NOTES ON MICHEL FOUCAULT

French historian and philosopher (1926-1984)

DISCOURS!
Disco"rse! a #ro"p o$ state%ents &hich pro'ide a lan#"a#e $or tal(in# a)o"t* and
+representin#, a topic a disc"rsi'e $or%ation-
. disco"rse re$ers to the r"les o$ $or%ation o$ state%ents &hich are accepted as
scienti$icall/ tr"e- . disco"rse is a 0"estion o$ &hat #o'erns state%ents* and the &a/ in
&hich the/ #o'ern each other-
Disco"rse is a)o"t prod"ction o$ (no&led#e thro"#h lan#"a#e* and thro"#h practices-
1he lan#"a#e in &hich &e descri)e +$acts, inter$eres in the process o$ descri)in# &hat is
+tr"e, or +$alse,-
2o&er prod"ces (no&led#e po&er is i%plicated in &hat is considered to )e +tr"e, or
+$alse, po&er and (no&led#e i%pl/ one another-
2O3R456O37D8 ($ro% The History of Sexuality)
2o&er! a %"ltiplicit/ o$ $orce relations i%%anent in the sphere in &hich the/ operate and
&hich constit"te their o&n or#ani9ation-
:ere* Fo"ca"lt is not re$errin# to a #ro"p o$ instit"tions that ens"re the s")ser'ience o$
citi9ens o$ a state* a %ode o$ s");"#ation as a set o$ r"les* or a s/ste% o$ do%ination in
&hich there are r"lers and the r"led-
.ccordin# to Fo"ca"lt* po&er is o%nipresent* not )eca"se it e%)races e'er/thin#
"ni$or%l/* )"t )eca"se it co%es $ro% e'er/&here-
Fo"ca"lt<s propositions on po&er!
2o&er is e=ercised $ro% inn"%era)le points* in the interpla/ o$ non-e#alitarian
and %o)ile relations
Relations o$ po&er are i%%anent in other t/pes o$ relations
2o&er co%es $ro% )elo& > there is no )inar/ opposition )et&een the r"led and
the r"ler-
1
3here there is po&er* there is al&a/s resistance- Resistance is ne'er e=terior to
po&er-
One is al&a/s inside po&er- 1here is a pl"ralit/ o$ resistances &hich e=ist in the
$ield o$ po&er relations-
Disco"rses can )e an e$$ect or instr"%ent o$ po&er- ?"t the/ %a/ also )e a point
o$ resistance-
Disco"rse trans%its and prod"ces po&er* )"t it also "nder%ines and e=poses it-
+Disco"rses are not once and $or all s")ser'ient to po&er or raised "p a#ainst it* an/
%ore than silences are- 3e %"st %a(e allo&ance $or the co%ple= and "nsta)le
process &here)/ disco"rse can )e )oth an instr"%ent and an e$$ect o$ po&er* )"t also
a hindrance* a st"%)lin# )loc(* a point o$ resistance and a startin# point $or an
opposin# strate#/- Disco"rse trans%its and prod"ces po&er@ it rein$orces it* )"t also
"nder%ines and e=poses it* renders it $ra#ile and %a(es it possi)le to th&art it-,

Fro% Power/Knowledge:
.ccordin# to hi%* ri#ht-&in# social scientists al&a/s percei'e po&er in ter%s o$
so'erei#nt/ and la&- .nd Aar=ists see po&er in ter%s o$ the state apparat"s-
Fo"ca"lt* on the other hand* &as interested in ho& po&er is e=ercised and &hat its
techni0"es and tactics &ere-
3ith these concerns* he st"died ps/chiatr/ and penal instit"tions (prison s/ste%)-
.ltho"#h these %a/ see% "ni%portant* $or hi%* ps/chiatr/ and penal instit"tions are
essential to the #eneral $"nctionin# o$ the &heels o$ po&er-
Fo"ca"lt<s criticis% o$ t&o concepts %a(es clear his "nderstandin# o$ po&er! the Aar=ist
concept o$ +ideolo#/, and the Fre"dian concept o$ +repression-,
:e opposes ideolo#/ )eca"se this concept al&a/s stands a#ainst so%ethin# that is
s"pposed to co"nt as tr"th- Ideolo#/ al&a/s re$ers to a S");ect- It is al&a/s secondar/ to
an in$rastr"ct"re@ a %aterial* econo%ic deter%inant- In Aar=is%* +)ase deter%ines
s"perstr"ct"re*, that is* the relations o$ prod"ction deter%ine the ideas- .s Aar= said* +in
e'er/ epoch* the ideas are the ideas o$ the r"lin# class-, Aar= and Aar=ist tho"#ht see(s
to "nra'el that ideolo#ical strat"% to #et do&n to tr"th* &hich is the con$lict"al
relationship )et&een the proletariat and the )o"r#eoisie- 1he S");ect &ho is capa)le o$
(no&in# this tr"th is the &or(in# class-in-itsel$-
Fo"ca"lt sa/s that* rather than ideolo#ies* he is interested in ho& +e$$ects o$ tr"th, are
prod"ced &ithin disco"rses > &hich are neither $alse nor tr"e-
2
:e opposes the concept o$ repression )eca"se this concept is onl/ a)o"t the e$$ect o$
po&er as repression* that is* +po&er that sa/s no*, that prohi)its- It is a ;"ridical
conception o$ po&er-
For Fo"ca"lt* repression is a ne#ati'e conception o$ po&er- .nd as s"ch* it is inco%plete-
B3hat %a(es po&er hold #ood* &hat %a(es people accept it* is that it produces things, it
induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse-
.ccordin# to his anal/ses* the +prod"cti'it/ o$ po&er, increased a$ter the 18
th
cent"r/ in
"rope- . ne& +econo%/ o$ po&er, e%er#ed- 2roced"res that allo&ed e$$ects o$ po&er
to circ"late in a contin"o"s* "ninterr"pted %anner e%er#ed-
=a%ple! In The History of Sexuality, Fo"ca"lt &as concerned &ith e%er#in# disco"rses
a)o"t in$ant (children<s) se="alit/ and ho%ose="alit/* a%on# other thin#s- It is o$ten
considered that the e%er#in# )o"r#eois societ/ o$ the 18
th
and 19
th
cent"r/ 3estern
"rope repressed child se="alit/ and ho%ose="alit/ as "ndesira)le* sic(* a)nor%al* etc-*
)"t Fo"ca"lt re;ects this 'ie&-
For hi%* )/ constantl/ &ritin# a)o"t in$ant se="alit/ or ho%ose="alit/ as a disease* as
a)nor%al* etc-* in $act* the %edical discourse created an in$ant se="al identit/* it
se="ali9ed the parent-child relationship* and also* it created a ho%ose="al identit/ (as
&ell as a heterose="al one)- It sho"ld )e stressed that "ntil the 19
th
cent"r/*
ho%ose="alit/ &as considered to )e an act that a person %i#ht en#a#e in the co"rse o$
his4her li$e- .ltho"#h it &as conde%ned* ho%ose="alit/ &as not considered to )e an
identit/- ?"t the %edical disco"rse created a ho%ose="al identit/- 1his opened the &a/
$or the creation o$ a s");ecti'it/ aro"nd ho%ose="alit/* o$ ho%ose="al desire* etc- 7ater*
in the second hal$ o$ the 2C
th
cent"r/* ho%ose="al identit/ )eca%e the startin# point $or
+resistance*, na%el/* the #a/ ri#hts %o'e%ent in the &est-
DISCI27I6S (Fro% Discipline and Punish)
Closel/ related to Fo"ca"lt<s anal/sis o$ po&er is his concept o$ +discipline, or
disciplines-
Discipline is a t/pe o$ po&er* a %odalit/ $or its e=ercise- It co%prises a &hole set o$
instr"%ents* techni0"es* proced"res* le'els o$ application* tar#ets- It is a +ph/sics, o$
po&er* an +anato%/, o$ po&er* or a technolo#/ o$ po&er-
Disciplines are techni0"es $or ass"rin# the orderin# o$ h"%an #ro"ps &ith the $ollo&in#
ai%s! to e=ercise po&er at the lo&est cost and %a=i%"% e$$icienc/ and e$$ecti'eness@ to
increase the docilit/ and "tilit/ o$ the people &ho are disciplined-
Disciplines e%er#ed in the co"rse o$ 18
th
-19
th
cent"ries in 3estern "rope at the
historical con;"nct"re o$ t&o processes! (a) 1he increase in national pop"lations* and the
increase in the pop"lation o$ instit"tions &hich needed to )e controlled (s"ch as schools*
D
hospitals* prisons* ar%ies* etc-) ()) 1he #ro&th in the prod"cti'e apparat"s (the
prod"ction o$ co%%odities* and the +prod"ction, o$ health* ed"cation* etc-)
3hat distin#"ished the disciplines $ro% pre'io"s $or%s o$ po&er )ased on repression and
'iolence are the $ollo&in# $eat"res!
Discipline o!ectifies the people on &ho% it is applied- 1his t/pe o$ po&er $or%s
a )od/ o$ (no&led#e a)o"t the indi'id"als it disciplines* rather than the
deplo/%ent o$ 'isi)le si#ns o$ so'erei#nt/-
2op"lation increase and #ro&th o$ capitalis% are interrelated- Disciplinin#
techni0"es &o"ld not ha'e )een possi)le &itho"t the latter* or "se$"l* &itho"t the
$or%er-
1here is a parallel )et&een the e%er#ence o$ a $or%all/ e#alitarian ;"ridical
$ra%e&or( and a parlia%entar/* representati'e political re#i%e in 3estern
"rope* and the de'elop%ent and #enerali9ation o$ disciplinar/ %echanis%s-
Representati'e re#i%e pro%ises so'erei#nt/ )/ the people* )"t at the sa%e ti%e*
panopticis% and the disciplines #"arantee s")%ission o$ the people-
+1he Enli#hten%ent*< &hich disco'ered the li)erties* also in'ented the disciplines-,
1he %ain e=a%ple that Fo"ca"lt "ses here is the +2anopticon*, a s"r'eillance
techni0"e +in'ented, )/ Fere%/ ?entha%* the "tilitarian theorist* $or the o)ser'ation
o$ prisoners- 1he panopticon consisted o$ a to&er $ro% &hich* the prisoners do&n on
the #ro"nd co"ld )e &atched at all ti%es-
.ccordin# to Fo"ca"lt* in the %odern prison s/ste%* +the codi$ied po&er to p"nish
)eco%es the disciplinar/ po&er to o)ser'e-,
1he idea &ith the panopticon or %ore #enerall/ &ith the disciplines is that* &hen one
(no&s that one is )ein# &atched* one )eco%es %ore docile and %ore +"se$"l-, 1h"s*
discipline is a %ore e$$icient instr"%ent o$ po&er than repression- (Re%e%)er the
%o'ies +5a$(a, and +?ra9il,)-
1C:6O7O8IS OF 2O3R ($ro% +1he ?od/ o$ the Conde%ned, in Discipline and
Punish)
1echnolo#/ o$ po&er! the 'er/ principle o$ )oth the h"%ani9ation o$ the penal s/ste%
and o$ the (no&led#e o$ %an-
:istor/ o$ penal la& and the histor/ o$ the h"%an sciences deri'e $ro% a co%%on %atri=-
1he )od/ itsel$ is in'ested )/ po&er relations- 1he )od/ is a "se$"l $orce onl/ i$ it is )oth
a producti"e )od/ and a su!ected )od/-
In all p"nish%ent* the )od/ is at iss"e! the )od/ and its $orces* their "tilit/ and docilit/*
and their distri)"tion and s")%ission-
1he technolo#/ o$ the )od/ is di$$"se-
4
Aicroph/sics o$ po&er! 2o&er e=ercised on the )od/ is not a propert/* )"t a strate#/@ its
e$$ects o$ do%ination are attri)"ted not to appropriation* )"t to dispositions* %ane"'ers*
tactics* techni0"es- 1his po&er is e=ercised* it is not possessed@ it is not the pri'ile#e o$
the do%inant class* )"t an o'erall e$$ect o$ its strate#ic positions-
1his po&er in'ests the people &ho +do not ha'e po&er*, it is trans%itted thro"#h the%
and )/ the%- .t the sa%e ti%e* people resist the #rip o$ this po&er-
?od/ 2olitic! a set o$ %aterial ele%ents and techni0"es that ser'e as &eapons* rela/s*
co%%"nication ro"tes* and s"pports $or the po&er and (no&led#e relations that in'est
h"%an )odies and s");"#ate the% )/ t"rnin# the% into o);ects o$ (no&led#e-
G