location of artifacts from the Archaic Tradition may not elucidate
much in the way of archaeological information pertaining to specic areas of site
use, several artifacts have important implications for establishing how long Glacial
Lake Yahara remained at the low-water stand, and for determining how old soils
in the low alluvial plain might be. Evidence for the length of time the lake remained
at the low-water stand is provided by the presence of two Thebes points. These
points are located along the western edge of the site at elevations below the 259.7
m low-water stand, and provide minimum ages for lowering of the lake at 8000
yr B.P. and a maximum age of 9500 yr B.P. This provides a semiquantitative age
for the length of time Glacial Lake Yahara stood at the low-water stand to be
between 1000 and 2500 years.This span of time agrees with previous estimations
by Mickelson (1983).
Middle to Late Holocene
Determining the age of low alluvial plain soils at the site is possible due to the
presence of three Middle Archaic artifacts. With parent material derived from al-
luvial and colluvial processes, weak pedogenic development, and the location of
these soils relative to Glacial Lake Yaharas low-water stand, it is evident that they
formed sometime after upland and low bench soils. Assigning a semiquantitative
age to these soils is based on the presence of three Raddatz style points. This Middle
Archaic projectile point provides an age for low alluvial soil formation to be be-
tween 5000 and 3,000 yr B.P.
With the establishment of upland and low bench soils in the early Holocene, and
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812 VOL. 13, NO. 8
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Figure 8. Location of Woodland tradition artifacts at the Skare site. EWEarly Woodland, EMW
Early Middle Woodland, MMWMiddle Middle Woodland, LMWLate Middle Woodland, MLWMid-
dle Late Woodland, LWLate Woodland, ONOneota.
the presence of low alluvial plain soils by at least late Holocene times, the entire
site became subaerially exposed and available for habitation by Woodland peoples.
Interestingly, Woodland Tradition artifacts display the strongest spatial and ele-
vational patterns at the Skare site (Figure 8). Nearly all Woodland artifacts recov-
ered were present in western and west-central areas of the site, and over half of
these artifacts are present on low alluvial plain soils (260258 m) that border the
Yahara River. Remaining Woodland artifacts occur on slightly elevated positions
(260262 m) 50100 m to the West. More intense concentration of artifacts on the
low alluvial plain may represent a change in land-use associated with changing
cultural innovations and the geomorphic nature of the site by this time.
The Woodland tradition is broadly associated with a transition from hunter and
gatherer groups and more permanent living residences. This change to more per-
manent settlements is probably responsible for the high number of Woodland ar-
tifacts found in proportion to the short duration of the Woodland tradition, relative
to the Paleoindian and Archaic traditions. The relative intensity of the Woodland
artifacts in this position may also represent a change in subsistence strategy, as
Woodland peoples are thought to have exploited smaller game animals and in-
creased shing practices to a greater degree than people from previous traditions,
thus utilizing the low alluvial plain setting (Boszhardt et al., 1986; Salzer, 1986).
short
standard
The Reliability of Surface Scatter Sites
Using artifacts as semi-quantitative age indicators for timing lake level stands
and soil formation produced a chronology of paleoenvironmental change that co-
incides with changes in the location of past human occupations at the site. Although
chronological relationships between archaeological and geomorphic evidence
seem to agree well with each other, the question of whether the horizontal and
spatial provenience of these artifacts are indicative of their original position on the
landscape must be addressed.
In multicomponent sites, the area of primary human activity commonly changes
over time. These changes usually occur in response to either natural or cultural
inuences, or some combination of the two (Schiffer 1983; Bar-Yosef, 1993; Pe-
traglia, 1993). This situation can produce surface sites that reect changes in pri-
mary occupation areas through time, or alternatively produce a surface site with
multiple occupations occurring in the same location. It is possible that changes in
the location of artifacts at the site from their original positions could have been
inuenced by a number of erosional processes. It is possible that erosion of upland
soils and their subsequent redeposition at lower elevations could have caused ar-
tifacts at higher elevations to become subaerially exposed, while burying artifacts
at lower elevations, but mixing of the soil via plowing probably erased any signal
of this movement. Erosional processes through time could also have moved arti-
facts from higher to lower topographic positions, resulting in a high proportion of
artifacts being found at low elevations relative to those found at higher elevations.
However, artifacts were recovered in nearly equal proportions from both high and
low elevations of the site, with the earliest artifacts only occurring at elevations
above the low-water stand of Glacial Lake Yahara. Finally, it is possible that ero-
sional episodes occurring at different times throughout the Holocene may have
produced stratied artifact assemblages. At the Skare site, no evidence was found
for burial of soils or artifacts due to downslope movement of sediments. This may
be a result of plowing and/or the generally low slopes (06%) that exist throughout
the site, as signicant changes in the positioning of artifacts due to slope-related
movement of water and sediment usually involve slopes steeper than those found
at the Skare site (Rick, 1976; Wainwright, 1994).
Potentially more inuential in the movement of artifacts at the site is agricultural
plowing over the past 160 years. An obvious assumption is that plowing of the eld
changed the original spatial distribution of these artifacts. The inuence of agri-
cultural plowing on archaeological surface nds has been the subject of much
debate (Roper, 1976; Downer, 1977; Lewarch and OBrien, 1981; Mallouf, 1982; Am-
merman, 1985; Odell and Cowan, 1987; Schoeld, 1991, Dunnell and Simek, 1995;
Shott, 1995). Of these discussions, the most insightful for the purposes of this
project are those produced during short-term experiments that focused on the
horizontal and vertical displacement of artifacts due to plowing (Ammerman, 1985;
Clark and Schoeld, 1991). These experiments placed artifacts in specic areas of
elds that were to be plowed, and then measured the distance of horizontal and
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814 VOL. 13, NO. 8
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vertical movement of the artifacts after plowing relative to their original placement.
Results of these experiments led to several conclusions: (1) After six plowing ep-
isodes, the mean distance an artifact will move varies between 1.18 and 1.74 m
laterally (Ammerman, 1985); (2) disturbance of the plowed soil under intensive
agriculture practices makes the delimitation of individual surface sites impossible
(Clark and Schoeld, 1991); and (3) the possibility for identifying individual surface
sites will vary according to intensity of occupation, with high intensity occupations
making individual site delimitation more difcult (Clark and Schoeld, 1991).
While the latter two conclusions seem reasonable, the delineation of distinct
areas of use for Paleoindian and Woodland Tradition artifacts is possible at the
Skare site. Paleoindian artifacts are restricted to upland soils at elevations above
Glacial Lake Yaharas low-water stand, and Woodland artifacts occur only along
the western edge of the site and are found mostly on low alluvial plain soils, ad-
jacent to the Yahara River. Similarly, results proposed by Ammerman (1985) do not
appear to be completely applicable to the Skare site either. It is known through
historical documents that the site has been agriculturally plowed for at least 160
years. If continual plowing is assumed for this time, then the eld was plowed a
minimum of 320 times (two plowings each year). Thus, according to Ammermans
gures, all of the artifacts at the Skare site have had the potential to move between
63 and 93 m laterally from their original location. With this proposed degree of
displacement, many of the artifacts should have been moved off the site. However,
eld surveys conducted in previous summers do not support this interpretation.
Although it is possible that clustering of artifacts fromthe same cultural tradition
may have been inuenced through plowing, it does not seem a likely mechanism
for selecting Paleoindian artifacts to occur above Glacial Lake Yaharas low-water
stand, or for more than half of all Woodland artifacts recovered to occur on mid-
to late Holocene age soils adjacent to the Yahara River. Obviously, with geomorphic
and anthropogenic agents operating at the site throughout the late Quaternary,
displacement of artifacts from their absolute original provenience has most likely
occurred. However, the amount of this displacement appears to be low enough in
magnitude to allow interpretations based on the artifacts current positions.
CONCLUSIONS
This study investigated the potential of surface scatter sites in producing a record
of paleoenvironmental change. Although archaeological sites that occur as surface
scatters have been largely neglected from paleoenvironmental reconstructions, re-
search at the Skare site has demonstrated that these sites can be useful in docu-
menting gemorphic changes that occur on human timescales.
Because a majority of Midwestern archaeological sites occur as surface nds, it
is important to realize that their potential value is not limited strictly to producing
archaeological materials, but also extends to the reconstruction of paleoenviron-
mental change. Although the Skare site is unique in that it provides a continuous
record of human occupation throughout the Holocene, it can serve as a model for
short
standard
multicomponent surface sites whose record of human occupation coincides with
some element of environmental change. Of equal regional importance is that in a
broad sense, the soils from the Skare site may serve as kind of chronosequence.
Although soils at the site formed in different parent materials, they both endured
relatively similar climatic, biological, and slope conditions during their formation.
In this sense, upland and low bench Alsols at the site can serve as a regional
example of what soils with similar soil forming factors will look like after 12,000
to 11,000 yr B.P. Morphological characteristics of the low alluvial plain Mollisols
can be used in the same way, but are indicative of soils with associated ages be-
tween 5000 and 3000 yr B.P.
Of more general importance is how future research projects can use surface
scatter sites to produce records of paleoenvironmental change. Using the research
conducted at the Skare site as a model for establishing guidelines on using diag-
nostic artifacts as semiquantitative age indicators for episodes of paleoenviron-
mental change, the following factors should be considered as necessary elements:
(1) Diagnostic artifacts recovered cumulatively represent the same time-span as
the period of environmental change being reconstructed; (2) the ability to identify
geomorphic deposits that occur at different elevations and are of different ages;
(3) generation of precise elevation information on geomorphic and archaeological
materials, which can be entered into a DEM for spatial and elevational compari-
sons; and (4) the ability to combine geomorphic and archaeological interpretations
and assess whether information from each of the sources are in general agreement
with the other.
Based on these observations, use of surface sites to reconstruct paleoenviron-
mental change is probably restricted to sites that have geomorphic features indic-
ative of paleoenvironmental change occurring at different topographic positions
(e.g., soils, paleoshorelines, alluvial terraces, fault scarps), or relatively at sites
whose surface is composed of a suite of geomorphically different deposits, which
preferably formed during different periods of human occupation. Obviously, ar-
chaeological sites with good stratigraphical relationships and numerical age indi-
cators are always preferable for reconstructing paleoenvironmental change. How-
ever, this article has presented information indicating that diagnostic artifacts
recovered from surface sites can provide at least semiquantitative age control for
dating soils and landforms found on these sites.
This research project was made possible with the help of numerous individuals. WilliamBecker, William
Gustav Gartner, Karen Goldberg, Jonathan Haas, and Joseph McCann, University of Wisconsin, provided
eld assistance during archaeological surveying. Additional help with artifact collecting was provided
by Dave Barton, Craig Melvin, and numerous volunteers from the surrounding Madison communities.
Matt Thomas, University of Wisconsin, assisted with the artifact typologies. A special thanks goes to
Garry L. Running IV, University of WisconsinEau Claire, and Ty Sabin, University of Wisconsin, for
their eld assistance and sharing their own geomorphic interpretations. James B. Stoltman, University
of Wisconsin, provided me with a summer assistantship under the State of Wisconsins Region 8 Ar-
chaeology Program, and also made suggestions on nal artifact typologies. James C. Knox, University
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816 VOL. 13, NO. 8
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of Wisconsin, made several helpful suggestions during eldwork and laboratory analyses. David M.
Mickelson, University of Wisconsin, read a previous version of this manuscript and made several helpful
suggestions. Vance T. Holliday, University of Wisconsin, provided laboratory and eld assistance, nu-
merous editorial suggestions, and encouraged me to write this manuscript; his continued friendship and
support is greatly appreciated. Comments from one anonymous reviewer and Bruce G. Gladfelter, Uni-
versity of Illinois at Chicago, greatly improved the nal version of this manuscript; their contributions
are sincerely appreciated. This research project was partially funded through Sigma Xi GIAR 23658.
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Received May 28, 1998
Accepted for publication June 13, 1998

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