Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Communications
and behaviour
change
Foreword ..................................................4
Introduction ..............................................6
Appendices
Appendix 3: Acknowledgements................................. 68
3
Communications and behaviour change
Foreword
4
Foreword
We need to
encourage positive
behaviour change
5
Communications and behaviour change
Introduction
Human behaviour is a very complex area. This document draws on
key sources from the disciplines of social psychology, economics and
behavioural economics (where the first two disciplines overlap).
We have sought to distil this information into some key factors
that are important to consider for anyone developing
communications that seek to influence behaviour, and
to develop a framework for applying these factors to the
development of a communications strategy.
6
Introduction
1 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
2 Thaler R and Sunstein C (2008), Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth
and Happiness, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
7
Communications and behaviour change
8 3 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
Introduction
9
Communications and behaviour change
What
influences
people’s
behaviour?
Human behaviour is influenced by a huge range of factors. In this
section, we seek to distil the ever-increasing body of evidence about
why we do what we do into some key factors and principles that are
important to consider when designing communications aimed at
influencing behaviour change.
10
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
5 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
12
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
6 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Practical Guide: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
13
Communications and behaviour change
Obesity is a complex issue with extremely wide-ranging causes operating at the personal,
social and environmental levels.
In the absence of a model incorporating all the relevant factors, a team of experts from
a range of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, food sciences, genetics and
epidemiology, produced an Obesity System Map highlighting the full range of contributory
causes.7
The Obesity System Map shows a vast number of factors operating at the personal, social
and environmental levels with multiple linkages and no one factor dominating. This clearly
points to the need for a sustained and wide-ranging programme of interventions in order to
facilitate change.
Wider environment
Local environment
Social
Personal
Understanding
the factors that
influence behaviour
The factors that influence behaviour The AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire,
fall into the following broad levels: Action) marketing model is an example of
personal; social; local environment; an ‘information deficit’ model. It is based
and wider environment. on the idea that providing information
will spark interest, which in turn leads
This section provides an overview of
to desire and subsequently to action.
factors at all levels that can play a major
role in influencing behaviour. It does Sometimes – for example, when telling
not and cannot cover all the factors people how to deal with swine flu or
that influence behaviour. Instead, we about a new piece of legislation – it is
have chosen to focus on those that appropriate simply to give them the
appear across a number of different relevant information. But knowledge
behavioural models and/or that we believe and awareness are rarely enough by
are particularly important to consider themselves to bring about behaviour
when designing communications aimed change. Other factors can override
at influencing behaviour change. our ‘rational’ selves, and we may
make systematic errors in our rational
The section also includes three examples
calculations (see the section on
of behavioural models to show how
behavioural economics, page 20).
the factors selected work in context.
Providing information is therefore a first
Personal factors step towards influencing behaviour change
rather than an end point. For example, as
Knowledge and awareness well as explaining how eating too much
and doing too little can lead to obesity, the
When we ask people to change their
Change4Life campaign (see case study
behaviour, we need to clearly set out our
on pages 28–29) also aims to increase
expectations. This might be, for example,
self-efficacy (see page 18) by showing
the speed limit we want them to observe
people that they can incorporate more
when driving in a built-up area. Standard
activity into their daily lives. Information
economic theory assumes that if people
can also be used to direct people to
are provided with information, they will
other communication channels or
act on it in such a way as to maximise
services – such as a website – that aim
personal benefit and minimise their
more directly at changing behaviour.
costs, a concept often referred to as
‘rational choice theory’.
15
Attitudes
Attitudes are specific to particular
behaviours. Early psychological models
show attitudes leading to intention in a
predominantly linear fashion. In later
models, attitude still plays a role but
appears alongside a range of other factors.
According to Festinger’s
While attitudes can influence behaviour, theory of cognitive
evidence now suggests that the link is dissonance,8 a person
not as strong as we might previously holding two inconsistent
have thought. The so-called ‘Value views will feel a sense
Action Gap’describes those situations of internal conflict
where a person holds values that are (‘cognitive dissonance’),
inconsistent with their behaviour. which will prompt
them to change their
The Value Action Gap can be particularly
views and so bring their
evident with regard to attitudes to
perceptions into line. This
the environment. While people may
has also been found to
believe that it is important to protect the
apply to inconsistencies
environment, other factors may take
between perceptions
precedence when it comes to actually
and behaviours.
changing their behaviour. Darnton
cites research into pro-environmental
behaviours which found that at least
A good example of cognitive dissonance
80 per cent of the factors influencing
is evident among smokers. Most
behaviour did not stem from knowledge or
smokers know that smoking causes
awareness.9 It is also important to bear in
lung cancer and other health problems,
mind that although attitudes can precede
but they also want to live a long and
behaviour, the opposite can also be true.
healthy life. Smokers can seek to reduce
this ‘dissonance’ either by giving up
smoking or by finding ways to justify
their habit, for example by claiming
that cigarettes keep them slim or that
they know someone who smoked 30
cigarettes a day and lived to be 100.
8 Festinger L (1957), A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, California.
16 9 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
17
10 Graybiel (2008), ‘Habits, rituals, and the evaluative brain’ in Annual Review of Neuroscience vol 31, 359–87.
11 Lewin K (1951), Field Theory in Social Science, Social Science Paperbacks, London.
Communications and behaviour change
12 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
18
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
13 Ibid.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
19
14 BMRB Tracking, January 2008.
15 Accociation of Chief Police Officers.
Communications and behaviour change
Behavioural economics
In the previous section, we looked at some
of the most common factors that drive
behaviour at the personal level. These all
appear in social psychological models.
Behavioural economics can also be used
to understand individual behaviour.
16 COI/IPA (2008), How Public Service Advertising Works, World Advertising Research Centre, London.
20 17 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
What influences peoples’ behaviour
18 Halpern D, Bates C, Geales B and Heathfield A (2004), Personal Responsibility and Changing Behaviour: the
state of knowledge and its implications for public policy, Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit, Cabinet Office, London.
19 Kahneman D, Slovic P and Tvesrsky A (1974), Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases’ in Science
vol 185 No. 4157, 1124–31. 21
?
Communications and behaviour change
? ?
20 Thaler R and Sunstein C (2008), Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and Happiness, Yale University
Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
22 21 Halpern D, Bates C, Geales B and Heathfield A (2004), Personal Responsibility and Changing Behaviour: the
state of knowledge and its implications for public policy, Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit, Cabinet Office, London.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
22 Andreasen A (1995), Marketing social change: Changing behaviour to promote health, social development and the
environment, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
23
Communications and behaviour change
23 Goldstein N, Martin S and Cialdini R (2007), Yes! 50 Secrets from the Science of Persuasion, Profile, London.
24 24 Cialdini R, Kallgren C and Reno R (1991), ‘A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: a theoretical refinement and re
evaluation of the role of norms in human behaviour’ in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology vol 24, 201–34.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
70
norms are the rules and regulations that
tell us what we should do. Often, the
70
two types of norm align but sometimes,
as in Tim Jackson’s motorway driving
example (see right), this is not the case.
25 Schultz PW, Nolan JM, Cialdini RB, Goldstein NJ and Griskevicius V (2007) ‘The Constructive, Destructive,
and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms’, in Psychological Science, vol 18 No. 5, 429–34.
25
26 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview of behaviour change
models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
Communications and behaviour change
27
Change4Life
The cross-government Obesity Team’s Change4Life
campaign aims to help families improve their long-term
health by making positive changes to their lifestyle.
28
– Building the Obesity System Map, Government Office for Science, London..
29 Department of Health, Change4Life marketing strategy, 2009.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
29
Communications and behaviour change
Beliefs about
outcomes
Attitudes towards
the behaviour
Evaluation of
outcomes
Relative importance
Intention Behaviour
of attitude and norm
Beliefs about
Subjective norm
what others think
Perceived
behavioural control
31
overview of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
32 Ibid.
Communications and behaviour change
Beliefs about
outcomes
Attitude
Evaluation of
outcomes
Facilitating
Norms conditions
Self-concept
Behaviour
Emotions Affect
Frequency of
past behaviour Habits
32 33 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview
of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
Intention
Consumer behaviour
34, 36 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An overview of behaviour change models
and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
35 Gatersleben B and Vlek C (1998), Household Consumption, Quality of Life and Envrironmental Impacts: A Psychological
33
Perspective and Empirical Study, in Noorman KJ and Schoot-Viterkamp, AJM (eds), Green Households? Domestic Consumers,
Enviroment and Sustainability, Earthscan Publications, London.
Communications and behaviour change
FRANK
In 2005, the FRANK campaign team set out to adopt a
more targeted approach to communicating with young
people about drugs
Desk research into the best ways of • undermining the image of drug users
communicating with young people (risk images).
about drugs37 identified Gibbons and
Gerrard’s Dual Path Theory38 as an Insights and implications
effective way of addressing risk issues
The model research yielded a number
where there was no direct correlation
of valuable insights. The first was that if
between attitude and behaviour.
a young person has previously used a
drug, this will inform their future drug-
Dual Path Theory taking behaviour. Communications
behavioural model therefore work best when they are
targeted at young people before they
Gibbons and Gerrard’s model reflects
become regular drug users. The
the fact that drug taking involves
FRANK campaign is not interested in
rational, irrational and social factors
outright rejecters, so resources have
and informs four potential roles for
been focused on young people who
intervention communications:
are thinking about taking a drug for
• boosting young people’s resistance the first time and occasional users.
(behavioural willingness);
Secondly, younger adolescents (11–14
• encouraging young people to see drug years old) are heavily influenced by
use as marginal rather than mainstream their peers. Even where there is a
(subjective norms – peers’ behaviour); strong intention not to use drugs, their
high level of behavioural willingness
• emphasising the risks involved in taking
means that they will look to their peer/
drugs (personal vulnerability); and
Attitudes
(personal vulnerability)
Behavioural
intention
Behavioural
willingness
Risk images
Social
comparison
37 Darnton A (2005), Understanding Young People’s Drug Use, Desk Research Report One: Commentary, for FRANK
34
and COI, London.
38 Gibbons F, Gerrard M and Lane D (2003), ‘A Social Reaction Model of Adolescent Health Risk’ in Suls J and
Wallstone K (eds), Social Psychological Foundations of Health and Illness, Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts.
What influences peoples’ behaviour?
social group when making a decision. with 44 per cent who would turn to
Messages therefore encouraged this their mother, 22 per cent who would
group to contact FRANK for expert advice turn to their friends and 20 per cent
rather than listening to their friends. who would turn to their doctor.
They also indirectly promoted negative Perceived risk of drugs (of
perceptions of drug users and cannabis among the 11–14s and
emphasised the risks of drug taking. cocaine in the 15+ group):
The campaign focused on cannabis, the
• The percentage of 11–14-year-olds
most prevalent drug for this age group.
agreeing that cannabis is very likely to
Thirdly, young people aged 15+ tend to damage the mind rose from 45 per cent
think more rationally about the risks of in April 2006 to 63 per cent in April
drugs and be more drug experienced. 2009.
Their decisions are more likely to be
• After the last burst of cannabis
informed by their own sense of personal
advertising (February 2009), 74 per
vulnerability as well as by their peer/social
cent said the advertising made them
group. Messaging for this group therefore
realise that cannabis is more risky than
focused on the risks involved in using
they thought.
drugs (mainly cocaine) and on building
up trust and confidence in FRANK. • After the last burst of cocaine
advertising (January 2009), 67 per cent
Impact said the ads made them realise that
cocaine is more risky than they thought.
This model-driven approach to the
campaign is reflected in its evaluation. Negative perceptions of drug users
Key performance indicators (KPIs) (negative average out of 10):
include the number of young people
contacting FRANK, increasing awareness Drug user March April March 5 April
of the risks, strengthening resistance 2006 2007 2008 2009
and promoting negative perceptions of Cannabis40 7.2 7.5 7.5 7.7
drug users. The campaign has achieved
Cocaine 41
7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0
considerable, measurable success in these
areas since the model was adopted.
Note: The higher the score the more negative
Knowing and trusting FRANK the perception is of users of that drug.
as the expert on drugs:39
Building young people’s resistance skills
• Total awareness of the FRANK
• After the last burst of cannabis
campaign among the target group
advertising, 73 per cent said that the
is 90 per cent.
advertising made them less likely to take
• FRANK is the most trusted source cannabis in the future.
of drug information and advice for
• After the last burst of cocaine
young people
advertising, 62 per cent said that the
– 81 per cent trust FRANK to provide campaign made them less likely to take
them with reliable information; cocaine in the future.
– 59 per cent would turn to FRANK for
information about drugs, compared
35
40 Base: young people who have never used cannabis.
37
43 Rogers E (1995), Diffusion of Innovation, Free Press, New York.
Communications and behaviour change
It is notable that the groups most likely The theory is based on a deliberative
to adopt an innovation early on tend to linear process similar to that shown in the
demonstrate higher levels of opinion AIDA marketing model (see page 15). The
leadership (that is, to be held in high individual decision as to whether or not
regard and have their opinion respected to adopt the innovation is very ‘rational’.
by others). Opinion leadership is often
This theory of change has been widely
subject-specific; it is possible to be an
used in commercial marketing, principally
opinion leader in relation to one innovation
in relation to the adoption of new
but a follower with regard to another.
technologies and products rather than
Rogers argues that adoption depends
behaviours. Nevertheless, the concept
on access to ‘information’ about the
of opinion leaders as important agents
innovation, and that this information
of change is a useful one, as is an
should be tailored to the group.
understanding of how change spreads
According to the theory, innovation through society. Both these factors support
spreads gradually through the first groups. the case for using communications
When the level of adoption reaches to target opinion leaders (in the hope
between 10 and 20 per cent (Gladwell’s that they will then spread the message
‘tipping point’44) the rate of adoption and encourage take-up among others)
suddenly increases steeply before levelling and for peer-to-peer marketing that
off at around 80 to 90 per cent. Diffusion exploits the power of social networks.
itself also follows a five-stage process:
1. Knowledge: The individual is aware of
the innovation but lacks information
Key learnings
about it.
• As well as understanding the
factors that influence behaviour,
2. Persuasion: The individual becomes
it is important to understand how
interested in the innovation and seeks
behaviour changes.
information about it.
38 44 Gladwell M (2000), The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference, Little, Brown, London.
What influences peoples’ behaviour
39
EMBEDDING
BEHAVIOURAL
THEORY
This section focuses on how behavioural theory can be used
to support the practical planning, delivery and evaluation of
communications. This will help to ensure that communications
are designed with a realistic understanding of what they can be
expected to achieve, within what timescale and at what cost.
40
Embedding behavioural theory
45 COI/IPA (2008), How Public Service Advertising Works, World Advertising Research Centre, London.
41
Communications and behaviour change
1 Identifying behaviours
42
Embedding behavioural theory
For one part of the campaign, the ‘Together’ programme, the Prochaska
model has formed the basis of the entire contact strategy. Together,
which is still in use, offers remote support to move potential quitters from
preparation to maintenance (that is, from stage 3 to stage 5 of the model).
The blueprint for content creation and the timing of messages are entirely
dictated by the model.
43
Exploration
Identifying • How do we break down the issue into its component behaviours?
behaviours • How do multiple behaviours relate or group?
• Who do we want to undertake the behaviour?
• What is the desired and current behaviour?
• Does the behaviour involve people starting, stopping, maintaining
or preventing?
1 Identifying behaviours
Step 1 involves identifying the
behaviour or behaviours that your Step 1 in practice: the
policy and/or communications
Tobacco Control campaign
activities are seeking to influence.
As previously mentioned, sometimes The Department of Health identified
government communications will seek two key behaviours that it would need
to influence a single behaviour – for to influence in order to reduce smoking
example, getting drivers to reduce their prevalence:
speed. But many of the more complex
issues government is seeking to address, • whether or not an individual chooses
such as climate change and obesity, will to make a quit attempt; and
require changes in multiple behaviours.
• the method by which they choose
If you are aiming to influence a single
to quit.
behaviour, or the component behaviours
have already been identified, go straight
By getting more people to make quit
to step 2. If not, your starting point should
attempts the aim is to increase the
be to identify all the relevant behaviours
‘market’ for quitting. In influencing ‘how’
relating to your policy and communication
people quit, the aim is to increase the
goals (which may not necessarily be
overall success of quit attempts. Evidence
the same) (see pages 13–15 for more
shows that some methods of quitting are
detail). Otherwise, it will be impossible
more successful than others: for example,
to develop an understanding of the
smokers who quit with NHS Stop Smoking
factors that influence those behaviours.
services are four times more likely to
succeed than those who go ‘cold turkey’.
44
Step 2 • What factors are at play at the following levels: Detailed understanding of all
Exploration
Understanding – personal (for example habit, emotions, confidence, knowledge, influencing factors
the influences biases or mental shortcuts)?
by audience – social (for example is the behaviour with or against social norms,
peer pressure, who will influence and how strongly)?
– local and wider environmental (for example access, price,
opportunity, services, proximity)?
• How do factors differ across audiences? How does their importance
vary across different audience groups?
2 Understanding the
influences by audience
The next step is to identify all the factors In practice, steps 1 and 2
influencing the behaviour(s) that relate are likely to be iterative.
to your policy and communication goals. Exploring the factors that
These factors will vary among different influence one behaviour
audience groups. Behavioural theory might highlight another
should play an important role in this task. behaviour that could be
easier to influence, or
The factors influencing behaviour can be
where communications
divided into broad levels: personal, social
have a more obvious
and environmental (both local and wider).
role to play. In this case,
(See pages 15–27for more detail.) You will
you will need to go back
need to consider factors at all these levels.
to step 1 and add the
Note that this may mean considering
‘new’ behaviour to your
more than one behavioural model and
list before proceeding
looking at other relevant theories.
again to step 2.
The GSR Review46 describes over 60
models and theories and includes
an appendix that matches behaviour
Wider environment
types or domains (eg environment,
health, transport) to models. This can
Local environment
be a useful starting point for identifying
relevant models and factors that Social
influence the behaviour(s) in question.
Personal
Generating behavioural insight
As noted above, behavioural models and
theories are often based on a theoretical
‘everyman’. Models do not always indicate
the relative importance of factors, and
some are developed with a specific
behaviour in mind. To develop meaningful
insights into the reasons why people
behave as they do, you will need to draw
on other information (including primary
research) as well as on behavioural theory.
45
46 Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An
overview of behaviour change models and their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London.
Communications and behaviour change
Creating an accurate
segmentation will mean
exploring people’s
claimed behaviours;
Behavioural
intentions; attitudes; theory
physical, practical and
psychological barriers;
motivations; goals; and
levels of self-efficacy.
You may also wish to Previous experience/
find ways of linking Primary research Behavioural understanding of
insight audience, issue
the segmentation with and behaviour
data describing the
actual behaviour of
different groups.
Consider links to
planning tools such as
TouchPoints,47 TGI48 and
MOSaIC,49 which leave Combining sources to generate
detailed information
on demographics,
‘behavioural insights’
geodemographics, life The figure above shows the range
stage, media consumption of sources that will often need to be
and attitudes, supporting used to help generate behavioural
the segmentation insights. Techniques may include:
process. The tools will
• drawing on the knowledge and
help to ensure that
experiences of relevant stakeholders,
your segmentation is
for example frontline service staff;
actionable, and are best
used to supplement your • reviewing and analysing existing
own primary research. information (including relevant
The Cabinet Office has behavioural theory) and data through
produced guidance desk research;
on segmentation.50
• qualitative and ethnographic research
or customer immersion; and
• using semiotics to look at how
specific audiences construct and
understand meaning.
Behavioural insights can then help to
identify the most important influencing
factors – that is, those that have the
strongest influence on the behaviour
or behaviours in question.
Carrying out a bespoke segmentation
can help you identify how the factors
that influence behaviour affect
different audience sub-groups.
When HM Revenue & Customs set out to segment its target audience by looking at the
factors that influence their behaviour in relation to tax, the first step was to scope the issue
through a large-scale data review and over 100 interviews. These were used to develop
a framework that identified the factors driving the way that people behave. Qualitative
research followed, and was used to design a major piece of quantitative research. The
findings pointed to five distinct segments, based on four dimensions: awareness (of
obligations); motivation (to comply); ability (to comply); and opportunity (to comply).
The Department of Health used a number of different models and theories to gain further
insight into the factors that influence smoking behaviour, as well as primary research with
the target audience and interviews with academics and practitioners. A number of new
insights emerged from these sources.
Many theories identify the role of attitudes and beliefs in driving motivation. For smoking
cessation these operate in two ways: by shaping the desire to stop smoking (through beliefs
such as ‘smoking harms me and my family’); and by shaping positive images or a ‘vision’
of the future. This latter form of ‘positive motivation’ was particularly important, as primary
research among the target audiences identified that while many smokers had a strong
desire to stop smoking, there were far fewer positive associations with the concept of being
a ‘non-smoker’.
Robert West’s ‘PRIME’ Theory of motivation identified the need for a trigger as well as
motivation to drive a quit attempt. Previous marketing had sought only to drive motivation.
The concept of self-efficacy or agency (the extent to which an individual believes that
they can carry out a particular action successfully and that that action will bring about the
expected outcome) has been identified in many theories, including the Theory of Planned
Behaviour and the Theory of Reasoned Action. The role of self-efficacy was also highlighted
by NHS Stop Smoking service practitioners and is summarised in the model subsequently
developed (see below) as ‘confidence in ability to quit’.
The impact of social norms on behaviour is also explicit in many models, and research
among the target audience highlighted the role of peer pressure in driving both quit
attempts and relapse. This was captured in the model as an influence that drove ‘positive
environmental pressure to quit’.
Many other influences that operate at a cultural or environmental level – such as legislation
and price – play a very important role in driving cessation and influence the ‘environment’
for quitting.
Finally, in order to successfully change their behaviour smokers have to know how to
change successfully. In culture change models this is sometimes referred to as ‘practical
steps for action’.
47
Step 3 • How do we prioritise the factors identified at step 2? • Model of key influencing
Towards a solution
Developing a • How do these factors influence current and desired behaviours? factors
practical model • What is the relative importance of the factors? • Understanding and/or
of influences on • Do we have data to measure the factors? measurement of how the
behaviour • Can we build a data-driven model? factors work together and
• If we can’t, what are the pragmatic hypotheses we can work with their importance
and test? • Initial hypothesis about role
Factors and• What are our early hypotheses about how behaviour might change?
behaviour of communications
• What are our early hypotheses about the role that communications
might play?
3 Developing a practical
model of influences on
behaviour
The insights into behaviour developed
at step 2 can now be used to develop a
practical model that brings together all
the relevant behaviours and influencing
factors, and which is based on a deep
understanding of the relationship between
current and desired behaviours and
the key influencing factors involved.
Sometimes, it will be appropriate to
adapt an existing model; at other
times, you will need to create a model
specifically for the task in hand. Often, practical models
are developed both from
Developing a practical model will require
a behavioural theory
input from people with a range of different
(explains behaviour)
skills, including experts in behaviour (who
and change theory
may well be academics) and experts in
(explains how to change
policy and communication. This will help
behaviour) perspective.
ensure that the model works across all
interventions, not just communications,
ensuring consistency and coherence.
The model should be dynamic and
have a temporal element too it so that
it can adapt in line with changing
circumstances. For example, a model
developed two years ago might not take
into account the economic downturn,
and would need to be updated to reflect
the impact of this factor on customers’
attitudes, behaviours and intentions. The
simplest solution is to schedule regular
reviews into your planning process.
Whether it is data-driven or not, a
practical model is essential. It will help
to focus thinking about the behaviour(s)
in question and the influencing factors,
and can be used to develop a marketing
framework (see step 4 below).
48
49
The influences that were identified in step 2, along with the conditions for successful behaviour change,
are captured in this generalised model of smoking cessation (see figure).
Identifying the influences on behaviour change has shaped the Department of Health’s marketing and
communications strategy in many ways. Most profoundly, it has helped to define marketing objectives and
to develop the workstreams that contribute to meeting those objectives.
The department also developed a data-driven model that would quantify the impact of levers such as
price and legislation and help everyone involved gain a better understanding of the scale of the task for
communications. For example, when first developed in 2007, the model identified that the all-adult
prevalence target would be met but that the target for prevalence among routine and manual workers was
much more challenging. Among this audience, 530,000 smokers needed to quit in order to hit the target.
The model showed that communications should deliver 298,000 of these. The model is updated on a
regular basis as new information emerges, and it continues to be used to help set quantifiable targets for
communication and to aid budget setting.
Peer influence
Price Soc
ial
ion and
islat cu
g ltu
Le ra
ln or
m
Positive
s
environmental
Ac
pressure
ces
s
Dissatisfaction
Motivation
with the present
Positive vision
Trigger
of the future
Relapse
Confidence in
ability to quit
50
Embedding behavioural theory
Step 4 • What factors will marketing/interventions need to target? • An understanding of the role
Towards a solution
Building a • Where will communications play a role? What factors will they affect, of communications and the
marketing and how? Will they play a leading or supporting role? factors they are designed to
framework • What are the communications objectives? influence
• What are our top-line evaluation metrics for these communications • An agreed set of
objectives? communications objectives
• How communications fit into
the wider picture
• Top-line metrics for
setting and evaluating key
performance indicators
4 Building a marketing
framework
Techniques such as systems thinking In other cases, communications may
(see page 13) and approaches such be used to support and maintain the
as social marketing show the benefits behaviour change once it has taken
of looking at communications in the place (for example, by supporting
context of all interventions rather than people who have given up smoking
in isolation. Communications should be so that they don’t relapse).
designed to complement and reinforce
It is important to recognise that, in some
other interventions. In the private sector,
instances, taxation and legislation (for
this holistic approach is generally
example) may be more effective than
seen as the key to effective marketing
communications in changing behaviour.
and the most ‘joined-up’ companies
However, even in these instances
are usually the most successful.
communications are likely to play a
The basic idea underpinning systems supporting role. It is therefore important
thinking is that the whole is more than to take care when identifying the role we
the sum of the parts, and that putting expect communications to perform.
pressure on a single point will impact
on the rest of the system. For example, Setting objectives and
if a police drug seizure reduces supply
but demand remains constant, the
writing a brief
price of drugs will increase and other The marketing framework should be
supply streams will open up. The main used to identify and set communications
purpose of the marketing framework is objectives. In practice, these objectives
therefore to show how all interventions are often to change one or more of
– including, for example, legislation, the factors that influence behaviour,
enforcement and stakeholder engagement rather than the end behaviour itself.
as well as communications – can
The communications objectives –
work together to deliver change.
combined with an audience segmentation,
The framework will help to identify the role as described above (page 46) – can be
– or roles – that communications can play. used to generate a high-level evaluation
Often, this will be to influence factors and/ matrix and plan. It is important to
or intermediate behaviours rather than to remember that communications may need
have a direct effect on the end behaviour. to be assessed in terms of their impact
As the case study earlier shows (pages on influencing factors rather than on the
34–35), one of the key aims of the current actual behaviour itself. Any evaluation of
FRANK campaign is to make drug use less communications must therefore form part
appealing by focusing on non-aspirational of a broader evaluation framework or at
and unattractive images of drug users. least attempt to separate out the effect of
other influences and/or interventions.
51
You should now have all the information you have identified as relevant to
you need to create a communications your policy and communication
brief. The brief should reflect the five- goals, the influences that affect those
step process, and take into account behaviours, your communication
all other relevant interventions. It objectives and your top-line KPIs.
should also include the behaviours
The marketing/interventions framework identifies the role for marketing in the context of other interventions
such as legislation and price. It should include the behavioural goals, the conditions for change and the
primary and secondary change agents for helping to bring these about. So, for example, we see that one of
the necessary conditions for tobacco control is to create dissatisfaction with the present. The interventions
aimed at bringing this about are marketing and communications and legislation.
Behavioural goals:
1. To decrease smoking prevalance among routine and manual workers to 26 per cent by 2010 by:
2. Increasing the number of quit attempts
3. Increasing the success of quit attempts.
Positive
Conditions
for change
NHS services/ Marketing and Marketing and ‘Natural’ triggers; NHS service/
Primary
52
Embedding behavioural theory
Step 5 • Does everyone involved understand the role communications can play • A communications strategy
Towards a solution
Developing a and the factors they are aiming to influence? • An understanding of
communications • How do we expect communications to influence people’s behaviour whom communications
model over time? are targeting and where
• What are the key triggers and barriers at each stage of our change communications fit into the
journey? overall picture
• How will communications influence these? • An evaluation plan
• Where do communications fit within the marketing framework? and matrix
• How do we evaluate each stage of the change journey?
• How can we use our learnings to adapt our practical model?
• How can we use our learnings to adapt our hypothesis?
5 Developing a
communications model
The marketing framework developed in as we move on to look at creating
step 4 should define: a communications strategy (that is,
how we can use communications to
• the role of communications (which
help change the behaviour), change
factors it is aiming to influence
theory becomes more important.
and how);
Change theory and change modelling
• where communications fit into the
tend to be generic and rarely seek to
wider picture;
explain how behaviours differ from each
• top-line metrics for setting and other in terms of the way they change.
evaluating KPls; and So when using change theory in creating
communications models, it is vital to
• the target audience and its behaviour(s).
keep the specific behaviour that you
Once your communications brief is in are trying to change in mind. If we lose
place, you can move on from looking sight of the behaviour or behaviours we
at behavioural theory to consider how are seeking to change, we will lose most
change theory can help you develop of the benefit of applying the theory.
a strategy for bringing about change.
Unlike many behavioural models (which
Academic theories of change can be
seek to explain the influences on people’s
useful here, although they will need
behaviour), change models work over
to be adapted to reflect the specific
time and in stages. The aim is to provide
behaviours you are seeking to influence;
a strategy for moving people from one
this may require you to formulate and
stage to the next. In practice, people
test hypotheses about how they apply to
rarely move in a neat linear pattern.
the behaviour you are seeking to change
Rather, they move forward, sometimes in
over a period of time. The GSR Review51
jumps, and relapse, often several times.
has a detailed section on theories of
change, some insights from which There are a number of examples of
appear in section 1 of this document. campaigns where a behaviour change
model has been developed from change
It is also important to remember that
theory only. For example, the original
when we talk about ‘behaviour change’
Tobacco Control communications
we are really looking at two distinct areas:
strategy was based on Prochaska’s
behavioural theory and change theory. A
Stages of Change model (see page
practical behavioural model should reflect
36). However, in testing the model,
the importance of changing, as well as
the Department of Health found that
explaining, behaviour. But while a model
a deeper understanding of the factors
should incorporate some change theory, its
influencing behaviour needed to be
main purpose should be to understand the
made more integral to the process.
behaviour and its influences. However,
There are also plenty of communications We have already suggested that target
strategies (in the widest sense of the audiences may need to be segmented
term) that use change theory but that are in order to understand their behaviour.
based on practical marketing experience Now, we are suggesting that each
rather than academic theory. Often, in behavioural segment should be further
practice, the theory is the same and sub-divided according to how willing
only the language is different; however, (and able) its members are to change
there are a number of terms that are their behaviour and what help they
used interchangeably but which actually need to bring that change about.
have quite different meanings.
For example, the terms ‘behavioural
Prioritising barriers and
change journey’ and ‘customer journey’ triggers for change
are sometimes used interchangeably.
Even where the behaviour we are seeking
However, these are two very different
to influence is homogeneous across the
things. The behavioural change journey
target audience (for example, paying the
outlines the stages involved in a change
congestion charge) we will need to look at
of behaviour (for example, in Prochaska’s
how communications can help to support
model, from pre-contemplation to
the desired change. That will mean
contemplation and so on). A customer
identifying and prioritising the barriers and
journey is the experience or series of
triggers associated with the behaviours
experiences that a citizen has with a
as well as assessing their relative weight.
service or brand on the way to a specific
Because most behaviours are influenced
output – for instance, the number and type
by multiple factors, and people will
of contacts they have with a government
be at different stages of behaviour
department or agency before receiving
change, you will almost certainly need
the benefit they have applied for.
to develop a range of communications
targeted at multiple triggers and barriers
Segmenting the audience in order to bring about change.
on the basis of change
While some change models (such as the
Setting goals and evaluating
Stages of Change model, see page 36) success
are based on audience segmentation,
KPIs and plans for evaluating
generally they allow for the fact that, even
communications should be developed
within specific behaviours, the extent
alongside and be based on the
to which people want to change varies
communications model. Change to the
greatly. This means that they can be
factors that the communications are
classified into different groups or stages.
seeking to influence should be evaluated
Segmentation not only helps to define
at each stage, and the results used to
groups; it can also help to determine the
adapt both the communications
most effective action for each group.
54
Embedding behavioural theory
themselves and the applied behavioural as much as possible both about what
and change models that you have works and what doesn’t work so well.
developed. This is integral to the process A typical evaluation plan will be based
and will enable you to maximise the on a consideration of behavioural insights,
efficiency and effectiveness of your the change process, communications
communications much more accurately. objectives and activity, and how best they
can all be measured and understood.
The evaluation plan should be approached
with as much care as the other steps in
this process. Influencing behaviour is a
complex task, so it is important to learn
A simple model was used to drive the shape of the overall strategy. This identifies
three marketing objectives and, within these, a number of different workstreams for
communication. (Continued over)
Reinforcing motivation
5. Reducing desire to smoke
6. Increasing motivation to be smoke free
55
A wide range of KPIs have been defined in order to enable the Department of Health to
monitor all aspects of the strategy (see next page). The KPIs reflect the defined marketing
objectives and the way in which communications are expected to influence behaviour.
Triggering action
Business KPls Percentage of smokers making a quit attempt in any given year
Percentage of smokers making a quitting-related action in any
given year
Percentage conversion of quitting-related actions to quit attempts
Marketing KPls Percentage of smokers making a quit attempt in any given year triggered
by Department of Health marketing activities
Percentage of smokers making a quitting-related action in any given
year triggered by Department of Health marketing activities
Volume of centrally generated valid responses for NHS support
Volume of centrally generated active responses for NHS support
Quality of centrally generated responses (percentage intermediate
conversion)
Cost per valid/active response
Reinforcing motivation
The first year of the new strategy has seen improved overall quit results, with a particularly
large increase in online response and engagement. The statistical model predicts that
marketing activity has resulted in 1.3 million quit attempts and 95,000 successful quits in
2008/09, while econometric modelling for 2009/10 predicts over 2 million quit attempts
and 160,000 one-year quits as a result of social marketing activity.
56
Embedding behavioural theory
57
Communications and behaviour change
ConClusions
and Future
impliCations
This document is intended to stimulate debate about how
communications can most effectively influence behaviour, and
to contribute to our overall goal of helping to develop ever more
effective and efficient government communications. Here we
summarise our conclusions and look at some of the implications
for government communicators.
mmunication
58
Conclusions and future implications
59
60
Conclusions and future implications
61
next steps
There is still considerable scope to further explore the
implications of embedding behaviour change theory in
the development of communications.
62
Next steps
it to their work?
Please go to http://coi.gov.uk/blogs/bigthinkers
63
APPENDICES
64
Appendices
Exploration
Identifying • How do we break down the issue into its component behaviours?
behaviours • How do multiple behaviours relate or group?
• Who do we want to undertake the behaviour?
• What is the desired and current behaviour?
• Does the behaviour involve people starting, stopping, maintaining
or preventing?
Step 3 • How do we prioritise the factors identified at step 2? • Model of key influencing
Developing a • How do these factors influence current and desired behaviours? factors
practical model • What is the relative importance of the factors? • Understanding and/or
of influences on • Do we have data to measure the factors? measurement of how the
behaviour • Can we build a data-driven model? factors work together and
• If we can’t, what are the pragmatic hypotheses we can work their importance
Towards a solution
with and test? • Initial hypothesis about role
• What are our early hypotheses about how behaviour might change? of communications
• What are our early hypotheses about the role that communications
might play?
Step 4 • What factors will marketing/interventions need to target? • An understanding of the role
Building a • Where will communications play a role? What factors will they affect, of communications and the
marketing and how? Will they play a leading or supporting role? factors they are designed
framework • What are the communications objectives? to influence
• What are our top-line evaluation metrics for these communications • An agreed set of
objectives? communications objectives
• How communications fit into
the wider picture
• Top-line metrics for
setting and evaluating key
performance indicators
Step 5 • Does everyone involved understand the role communications can play • A communications model
Developing a and the factors they are aiming to influence? • An understanding of
communications • How do we expect communications to influence people’s behaviour whom communications
model over time? are targeting and where
• What are the key triggers and barriers at each stage of our change communications fit into the
journey? overall picture
• How will communications influence these? • An evaluation plan
• Where do communications fit in with the marketing framework? and matrix
• How do we evaluate each stage of the change journey?
• How can we use our learnings to adapt our applied model?
• How can we use our learnings to adapt our hypothesis?
65
APPENDIX 2: References
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change: Changing behaviour to promote Brooks M (2006), chapter 1, ‘Theory’
health, social development and the in Promoting Pro-Environmental
environment, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Behaviour: Existing Evidence to Inform
Better Policy Making, Defra, London.
Aronson E, Akert RD and Wilson
TD (2006), Social Psychology (6th Evidence to the London Assembly
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Saddle River, New Jersey. Proposed Congestion Charge
Increase (2005), available at www.
Cialdini R, Kallgren C and Reno R
london.gov.uk/assembly/reports
(1991), ‘A Focus Theory of Normative
Conduct: a theoretical refinement and re- Festinger L (1957), A theory of cognitive
evaluation of the role of norms in human dissonance, Stanford University
behaviour’ in Advances in Experimental Press, Palo Alto, California.
Social Psychology vol 24, 201–34.
Gatersleben B and Vlek C (1998),
COI/IPA (2008), How Public Service Household Consumption, Quality of
Advertising Works, World Advertising Life and Envrironmental Impacts:
Research Centre, London. A Psychological Perspective and
Empirical Study, in Noorman KJ and
Darnton A (2005), Understanding
Schoot-Viterkamp, AJM (eds), Green
Young People’s Drug Use, Desk
Households? Domestic Consumers,
Research Report One: Commentary,
Enviroment and Sustainability,
for FRANK and COI, London.
Earthscan Publications, London.
Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour
Gibbons F, Gerrard M and Lane D
Change Knowledge Review. Practical
(2003), ‘A Social Reaction Model of
Guide: An overview of behaviour change
Adolescent Health Risk’ in Suls J and
models and their uses, HMT Publishing
Walstone K (eds), Social Psychological
Unit, London. www.civilservice.gov.
Foundations of Health and Illness, Wiley-
uk/Assets/Behaviour%20change_
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Gladwell M (2000), The Tipping Point:
Darnton A (2008), GSR Behaviour Change
How Little Things Can Make a Big
Knowledge Review. Reference Report: An
Difference, Little, Brown, London.
overview of behaviour change models and
their uses, HMT Publishing Unit, London. Goldstein N, Martin S and Cialdini R
www.civilservice.gov.uk/Assets/Behaviour_ (2007), Yes! 50 Secrets from the Science
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Graybiel (2008), ‘Habits, rituals, and Schultz PW, Nolan JM, Cialdini RB,
the evaluative brain’ in Annual Review Goldstein NJ and Griskevicius V
of Neuroscience vol 31, 359–87. (2007) ‘The Constructive, Destructive,
and Reconstructive Power of
Halpern D, Bates C, Geales B and
Social Norms’, in Psychological
Heathfield A (2004), Personal
Science, vol 18 No. 5, 429–34.
Responsibility and Changing Behaviour:
the state of knowledge and its implications Social Marketing Foundation (2008),
for public policy, Prime Minister’s Creatures of Habit? The Art of
Strategy Unit, Cabinet Office, London. Behaviour Change, SMF, London.
Heath RG, Brandt D and Nairn Thaler R and Sunstein C (2008), Nudge:
A (2006), ‘Brand Relationships – Improving Decisions About Health,
Strengthened by Emotion, Weakened Wealth and Happiness, Yale University
by Attention’ in Journal of Advertising Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
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Triandis H (1977), Interpersonal Behavior,
Jackson T (2005), Motivating Sustainable Brooks/Cole, Monterey, California.
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Vandenbroeck P, Goossens J and
Consumer Behaviour and Behavioural
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Kahneman D, Slovic P and Tvesrsky A Office for Science, London.
(1974), Judgement Under Uncertainty:
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67
APPENDIX 3: Acknowledgments
In creating this document we have drawn • the Government Social Research Unit,
on the expertise of a number of people in particular Anna Richardson and
from government, academia, industry and those involved in the GSR Behaviour
COI. Inclusion in this list does not imply Change Knowledge Review, with whom
formal approval by these organisations we have worked closely to develop a
or individuals of the content of this common understanding of behavioural
document. We would like to thank: theory and models;
• colleagues from government • the Department of Health, the
departments and agencies including Department for Children, Schools and
the Learning and Skills Council, the Families, the Department for Transport,
Department for Children, Schools and the Home Office and Peterborough
Families, the Department of Health, the Environment City Trust for providing
Department for Environment, Food and case studies of behaviour change
Rural Affairs, HM Revenue & Customs, campaigns; and
the Department for Transport, the
• the Cabinet Office with which we’ve
Department for Work and Pensions, the
worked closely throughout this project.
Home Office, RAF Careers, the Health
and Safety Executive, the Electoral Their contribution has been invaluable
Commission, and industry and COI in helping shape our thinking and
colleagues who spoke to us about their to produce this final document.
approach to developing behaviour
This document was written by the
change strategies;
Behaviour Change and Communications
• experts in the areas of communications team: Mairi Budge, Clare Deahl,
and behaviour change who attended Martin Dewhurst, Stephen Donajgrodzki,
workshops at COI and/or who peer and Fiona Wood.
reviewed this document: Will Collin,
If you have any further enquiries,please
Andrew Darnton, Mark Earls, Daniele
email behaviourchange @coi.gsi.gov.uk
Fiandaca, Alison Hoad, Robert Horler,
Steve Morris, John Owen, John Poorta,
Stuart Sullivan-Martin, Charlie Snow and
Kate Waters;
68
COI is the Government’s centre
of excellence for marketing
and communications.
coi.gov.uk