WastewaterTreatment

inAntarctica





















SergeyTarasenko
Supervisor:NeilGilbert

GCAS2008/2009

Tableofcontent

Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 4
1Basicprinciplesofwastewatertreatmentforsmallobjects ..................................................... 5
1.1Domesticwastewatercharacteristics.................................................................................... 5
1.2Characteristicsofmainmethodsofdomesticwastewatertreatment ............................. 5
1.3Designingoftreatmentfacilitiesforindividualsewagedisposalsystems................... 11
2WastewatertreatmentinAntarctica.......................................................................................... 13
2.1ProblemsoftransferringtreatmenttechnologiestoAntarctica ..................................... 13
2.1.1RequirementsoftheProtocolonEnvironmentalProtectiontotheAntarcticTreaty/
Wastewaterqualitystandards ................................................................................................... 13
2.1.2Geographicalsituation...................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2.1Climaticconditions .................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2.2Remotelocation.......................................................................................................... 16
2.1.2.3Absenceofqualifiedpersonnel ................................................................................... 17
2.1.3Stationfacilities ................................................................................................................ 17
2.1.3.1Powergeneration ....................................................................................................... 17
2.1.3.2Watersupply.............................................................................................................. 18
2.1.4Wastewatercharacteristics ............................................................................................... 18
2.1.5Wastewaterqualitymonitoring........................................................................................ 20
2.2Reviewofusedtechnologies ............................................................................................... 20
Conclusion........................................................................................................................................ 31
References......................................................................................................................................... 32

Acronyms

AEON AntarcticEnvironmentalOfficersNetwork
BOD BiologicalOxidationDemand
COD ChemicalOxidationDemand
COMNAP CouncilofManagersofNationalAntarcticPrograms
MARPOL InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips
MBR MembraneBioreactor
PVC Polyvinylchloride
PVDV Polyvinylidenfluoride
RBC RotatingBiologicalContactor
SCALOP StandingCommitteeonAntarcticLogisticsandOperations
SCAR ScientificCommitteeonAntarcticResearch
SS SuspendedSolids
UV Ultraviolet

Introduction
Human wastes production is a necessary result of research and logistic activity in
Antarctica. Solid and liquid wastes disposal may lead to irreversible changes of the
Antarctic environment. This problem can partly be solved by application of efficient
methodsofwastewatertreatment.
Minimum requirements for sewage treatment and disposal are prescribed in The
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Transferring treatment
technologies to Antarctica is not simple because of quite a number of reasons. The
principles guiding the design of the water disposal systems are firstly, to minimize
environmentalimpact;secondly,tomakerationallayoutforminimizinglandoccupation;
andthirdly,tooperatesafelyandreliablyandmakethesystemeasytomanage.
Thisprojectwillbrieflydiscussmainmethodsofdomesticwastewatertreatmentand
basic principles of sewage disposal for small objects. It also will describe problems of
transferring treatment technologies to Antarctica and review treatment plants that have
beeninstalledatresearchstations.

4

1Basicprinciplesofwastewatertreatmentforsmallobjects
1.1Domesticwastewatercharacteristics
Domestic sewage consists of two main fluxes. The first one is household sewage
(greywater)whichincludeswastewaterfromwashbasins,kitchensinks,baths,showers,
laundrywashingetc.Thesecondoneisfecal(blackwater)fromtoiletsandurinals.Weight
offecesperone adult personmakesabout1,500gper day(that includesabout 1,250gof
urine).Amountofgreywaterdependsonhousingfacilities:from1540litersperdayper
person in premises without central water supply, to 100200 liters per day per person in
premiseswithcentralwatersupplyorindividualwatersupply.Compositionofhousehold
andfecalsewageisverydifferent(table1),andsometimesitisexpedientnottocombineit
in one flux, but treat separately. Domestic sewage contains contaminants of mineral and
organic origin which can be in nonsolute, solute and colloidal state. The major part of
organic contaminants is represented by proteins, fats, carbohydrates and products of its
degradation. Nonorganic contaminants consist of quartz sand, clay, and salt particles
which are formed in the vital processes of the human. The last ones include phosphates,
hydrocarbonates,ammoniumsalts(productofureahydrolysis).Organicsubstancesmake
4558%ofthetotalweightofcontaminantsindomesticsewage[1,2].
Table1Characteristicsofgreyandblackwastewater
Compound Unit Greywater Blackwater
BODtotal mgO2/l 100400 300600
CODtotal mgO2/l 200700 9001500
Totalnitrogen mgN/l 830 100300
Totalphosphorus mgP/l 27 2040
Potassium mgK/l 26 4090
1.2Characteristicsofmainmethodsofdomesticwastewatertreatment
Methods of sewage treatment can be divided into mechanical, physicochemical and
biochemical. Treatment process leads to formation of sludge which undergoes
deactivation, disinfection, dehydration and deliquification. If discharge or reutilization
conditions require higher purification degree, then advanced treatment facilities can be
installedafterthemaintreatmentplant.Aftertreatmentandbeforedischarge,wastewater
is disinfected with a view to destroy pathogenic microorganisms. Usually a combination

5
of mechanical and biological treatment is used for treatment of domestic sewage.
Physicochemicaltreatmentisconsiderablylesscommon.
Mechanical sewage treatment is intended for trapping of nonsolute contaminants.
Mechanicaltreatment facilitiesincludebarscreens(toremovelargewaste),sandcatchers
(to separate mineral contaminants, mostly sand), sedimentation tanks (to remove sinking
and floating contaminants (figure1)) and filters. For treatment of sewage with specific
contaminants, grease catchers, oil separators and resin retainers. Mechanical treatment
facilities reduce concentration of suspended substances for 4060%, which leads to
reductionofBODvaluefor2040%[1,2].

Figure1Sedimentationtanks(St.Petersburg,2006)
Biological sewage treatment methods are based on activity of microorganisms which
mineralize solute organic compounds which serve as a nutrient source for such
microorganisms. Biological treatment plants can be conditionally divided into two types.
The first type includes plants where biological treatment process is carried out in
conditions similar to natural conditions. Plants of the second type provide similar
treatment in artificially created conditions, i.e. in aeration tanks and biofilters. Biological

6
treatment method is the most costeffective method, but it is applied only in certain
conditions.Therearefollowingrestrictions:
wastewater temperature must be above 610C (moreover, at temperature above
10C the biological treatment method is certainly applied. At lower temperatures it is
necessary to perform an engineering and economical comparison with systems of
physicochemicalwastewatertreatment);
longbreaksinwastewaterinflow(aweekormore),becauseittakessometimefor
microorganismstogrowafterabreak(aboutonemonth);
presenceofhightoxiccontaminantsinthewater.
Biological treatment plants provide reduction of BOD contamination values for 80
95%[14].
Physicochemical sewage treatment methods are applied very rarely. Peculiarity of
physicochemical sewage treatment plants is that such plants can be put into operation
very quickly. Treatment plants which apply physicochemical processes can be divided
intoseparatorsanddestructors.Inplantsofthefirsttype,contaminantsareremovedfrom
the water in the form of strong solutions, sludges and sediments. In destructors,
contaminants are destroyed directly in the treated water, and destruction products also
remain in the water; at that, no secondary wastes of wastewater treatment are created.
Residential wastewater treatment plants apply such methods as flotation, coagulation,
sorption, ozonationwhich areused ondifferentstages of watertreatment.Expediency of
application of those methods on treatment plants must be justified by technical and
economicassessment[1,2,58].
Flotation is one of the kinds of adsorptive bubble separation which principle is to
create floating agglomerates (flotation complexes) of contaminants with dispersed gas
phase and its following separation in the form of concentrated froth product (flotation
sludge).Flotationisusedforcleaningofwaterfromlightparticulatepollutants,mostlyof
organic origin, and also from solute surfactants. Flotation plants are used instead of
sedimentation tanks or clarification tanks with suspended sediment; flotation plants can
alsosubstitutemicrofilters.Alongwithremovalofmechanicalimpuritiesaswellassolute

7
and colloidal contaminants, flotation treatment methods provide reduction of BOD and
CODvalues,andremovalofvolatilecomponents.Effectivenessofflotationprocessvaries
widely:from20to99%[1,2,59].
Coagulationprocessofwatertreatmentwithcoagulantssaltsofpolyvalentmetals.
Coagulation is understood as physicochemical agglomeration of finest colloidal and
dispersed particles under the influence of molecular attraction forces. 5060% of
residential sewage consist of contaminants which can be classified as colloidal due to its
physicochemical properties; such contaminants do not sediment and cannot be trapped
withregularfilters.Coagulationprovidesthefollowingtreatmentefficiency:COD78%,
BOD91.3%,suspendedsubstances98.8%[1,2,58].
Sorption equilibrium dynamic process of substance absorption from environment
byasolid,liquidorgas.Themajormethodusedinsewagetreatmentisabsorptionprocess
(substance absorption by the surface of a solid sorbent. Sorption methods are mostly
effectiveforadvancedcleaningofsewagefromsoluteorganicsubstances[1,2,58].
Ozonation is a universal method for effective purification of sewage from different
kindsofcontaminants.Duetohighoxidizingcapacity,ozoneisusedbothfordisinfection
and destruction of hard oxidable organic (for example, surfactants) and nonorganic
compounds.Anadditionaleffectofwaterozonationisitsenrichmentwithsoluteoxygen.
Besides, application of ozonation as a destructive method does not lead to increase of
salinity, and contaminates water with reaction products to a small extent; the whole
processcanbeeasilyoperatedautomatically[1,2,58].
Advanced cleaning of sewage from suspended substances requires application of
differentfilters(filtrationofsewagereducescontentofsuspendedsubstancesfor5080%).
Advanced cleaning from solute organic substances is made with the help of sorption,
biosorption, ozonation and other plants. Advanced cleaning from nitrogen and
phosphoruscompoundscanbemadebyphysicochemicalandbiologicalmethods[1,2,5
8].
Disinfectionofsewageisthefinalstageoftreatmentbeforedischarge.Thepurposeof
disinfectionisdestructionofpathogenicmicroorganismsexistinginwastewater.

8
The most common disinfection method is to treat water with chlorine (gaseous or
liquid)orsodiumhypochlorite,obtainedthroughelectrolysisofsaltbrine.Activechlorine
takesgermicidaleffect.Chlorinetreatmenthasanumberofdisadvantages:
chlorineisapotenttoxicsubstance;
precise chlorine dosage is necessary (underdose of chlorine result in absence of
thenecessarygermicidaleffect;overdoseofchlorinehasanegativeeffectonhumanhealth
(iftreatedwaterisusedfordrinking));
chlorine must be thoroughly mixed with water; chlorine and water must be in
contactforasufficient(30minutesminimum)amountoftime;
itisnecessarytostoremassivesuppliesofchlorineintreatmentplants.
Therefore, application of chlorine requires special safety measures and precise
adherencetotheoperatingprocedure[1,2,10,11].
Wastewater can be disinfected by ozone. Ozonation kills bacteria a thousand times
fasterthanchlorinetreatment.Ozonationalsohasanumberofdisadvantages:
ozonetoxicitymakesitnecessarytopreventpenetrationofozoneinpremises;
complexprocessofozonepreparation(atmosphericairmustbededustedanddry;
ozonationplantsareenergyconsumingandrequiresefficientmaintenance);
necessity to provide special equipment forintroduction of ozoneand the required
timeforcontactbetweenozoneandwater[1,2,10,11].
Waterborne bacteria can be destroyed by means of ultraviolet light treatment. This
process is carried out in special facilities, where relatively thin layer of water passes
sources of UVlight (quartzmercury or argonmercury lamps). Disadvantages of such
disinfectionmethodare:
dangerofcontaminationbymercuryusedinsuchlamps;
specialrequirementsfortreatedwater(itmustbetransparentandcharacterizedby
maximumpermeabilityforUVlight)[1,2].
Ultravioletlightdisinfectionhasthefollowingadvantages:
UVtreatedwaterdoesnotshowtoxicandmutageniccompounds;

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no adverse effects in case of overtreatment, which considerably simplifies process
controlprocedures;
disinfection time makes 110 second in continuous flow mode (no necessity to
buildcontacttanks);
UVlight disinfection plants has low operation costs in comparison with
chlorinationandozonation(thereasoniscomparativelylowelectricpowerconsumption:
35timeslessthanozonation)[1,2,1012].
Apart from the listed disinfection methods, in the present time the following
disinfection methods are being studied: disinfection in magnetic field and disinfection with
electrochemicalactivationofwater[11,13].
Treatmentofsludgesofdifferenttypeswhichareformedintheprocessofmechanical,
biologicalandphysicochemicaltreatmentofwastewaterandcontainorganicandmineral
componentsiscarriedoutwithaviewtoobtainanendproductcharacterizedbyminimal
damagetoenvironmentorsuitableforindustrialutilization.Thisgoalcanbeachievedby
implementation of the three major processes in different sequence: dehydration,
stabilization,disinfection.Dependingonconditionsofgenerationandseparation,sludges
can be divided into the following types: primary sludges (coarse sludges; heavy sludges;
floating sludges; raw sludges which have been separated from wastewater as a result of
mechanical treatment), and secondary sludges (raw sludges which have been separated
fromwastewaterasaresultofbiologicalorphysicochemicaltreatment;digestedsludges,
compacted sludges with humidity 9085%, dehydrated sludges with humidity 8040%,
dry sludges with humidity 540%). Heavy sludges are removed by sand catchers. Its
composition includes sand and fragments of some minerals. For the purposes of design
calculations,theamountofremovedheavycontaminantsisacceptedas0.02l(3g)forone
person per day at humidity 60% and bulk weight 1.5t/m
3
. Amount of floating sludges
removed by grease catchers or floating up in sedimentation tanks, makes 2l at humidity
60% and bulk weight 0.6t/m
3
for one person per year in domestic sewage systems. Raw
sludges from primary sedimentation tanks are characterized by considerable non
homogeneity and represent suspended sedimentation of grey or lightbrown color with

10
sour smell. It quickly decays due to great amount of organic substances (about 70%).
Averagehumidityofrawsludgemakes9395%.Amountofrawsludgeforonepersonper
day is 2540g (0.50.8l). Activated sludge represents suspended sedimentation which
contains amorphous flakes, including microorganisms and protozoa with wastewater
borne contaminants adsorbed on their surface. Raw sludge quickly decays in the process
ofstorageandcompaction.Averagehumidityofcompactedexcesssludgemakes9798%;
itsquantity2032g(0.70.11l)foronepersonperday.Contentoforganicsubstancesis
about 75%. Sludge can be characterized by high bacterial density (by one order higher
thanthatofwastewater)[2,14,15].
1.3Designingoftreatmentfacilitiesforindividualsewagedisposalsystems
Choice of wastewater treatment methods and configuration of treatment plants
depends on many factors and presents a complex engineering and economical problem.
Configuration of a treatment plant should be chosen depending on properties and
quantity of influent wastewater, required degree of purification, method of sludge
treatmentandlocalconditions.
Estimationofrequiredpurificationdegreeshowsthenecessaryeffectforreductionof
contaminantsonatreatmentplant.
Treatment plants with capacity not exceeding 25m
3
per day can be classified as
individualtreatmentplants.Suchplantsaredesignedfortreatmentofwastewatercoming
fromdetachedhousesoragroupofbuildings.Normally,facilitiesdesignedfordisposalof
small amounts of wastewater can be characterized by high remoteness from well
developed transportation lines, weak construction base, high construction costs and
absence of skilled regular staff. Besides, difficulties in designing and construction of
treatmentfacilitiesforindividualsewagedisposalsystemsarealsoconnectedwiththefact
that here we deal with small amounts of wastewater which can be characterized by
irregular inflow and instability of contaminants concentration. These factors drastically
reduce operating efficiency of treatment facilities and demand increase of capacity of
treatmentfacilitiesonthedesignstage[1,1619].

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Costefficient treatment of small amounts of wastewater calls for application of
compacttreatmentfacilities.Suchfacilitiesshouldbeinstalledonoperationsiteasofone
pieceorofseparatebocksdeliveredbyauto,railorwatertransport.
Compact factorymade plants can be divided into the following types according to
technological process: treatment facilities with activated sludge; treatment facilities with
biofilm;combinedtreatmentfacilitieswithactivatedsludgeandbiofilm;physicochemical
treatment facilities. For treatment of wastewater from settlements with temporary
residence of staff and for other objects with periodical presence of people it is
recommendedtousephysicochemicaltreatment.
At the present time the industry produces a number of different types of modular
treatmentplantsforindividualsewagedisposalsystems.Insomecasesitispossibletouse
shipsewagetreatmentplants(figure2).

Figure2UNEXBIOsewagetreatmentplant(RaumaRepola,Finland)
installedonboardr/vAkademikFedorov

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2WastewatertreatmentinAntarctica
2.1ProblemsoftransferringtreatmenttechnologiestoAntarctica
2.1.1Requirements of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic
Treaty/Wastewaterqualitystandards
In accordance with Article1 of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the
Antarctic Treaty waste storage, disposal and removal from the Antarctic Treaty area, as
well as recycling and source reduction, shall be essential considerations in the planning
andconductofactivitiesintheAntarcticTreatyarea.
TheProtocolrequirementsforwaste(wastewater)disposalareasfallows:
sewage and domestic liquid wastes, shall, to the maximum extent practicable, be
removedfromtheAntarcticTreatyareabythegeneratorofsuchwastes(Article2);
wastes not removed or disposed of shall not be disposed of onto icefree areas or
intofreshwatersystems(Article4);
sewage, domestic liquid wastes and other liquid wastes not removed from the
Antarctic Treaty area in accordance with Article 2, shall, to the maximum extent
practicable,notbedisposedofontoseaice,iceshelvesorthegroundedicesheet,provided
that such wastes which are generated by stations located inland on ice shelves or on the
grounded icesheet may be disposed of in deep ice pits where such disposal is the only
practicableoption;suchpitsshallnotbelocatedonknowniceflowlineswhichterminate
aticefreeareasorinareasofhighablation(Article4);
sewageanddomesticliquidwastesmaybedischargeddirectlyintothesea,taking
into account the assimilative capacity of the receiving marine environment and provided
that:
(a)suchdischargeis located,wherever practicable,whereconditions existfor initial
dilutionandrapiddispersal;and
(b)largequantitiesofsuchwastes(generatedinastationwheretheaverageweekly
occupancyovertheaustralsummerisapproximately30individualsormore)shallbe
treatedatleastbymaceration;

13
the byproduct of sewage treatment by the Rotary Biological Contactor process or
similar processes may be disposed of into the sea provided that such disposal does not
adversely affect the local environment, and provided also that any such disposal at sea
shallbeinaccordancewithAnnexIVtotheProtocol(Article5)[20].
AtthesametimetheProtocoldoesnotmakespecificdemandsontreatedwastewater
quality.Forthereasonthatitisdifficulttodefineaprecisestandardofeffluentthatwould
beacceptablefordischargetotheAntarcticenvironmentitbecomesnecessarytoconsider
nominalstandardsforawastewatertreatmentplanttoachieve.Ontheotherhandtreated
watermightalsobeincompliancewithnationalorinternationalstandards(itisclearthat
while disposal system meets the requirements of the Protocol it may not comply with
national standards). It is obvious that there are significant differences between countries
(table2).
Table2Nominaldesignedwastewaterqualitystandards[2128]
Designedeffluentquality
Country
COD,mg/l BOD5,mg/l SS,mg/l Fecalcolonbacillus,cfu/100ml
China(ZhongShan) 20 5 0 3
China(DomeA) 4 3 2
Germany 50 100 200
India <20 <20 <200
Korea <50 <50 <250
NewZealand <30 <30 <200
Norway <30 <20
USA 30 30 200
2.1.2Geographicalsituation
2.1.2.1Climaticconditions
Climatic conditions in Antarctica are extreme. Severe low temperatures vary with
latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean: East Antarctica is colder than West
Antarctica because of its higher elevation, Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate
climate;highertemperaturesoccurinJanuaryalongthecoastandaverageslightlybelow
freezing(table3).Heavywinds(highestrecordedwindvelocity327km/h)andblizzards
arenotinfrequentandcandevelopveryquickly.

14

Table3MeantemperaturesindifferentareasofAntarctica
1
Area Meansummertemperatures,C Meanwintertemperatures,C
Coast 0 1829
Plateau 40 68
AntarcticPeninsula 9
Inconsiderationofweatherconditionstreatmentplantsaretobeenclosedinheated
buildingsdesignedtoprotectequipmentandwastewaterflowfromfreezingtemperatures
(figure3).

Figure3WastewatertreatmentplantbuildingatMcMurdostation(2008)
Freezing of pipes connecting plant components can be a serious problem. As a rule
wastewater pipelines need to be heated (figure4). It also means that treated effluent
dischargeisusuallybestdoneintermittentlysoastominimisethechanceofoutfallpipes
freezingup.Thisinturnimpliesthatplantsneedtoincludeabuffertankinwhichtreated
effluentcanbestoreduntilthenextdischarge.

1
SCARofficialwebsite(http://www.scar.org)

15

Figure4HeatedwastewaterpipelineatProgressstation(2006)
Extremeconditionstogetherwithprolongedperiodofdarknessduringwintermean
that there are just several weeks in summer when conditions are good for outdoor
construction work. This time is needed for shipping of plant components to the selected
site,installation,andconnectionofpipesandutilities.
2.1.2.2Remotelocation
RemotelocationofAntarcticstationmakestransportationandconstructionofplants
(especially in aggregate, but in some cases (for large plants) aggregate is needed) very
expensive and inconvenient. For convenience of transport and handling, and to protect
plant components during the rough weather characteristic of the southern ocean, it is
preferably to build plants inside containers (for instance New Zealanders opted to
construct wastewater treatment plants for Scott Base within ISO20 containers; plants for
Novolazarevskaya station were also placed in containers (figure5)). Modular,
prefabricatedplantsthatcanbeeasilydisassembledforshippingandreadilyreassembled
on site are therefore virtually a necessity. Such plants can also be commissioned and
modifiedpriorto shipping, furtheralleviatingdemands on thelimited staff available on
siteatresearchstations.Compactnessisnecessaryifplantsaretofitintocontainers.

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Theremotenessandisolationofplantsmeansthatsparepartsmaybeunavailablefor
long periods and therefore plants must incorporate a high level of redundancy for all
itemsofequipmentnotreadilyrepairableonsite.

Figure5WastewatertreatmentplantsatNovolazarevskayastation(2008)
2.1.2.3Absenceofqualifiedpersonnel
Absence of qualified personnel must also be considered. Particularly during winter,
plant operation is usually handled by staff who usually has numerous other
responsibilitiesandlacksadetailedunderstandingofwastewatertreatmentfundamentals
(for example the stations doctor monitored treatment process at Chilean Frei station
during2001season[29]).Thisimpliesthatahighlyautomatedcontrolsystemisdesirable,
yet it must still be possible to run the plant on manual control in the event of a control
systembreakdown.
2.1.3Stationfacilities
2.1.3.1Powergeneration
Alternative energy systems (solar energy or wind generators) seem to be useful in
conditions ofAntarctica. However, power isgenerally providedbydieselgeneratorsand
energy is expensive in Antarctica, being derived from hydrocarbon fuels shipped in at

17
highcostandstoredinheatedstoragetanks.Thereforewastewatertreatmentplantsneed
tohavelowenergyconsumption.
2.1.3.2Watersupply
Water supply in the majority of cases s is provided by melting of snow (waste heat
from diesel generators can be used to melt snow). Water supply systems may also be
based on pumping fresh water from aqueous deposits below ice or lakes. Desalting of
seawaterisanotherwayoffreshwaterproduction.
There are substantial differences in the consumption of water among stations. The
average daily fresh water consumption ranges from 25 to 200litres per person. This is at
least partly explained by differences in the sanitation and washing facilities among
stations. Stations may have lower water consumption if vacuum freeofflushing or
incineratortoiletsareinstalled.Waterproductionmayalsobesupplementedbyrecycling
ofgreywater.
2.1.4Wastewatercharacteristics
Theamountofwastewateristheresultofwaterconsumption.Percapitawastewater
outputissimilartospecificfreshwaterconsumption.
Quantity of sewage in the first place depends on the stations staff number and it
shouldbenotedthatthenumberofpeopleoverwinteringonbasescanbeasfewas10%of
thepeak number presentduringthesummerresupplyperiod (figure6).So, a keydesign
considerationatallplantsisthemarkedseasonalvariationinhydraulicloadingrates.
Most people at bases have similar work schedules so diurnal load fluctuations are
pronouncedandhavetobeallowedfor.Anotheraspectofimportanceisthatnumberson
stations tend to alter stepwise,forexamplewhentheresupplyvessel arrives. Thismeans
thatplantshavetobeabletoadjustrapidlytotheloadchanges.Thisproblemisthemost
acuteforseasonalstations.
There are quite limited data for wastewater composition at Antarctic bases, but it is
recognised that content of organic contaminants tends to be high (table4). This can be
attributed to the fact that people working in Antarctica are well fed and have a high
calorificvaluefoodinputrichinfats;thereisalsoapredominanceofmales,whoproduce

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morewastesthanfemales.Itisalsopossiblethatthehigherorganiccontaminantscontent
atresearchstationsmightbecausedbyamoreconcentratedwastestream.Inaddition to
human waste, municipal wastewater in a typical city also contains grey water from
washing activities and in some cases wastewater may also be diluted with ground water
infiltrating into sewer lines. The addition of grey water and in some cases infiltrating
groundwatertothewastecomingfromhumancontributionwouldresultinalowerBOD
levelmeasuredintheinfluentatawastewatertreatmentfacility.Itwouldbeexpectedthat
the wastewater stream in most research stations in Antarctica is concentrated with little
dilutionfromwashwatersincewateruseisrestricted[24,2731].

Figure 6 Seasonal variations in wastewater amount and station staff number
(McMurdo station, USA)
Table4Untreatedwastewateranalysisdata
Compound
Country
COD,mg/l BOD5,mg/l SS,mg/l Nammonium,mg/l
McMurdo 159382 43187
Molodezhnaya 12002300 3500
ScottBase 700 700
Wasa 5800 3800 1100 2,3
Nominalinputlevelsusedindesigningtreatmentfacilitiesdifferbetweenstationsas
well(table5).

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Table5Designedwastewaterinputlevels[21,22,32]
Designinputlevels
Country
COD,mg/l BOD5,mg/l SS,mg/l Nammonium,mg/l
CzechRepublic 300 400 367
China(ZhongShan) 450 250 200 25
China(DomeA) 80120 3050 4060 5
Anadditionalcomplicationatcoastalstationsusingseawaterfortoiletflushingisthe
highsaltcontentofthewastewater(atScottbaseupto28%ofthesewageisseawater[24]).
2.1.5Wastewaterqualitymonitoring
Wastewater quality monitoring is necessary to ensure the normal functioning of
treatment facilities. According to COMNAP/SCAR recommendations wastewater quality
is the one of parameters that should be included in environmental monitoring
programmes[33].
Permanent monitoring of influent and effluent quality is unrealizable in most cases
in the absence of qualified personnel or required facilities. Many countries carry out
occasionalmonitoring.
2.2Reviewofusedtechnologies
Thereareabout60permanentandseasonalstationsintheAntarcticTreatyareawith
populationfrom10to1000persons(figure7).

Figure 7 Year-round / seasonal stations ratio (2009)
Review of wastewater disposal methods and used sewage treatment technologies are listed
below (table 6).

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Table6SewagetreatmenttechnologiesusedatAntarcticstations
Name&statusof
station
Country
Methodof
treatment
Descriptionofusedtechnology
Aboa

Filnland

Biological
Greywaterfromwashingmachine,kitchen,dishwasherandshower
istreatedinbiologicalwastewatertreatmentplant.Urineiscollected
tobarrelsandbroughtawayfromAntarctica.Thereisnoblackwater
atthebase [31].
AmundsenScott

USA

Notreatment
Sewageisdisposeduntreatedintodeepicepits[31].
Arctowski

Poland

Mechanical
Therearetwosewagetreatmentfacilitiesatthestation.Thefacility
atthemainbuildingislimitedprimarilytotreatingnonsolidwaste.
Greywaterfromthisfacilityisfiltered,heatedandbioenzyme
treated.Theliquidisthendischargedviathebeachsandandgravel
tothebay.Oneoftheoutbuildingshousedthemaintoiletfacilities,
showersandlaundry.Sewageandgreywaterfromthisbuilding
enteredaburiedseptictank.Theliquidwasdischargedviaaleach
fieldthroughthesandandgravelbeachtothebaywithout
monitoring.Thesolidsareperiodicallyremovedfromtheseptictank
andshippedtoPoland [29].
Artigas

Uruguay

Mechanical
Thewastewaterisdischargedtosepticchambersfortreatment,and
afterwardsstoredin200ldrumsforremovalfromAntarctica.The
sewagetreatmentisrunningthewholeyear[29,31].
ArturoPrat

Chile

Noinformation
Belgrano

Argentina

Mechanical
Greywaterisrecycledforuseintoilettes;blackwateristreatedin
septictank.Effluentandsludgereleasedontoice[31].
Bellingshausen

Russia

Biological+
UVsterilisation
ThewastewatertreatmentplantEOS15wasusedatthestation.A
newbiologicalplantAstra20andaUVsteriliserforthestation
areunderconstruction(in2009/2010season).
Casey

Australia

Mechanical+
Biological+
UVsterilisation
TheplantusedatCaseyisaRotatingBiologicalContactortype
whichishousedinaheatedbuildingtoprovidetheenvironment
necessaryfortheplanttofunctioneffectively.Thedesignflow
capacityoftheRBCsystemsis5,000l/daywithamaximumflow
rateof6,000l/day.
Thesewageisfirstcollectedinastoragetankwhereitisretainedfor
aperiodofapproximately24hourstoallowsettlementanddigestion
totakeplace.ThesettledwastethenflowsthroughaBiorotorunit
comprisingpolypropylenediscbankswhicharepartiallyimmersedin
theeffluent.Thediscsareslowlyrotatedthroughtheairandwaste
wateralternately,causingabiccnasstograduallyformonthedisc
surfaceswhichassimilatenutrientsfromthewastewaterandoxygen
fromtheair.Thisprocessresultsinastagedreductionoftheorganic
impuritiesinthewastewaterasittravelspasteachdisc.During
1999/2000summeraUVsteriliserwasinstalledatCaseytosterilise
theeffluentbeforedischargeintothesea.Theeffluentismonitoredon
aregularbasisbythestationdoctortoensurethatitiswithinthe
standardssetbyAustralianauthorities.Sedimentfromthewaste
treatmentplantsisremovedduringregularmaintenanceandstored
in200ldrums[35].
ComandanteFerraz

Brazil

Mechanical+
Biological
Thesewagetreatmentplanthasbeeninoperationsincetheaustral
summerof1995/96andisdesignedtoserveapopulationof50.
Theblackwater,afteraprimarytreatment,isdirectedtoanaerobic
filters,whereitundergoesasecondarytreatment.Attheanaerobic
filtersthewaterispurifiedagain,andthenitpassesthrough
filtrationdrains.Thetreatmentsystemforgreywatercollects
wastewaterfromshowersanddirectsthemtoaboxthatretainssolid
materials.Fromthisbox,thegreywaterpassesthroughanaerobic
filtersandfiltrationdrainsthatarenotconnectedtotheblackwater
system.Theblackandgreywatersfinaleffluentispipedtothelow
tidelineonbeach.Thesystemhasfoursepticcesspools,two
anaerobicfilters,twogreaseboxesandtwointerceptingboxes.To
avoidthesystemandcesspoolfreezing,athermalgirdlewasinstalled
alongthesystemandthesepticcesspool[36].

21
Concordia

France

Italy

Physicochemical
Thestudyandthedevelopmentofwatertreatmentsystemsfor
ConcordiahavebeenplacedundertheleadershipoftheEuropean
SpaceAgency.Allwastewaterstreams,includinggreywaterfrom
washing,andblackwaterconsistingoforganicwaste(foodscraps
fromthekitchenandrefectory)andexcrements,arecollectedbytwo
respectivenetworksundervacuumandtransferredtotwotreatment
systems.Greywaterundergoesa4steptreatmentprocess
ultrafiltration,nanofiltrationandtwostagesofreverseosmosis;black
wateristreatedbyananaerobicfermentationunit.
Inordertominimizewasteproduction,thesludgefromthegrey
waterunitisretreatedbytheblackwatersystemandthewater
producedfromtheblackwatersystemistakenupbythegreywater
treatmentunit.Thesludgeissuingfromtheblackwaterfermenteur,
isfrozenandshippedbacktothecoasttobedriedandincinerated
[37].
Davis

Australia

Mechanical+
Biological
Allhumanwasteandwastewaterfromthenewstationcomplex
passesthroughtheWasteTreatmentBuilding,whereitreceives
primaryandsecondarytreatmentinatwostagerotatingbiological
contactor(RBC)beforedischargeoftheeffluentthroughanoutfall
intothesea[35,38].
DomeA

China

Physicochemical
Upontheconsiderationofsmallamountofwaterconsumption,
environmentalprotection,easymanagementandsimplificationof
treatmentfacilities,anegativepressurefreeofflushingsystemwill
beusedinthetoilettoreducethecapacityofblackwater.Thehuman
excrements(includingnightsoilandurine)willbepacked
automaticallyandshippedbacktoZhongShanStationfortreatment.
Thelowercontaminatedwastewaterthroughsuperfiltrationcanbe
turnedasintermediatewaterforcleaning,andthenthroughfurther
treatmentbyareverseosmosissystem,thetreatedwaterwillbe
recycledforsimplecleaningofclothesinthestation.Theresidual
waterafterfiltrationisroughlyabout70l/daywillbedischargedinto
theicepits.
TheDomeAStationwillbuildanintegratedcontainertypeof
sewagetreatmentsystem.Thesystemmainlyconsistsofsewage
tank,reactortank,outtankpumpvalveandfilters.Withoutspecial
attendee,itwilloperatecontinuouslyorintermittentlythenstopsat
night.Onepersonmightbeappointedtomakeroutineinspectionand
maintenance.Residualblackwatercomesfromsuperfilteringunit
andreverseosmosisunitwillflowintoacombinedrector,there
waterwillprecipitateandflocculateunderthefunctionofachemical,
theupperclearwaterinthiscombinedreactorwillflowbacktolow
pollutantwatertank.Thefilteringcorewillbechangedwhenthe
effectivenessdrops[22].
DomeFuji

Japan

Notreatment
Druzhnaya4

Russia

Notreatment
DumontdUrville

France

Notreatment
UntreatedsewagehasbeenreleasedfromDumontdUrville
permanentstationintoSouthernOceanformorethan40years.The
outfalldischargedthesewagedirectlyatthebaseofadeepshelfcliff
atapproximately50moftheseashore.Inwintertimethefrozen
sewageaccumulatedbetweentheoutfallandthelandfastice[39].
Escudero

Chile

Mechanical+
Biological+
Chlorine
sterilisation
Domesticsewagefromeachbuildingismacerated,thenpassed
throughananaerobicchamberandasettlementchamber.The
remainingliquidisfirstchlorinatedandthendechlorinatedbefore
beingpipedtothesea.ThesolidsarereturnedtoChile[40].
Esperanza

Argentina

Biological+
Chlorine
sterilisation
Thebaseoperatesabiologicalbasedsewagetreatmentplant.The
plantisinoperationonMondays,Wednesday,Fridayand
Saturdays.Theeffluentwateristreatedwithchlorinebeforebeing
dischargedintothemarineenvironment.Everythreemonths,the
sewagesludgeisremovedandplacedindrumsforstorageuntilitis
removedfromtheAntarcticTreatyArea.Onaverage,threedrumsof
sludgeareproducedeverythreemonths[31,41,42].

22
Frei

Chile

Mechanical+
Biological+
Chlorine
sterilisation
Sewageandgreywateraretreatedinatwochamberedanaerobic
digestionsewagetreatmentplant.Thetreatedeffluentischlorinated
andthendechlorinatedpriortoitsdischargeintothesea.Thesludge
iscleanedoutonceayear,placedinametalorplasticdrumand
takenfordisposalinChile [29,40].
GabrieldeCastilla

Spain

Mechanical
Thesewageistreatedinaseptictankburiedat0.5m,ithastwo
chambers,thefirst,wherethesewagegoesdirectlyfromthestation,
isforsedimentation,digestionandtostoremud,ithasafoambaffle
andatthetopatubtoremovethegasoutside.Fromthesecond
chamber,tosedimentationoftheadditionalmud,goesanexittub
thatpoursthetreatedwatertoland.Each23yearsthetankmustbe
openedtoextractthemud.[40,41,]
GreatWall

China

Biological
Thestationssewageandgreywaterareprocessedthrougha
biologicaltreatmentplant.Sludgefromthetreatmentplantis
incineratedandthewaterisdischargeduntreatedintothetidalbasin
[21,43].
Halley

UK

Mechanical/
Biological
AtHalleyVgreywateristreatedbymaceration.Duringthe2005/06
seasonatthestationafurther850m
3
ofgreywaterwasdischargedto
adeepicepit.
AtHalleyVI,aMicrobacbioreactorsewagetreatmentplantwillbe
usedforthemainplatform.Thebiologicalsewageplantwillprovide
anexcellentgrowthenvironmentforbacteria,asthetankisfitted
witharigidPVCmatrixwithaninternalsurfacearea150times
largerthananytraditionalactivesludgeplantortank.Thetankwill
introducesomemodifiedbacteriathatwillreducetheamountof
sludgeproduced.Desludgingthetankwillberequiredonlyoncea
year.Treatedwastewaterwillbedischargedtotheice.Treatedsludge
willbeincineratedandashwillberemovedfromAntarctica[44,45].
JohannGregor
Mendel

Czech
Republic

Mechanical
Thewastewaterisonlysewagewaterfromthehygienicfacilitiesand
fromfoodpreparation.Therefore,itiscommonmunicipalwaste
water.Theprocessofmacerationwasrejectedbecausethestationhas
aseasonalcharacterandasmallerpersonnelthanthestatedmaterial
presumes.Theamountofliquidwasteswouldbesignificantlylower.
Theliquidwasteswouldbedischargeddirectlyintothesea[32].
JuanCarlosI

Spain

Biological+
Physicochemical
TheworkingprincipleofthesewagesystemusedontheSpanish
AntarcticstationJuanCarlosIisthebiologicaldigestionofthe
organicmatterrealizedbythebacteriaalreadyfoundintheresidual
water.
Attheendoftheseason1999/2000,thesystemconsisted,forall
wastewaters,oftwoconsecutiveseptictanksandanactivecarbon
filter.Thefirsttankisseparatedinthreedigestionandsedimentation
chambers.Leavingthefirsttank,theeffluentsaredirectedtothe
secondonethatconsistsoftwodigestionchambersandafterthattoa
thirdone,equippedwithabiologicalfilter.Finally,beforebeing
dischargedtothesea,thewaterpassesanactivecarbonfilterthat
reducessignificantlytheemissionoforganicmatterintheeffluent.
Duringthelonghistoryofthestationthesewagesystemhadtostand
someanomalies.Theincreasingnumberofthestationscrew
membersduringthelastfewseasonsproducedaraisingamountof
wastewaters,whichresultedinaninsufficientbacteriadigestionof
theorganicmatter.Becausethestationisonlyoccupiedduringthe
australsummerthebiologicalprocessesaredecreasedatthe
beginningoftheseasonbythemonthsofinactivity,makingit
difficulttostartthebiologicaldigestion.
Aseriesofimprovementsinthesewagesystemhavebeenintroduced
destinednotonlytoimproveitsperformancebutalsotoreducethe
timenecessaryforthebacterialactivation.
Theobtainedmeasurementsshowtheevolutionofthesystemforthe
lastsixcampaignswhichclearlydemonstratesthereductionofthe
totalsuspendedsolids(90%),theCOD(80%)andthenutrients(e.g.
nitrates93%)inthewastewaterdischargedtothesea[29,41,46].
Jubany

Argentina

Biological+
UVsterilisation
Greyandblackwatersaretreatedinbiologicaltreatmentplant;
effluentistreatedwithultravioletsterilizationbeforereleaseintothe
sea.SludgeisdehydratedandthenremovedfromAntarctica.The
sewagetreatmentplantisanAQUAMARSystem(Germany)[28,
29].

23
KingSejong

Korea

Biological+
Physicochemical
ThestationisequippedwithUNEXSimultan40sewagetreatment
system(RaumaRepola).Volumeofwastewaterisnomorethan
10m
3
perday.Typeoftreatment:aeration,settlingdown,chemical
&biological(38%FeCl3,10%NaOCl).Treatedwaterisdischarged
intopebblezoneintidalarea.Thesludgeisshippedoutof
Antarctica.Seawaterandbenthicenvironmentareannually
monitoredaroundthesewagetrap[47].
Kohnen

Germany

Notreatment
LawRacovita

Australia

Romania

Notreatment
Leningradskaya

Russia

Notreatment
MacchuPicchu

Peru

Notreatment
AllwastesareremovedoffsitetheareaoftheAntarcticTreaty[48]
Maitri

India

Mechanical+
Biological
Thestationisequippedwithincineratortoiletfacilities.Twomodules
(fourtoilets)arelocatedinthesummerstationarea,andfivesingle
modulesarelocatedinthemainstationbuilding.Theincineration
temperatureis600C.Solidhumanwasteisincineratedonceaday.
TheashesarecollectedindrumsandtransportedoutoftheAntarctic
Treatyareaonceayear.
Thegreywaterisfedintoarotationalbiologicalcontractor.The
treatmentinvolvesthreestages:aprimarysettlingbasin,followedby
abiodigesterandafinalsettlementbasin.Thesettledwastematerial
isincinerated.Thetreatedeffluentistemporarilystoredinapond
closetothestationbuilding.Thetreatedeffluentissporadically
pumpedfromthesettlingpondintoatankandsubsequently
dischargedintoanicefreeareaapproximately1kmfromthestation.
Thereisnoregularanalysisofthetreatedeffluentduringwinter
(althoughitisanalysedduringthesummerseasonbythe
environmentalteam)andnomonitoringofpotentialimpactsis
conductedatthedischargepoint[49].
Maldonado

Ecuador

Noinformation.
Marambio

Argentina

Mechanical+
Biological+
Chlorine
sterilisation
Sewageanddomesticliquidwasteistreatedinamultistagesewage
treatmentplant.Thisissitedadjacenttothemaincomplex.The
plantmaceratesandsettlesoutsolids,thenaeratesandchlorinates
theeffluentbeforeitisdischargedjustovertheedgeoftheplateau
ontoicefreeground.Solidresidueisdrummedandremovedfromthe
TreatyArea[41].
MarioZucchelli

Italy

Biological+
Physicochemical
Asewagetreatmentplantofthebiologicaltypewasinstalledat
MarioZucchelli(TerraNova)stationduringtheconstructionofthe
baseinthe1986/87season.Theplantwasdesignedfor4050people.
Thebodyofwaterwherethetreatedeffluentisdischargedhasbeen
underconstantmonitoringfromthethirdcampaignonwards:the
firstmonitoringwasthatfortheBODbiochemicaloxygendemand,
laterbroadenedtoincludeBOD,COD,nitrites,surfactants,oils,etc.
Themonitoringwasusedtoverifytheeffectivenessofthetreatment
andtoadjusttheprocess.Attheendoftheeightiesitwasclearthat
theplantwasbecominginsufficientfortheincreasingloadduetothe
enlargementoftheprogrammeandthelargernumberofpeople.A
newplantwasaddedinparallelwiththeold.Thenewplantisofa
physicochemicaltypeandafterafewyearsitwasconnectedinseries
withtheoldone.In1995/98acompletelynewplantwasinstalled.
TheexperiencewithsewagetreatmentatTerraNovaStationhas
beenpositive.Pollutioninthereceivingbodyofwaterislow,iskept
underconstantsurveillanceandtheplantisadjustedtotheneedsin
asimpleway.Thesludgeresultingfromthetreatmentisretrograded
toItaly[5052].

24
Mawson

Australia

Biological
RotatingBiologicalContactor(RBC)sewagetreatmentplanthas
beeninstalledandcommissionedatMawsonstation[35].
McMurdo

USA

Mechanical+
Biological+
Disinfection
Priorto2002,wastewatergeneratedfromMcMurdowasonly
treatedwithmacerationpriortodirectdischargeintheRossSea.The
UnitedStatesAntarcticProgrambeganprocessingwastewater
producedfromMcMurdoStationin2003.TheWastewater
TreatmentPlantusesconventionalmethodsofsolidsremoval
(clarification)andmicrobialdigestion.Thesystemiscapableof
treating495,900litresperdayofdomesticwastewater.Thefour
majortreatmentcomponentsareananoxiczone,anaerobiczone,
clarification,anddisinfection.Thesefourcomponentscomprisea
singletreatmenttrainattheplant.
Wastewaterissuppliedtotheplantfromthestationbygravityfeed
andispumpedfromlowerlayingareasbytwoliftstations.Thereare
twobyproductsoftreatment.Clearanddisinfectedeffluentreleased
toMcMurdoSoundandsettled,dewateredsludgeispackagedand
removedfromthecontinent [27,5357].
Mirny

Russia

Notreatment
Untreatedwastewaterisdischargedintothesea.
Molodezhnaya

Russia

Physicochemical/
Notreatment
ThewastewatertreatmentplantEOS15wasmountedandstarted
upatMolodezhnayabasein1988.EOS15conductedthe
electrochemicaltreatmentofsewagewaterbymeansofelectrolysisof
liquidmassesrunningtroughthespecialelectrodesaftermechanical
treatment.Asaresultofcommissioningtheoptimaloperational
regimeEOS15waschosentoprovideforthemaintenanceoftreated
sewageparametersinaccordancewiththeInternationalConvention
forthePreventionofMarinePollutionfromShipsMARPOL
1973/78.Thecontentofsuspendedmatterremainedatalevelof
77mg/1incomparisonwiththenormalvalueequalto100mg/1,coli
indexdidnotexceed900bodiesofcolibacillusin1mlagainstthe
normalvalue1000bodies/ml.Sludgeformingaftersewagetreatment
wasincinerated[30].
Neumayer

Germany

Biological+
UVsterilisation
Duringtheseason1995/96asewagetreatmentplantwasinstalledat
NeumayerStation.Thisplantwasdesignedinawaythatitonly
requireselectricenergyandheatenergyofthestationtobeableto
clarifythewastewater.Theentiresystemofwastewaterandsludge
treatmentisinstalledina20ftcontainer.Thewasteheatofthediesel
generatorsisusedtokeepthecontaineratatemperatureof+15C
andtodrythesludge.Thesewageiscollectedinalevelregulated
tank.Thistankissituatedunderthecontainerforwatergeneration.
Itisusedformixingthedifferentwastewatersandtoevenoutpeak
timesofwastewaterinflow.Fromthattankwateristurnedoutbya
screwspindlepumpthroughapipetothesewagetreatmentplant
overadistanceofabout60m.Therethesewageispurifiedina
biologicalprocess.ThentheclarifiedwaterissterilizedbyUVrays
andpumpedthroughapipetothedumpintheshelficewhichis
locatedapproximately100mawayfromthestation.
Thedewateringsystemforthesludgeconsistsofthereactiontank
andafiltermoduleequippedwithtwoseparateinlets.Arising
surplussludgewithadrysubstanceofabout2%isdrawnoff
periodicallyandpumpedintothereactiontankwhereitissterilised
byaddinghydratedlime.Afteradmixingofaflocculationpowderthe
surplussludgeisthickenedandthendewateredinsemipermeable
drainbags.Thedrainingwateriscollectedandledtotheinletofthe
sewagetreatmentplant.Duringthedewateringofthesludgevitiated
airisarising.Itisleddirectlyoutofthecontainerbyafan.Afterthe
drainbagshavedewateredforabout24hourstheyhaveadry
substanceofapproximately18%.Theyaredriedinadryingchamber
thatisheatedto+35Cbyusingthewasteheatofthediesel
generators.Resultingfromthisstepoftreatmentthesludgehasadry
substanceof40%.Nowitisinodorousandhasstoragestability.The
sludgecontainingthesolidresiduesofthepurificationprocessis
removedfromAntarctica[5860].

25
Novolazarevskaya

Russia

Mechanical+
Physicochemical+
Ozonation
Greywateristreatedinsandfilters,carbonfilters,sterilisedbyozone
anddischargedintoicefreeareanearthestation.
OHiggins

Chile

Biological
Thebaseemploysastateoftheartsewagetreatmentsystemand
treatsallsewageandgreywaterwiththeeffluentbeingdischarged
intothemarineenvironment[42].
Ohridski

Bulgaria

Notreatment
Sewageanddomesticliquidwastesaredischargedthroughaflexible
pipedirectlyintoasnowcoveredgullysome20mtothesideofthe
mainbuilding.Fromhere,itflowsbeneaththesnowtothebeachand
percolatesthroughtherocksintotheforeshore[29,41].
Orcadas

Argentina

Biological
Greywaterisrecycledforuseintoilettes.Blackwateristreatedwith
biologicaltreatmentplant.Effluentandsludgearereleasedintosea
[31].
Palmer

USA

Mechanical
Macerationistheonlytreatmentstep[31].
PrincessElisabeth

Belgium

Biological+
Disinfection
Itisplannedthatallgreywateristobetreatedwiththebio
membranereactor,ozonation,peroxideandchlorinetreatment[61].
Progress

Russia

Physicochemical
ElectricchemicaltreatmentplantwasinuseatProgress.Itis
plannedtoinstallanewphysicochemicalplantforthestation.
Rothera

UK

Biological+
UVsterilisation
Untreatedsewagehasbeenreleasedintotheseasincethebaseopened
in1976.InFebruary2003asubmergedaeratedbiologicalfilter
sewagetreatmentplant(HodgeSeparatorsLtd)wascommissionedat
Rothera.Theproducedsludgeispressed,dewateredandbaggedfor
shipmenttoUKfordisposal.Theeffluentwateristreatedunder
ultravioletlightanddischargedintothebay[41,42,44,62,63].
Russkaya

Russia

Notreatment
SanMartin

Argentina

Notreatment
Greywaterpassesviaaseparatedischargepipedirectlytoasmall
covebehindthestation[41].
SANAEIV

South
Africa

Biological+
Physicochemical
UVsterilisation
Abiologicalsewagetreatmentplant(RotatingBiologicalContactor)
hasbeeninstalledatSANAEIV.Sludgeisseparatedoutandis
transportedoutofAntarctica.Effluentsandgreywateraretreated
bybiofiltersandfilteredthroughacarbonfilter,asandfilteranda
UVfilterbeforebeingdischargedovertheVesleskarvetcliff.All
detergentsusedatthestationarebiodegradabletoavoiddamaging
thebiofilter.EffluentsmustmeetSouthAfricanstandardsfor
dischargeintofreshwater,andregularanalysisofeffluentsis
conductedtoensurecompliance.Noproblemshadbeenexperienced
inachievingthesestandards,althoughdiscolorationoftheeffluent
wassometimesaprobleminthesummerseasonduetothelimited
loadcapacityofthesystem[49,64].
ScottBase

New
Zealand

Biological
AwastewatertreatmentplantforScottBasehasbeeninstalledand
becameoperationalinOctober2002.Theplantusescontactaeration
process.Thewastewateristreatedinachambercontainingplastic
meshonwhichgrowsabacterialbiofilm.Aerationisprovidedbyair
blownintothebottomofthechamberthroughfineholes.Wastesolids
aresettledoutassludgeanddewateredfordisposal.Disinfectionis
providedbyultravioletlight[23,24,65,66].
Signy

UK

Notreatment
Sewageandgreywateraredischargedunmaceratedintothesea[44].
Soyuz

Russia

Notreatment

26
Syowa

Japan

Biological
Therearepresently49buildingsatSyowaStation.Passageways
connectthecentralbuilding,generationhouseandtwosleeping
lodgestoeachother.Otherstationbuildingsarelocatedapartto
minimizeproblemsofsnowdriftandvulnerabilityintheeventoffire.
Sewageandgreywaterfrommainbuildingsaretreatedbythe
biologicaltreatmentplant(contactaerationprocess)beforereleased
intotheocean.Otherbuildingsarenotconnectedtothesewage
systemyet.Thetreatmenthasstartedtooperateforapartoffacilities
sinceApril1999.Therefore,threekindsofsimpletoiletsareinstalled
insomebuildingswherepeoplework.
Twoofthetoiletsarecombustiontype,oneusinganelectricheater
andtheotherakeroseneburner.Thethird,andnewest,isa
biologicalprocessingtoilet.Thetoiletscollecthumanwastesina
smalltank(98liter)containingwoodenchips.Thetankscontents
arestirredbyabladeatregularintervals.Thetemperatureofthe
wasteandchipsinthetankiscontrolledbetween3045Cbyan
electricheater.Theintestinalbacteriaarenourishedbythewasteand
multiplyinthetank.Finallythebacteriafacilitatethedecomposition
ofthewasteintowaterandcarbondioxide.Thegasbyeproductsare
dischargedfromthetanktotheoutsideatmosphere.Thewooden
chipsneedtobereplacedeveryhalfayearbasedonamaximum
frequencyofusefor150timesperweek.Thetoiletsystemhasbeen
provedtobeeffectivebecauseitiscompact,doesnotuseanopenfire
andisenvironmentallysound,asitdoesnotrequiretheintroduction
ofspecialbacteriatoAntarctica[67,68].
Tor

Norway

Notreatment
Troll

Norway

Mechanical
AcomposttoilethasbeeninstalledatTroll.Itwastastedduring
severalseasons.Atpresentelectricalincineratortoiletsareinuse.
Thereisnoblackwateratthestation.
Priorto2005,greywatergeneratedatthestationranthroughathree
chambermechanicalfilteringsystem.Afterthegreywaterwas
treatedinthefilteringsystemandwentthroughtheultravioletfilter
beforedischargingintothesoil.Treatedwastewaterwasexpectedto
reachneardrinkingwaterqualityandcouldinprinciplebereused
forcleaningpurposesandsuch.
Anewandimprovedwastewatertreatmentsystemdeliveredby
HacoASwasinstalledinFebruary2005.Thenewsystemensures
simplehandlingandmonitoringofdischargeandhassufficient
capacitytohandlethenormalpersonnelloadduringsummerseason.
Thetreatedwatercaninprinciplebereusedfornonconsumption
purposes,andinthismanneritispossibletoreducewater
production,thussavingbothenergyandlaborassociatedwiththe
meltingprocedures.Wastewaterisdischargedthroughaheated
pipingsysteminanicefreeareabehindthestation[25,69].
Vernadsky

Ukraine

Notreatment
SewageandgreywateratFaradaystationweredischarged
unmacerateddirectlyintothesea[44].WastewateratVernadskyis
dischargedbyconstantlycirculatingseawater[29,31].
Vicente

Ecuador

Noinformation
Vostok

Russia

Notreatment
Untreatedwaterisdischargedtoadeepicepit.
Wasa

Sweden

Notreatment
Physicochemical
Awastewatertreatmentsystemwasinstalledin1991/92but
decommissionedin1996,asitdidnotfunctionproperly.In2005the
SwedishPolarResearchSecretariatinvestigateddifferenttechniques
forcleaninggreywaterforthestation.Threesystemsusingchemical
precipitateormembranewereunderevaluationforWasa.
Atpresenttimethegreywaterisnottreatedbyanymeansbut
dischargedthroughapipelinetoanicecoverareainthevicinityof
thestationfromwhereitultimatelydrainstothesea[31,64,70].

27
Zhongshan

China

Biological
ChineseAntarcticResearchExpeditionhasdecidedtoupgradethe
wastewatertreatmentplantatZhongShanStation.Thenewsewage
treatmentpantwilldividewasteintoblackwater(faces,urine,
kitchenwastewater)whichwillbetreatedsuchthattherewillbeno
disposaltotheoceanandgreywaterwhichwillbesterilizedand
dischargedtotheoceanbyasubmarinepipe.
Theselectedtreatmenttechnologyinvolvesnewmembrane
separationandintermediatewatercirculatingtechnology.This
technologyhasbeenverysuccessfulinChinaandhasbecomea
popularmethodoftreatment.Thetechnologyhasmanyadvantages
includingenergysavingsandoperatingatroomtemperature.The
newtreatmentsystemwillsignificantlyimproveoceanwaterquality
inthenearshoreandoceanwatersinthevicinityofthestation.
TheMembranebioreactorisarecentbutincreasinglyutilized
technologyfortreatingmunicipalandhighorganicindustrial
wastewaterbycombiningthehighlyefficientseparationtechnology
ofhollowfibermembraneswithinacompactactivatedsludgeprocess.
FlatplatPVDFbasedmembraneistheoptimumchoiceforsystem
designersandendusersalikeforcontinuousimmersioninactivated
sludge.Theliquidsolidseparationbymembranereplacesthe
conventionalsettlingprocessandeffectivelyremovessuspendedand
organicsolidsproducingbacteriatreewater.MBRallowsforthe
activatedsludgetobemaintainedatmuchhigherlevelsofmixed
liquorsuspendedsolidsthanconventionalsystemsandbecauseofthe
membraneinterface,bacteriaareretainedlongerwithintheactivated
sludgeenhancingthedecompositionoftheorganicmatter.The
Membranebioreactorisamodern,highlyeffectivewatertreatment
systemthatcandealwiththeeverincreasingdemandsofmunicipal
wastewaterqualityandincreasingtreatmentvolumes.The
Membranebioreactoriseasytooperate,automatic,modularbased
treatmentprocess.
Itwasproposedtoshipthetreatmentplanttothestationin
December2005andcommissiontheplantin2006[21].

Current practices range from use of sewage treatment plants at larger stations and
bases, storage in containers for disposal at home countries or at coastal stations, and
incineration.Containment,storage,andretrogradeofgreyandblackwateristhemethod
usedbythemajorityofprogramsforfieldandsmallstations[71].
The general situation can be summarized as follows: wastewater from 32% of all
stations is discharged untreated, 63% of all stations are provided with some kind of
treatment(figure8).
Figure9 shows different treatment types ratio. Some countries active in Antarctica
have still made no move to take wastewater treatment beyond the minimum standards:
sewages at two permanentand one seasonalstations aretreatedonlybymaceration.The
Italians and the French opted to use complex physicochemical plants for Concordia
station. The Chinese made a similar choice for their seasonal DomeA station. In the
majorityofcases(26stations)biologicalwastewatertreatmentplantsareused.

28

Figure8Currenttreatmentsituationforall,permanentandseasonalstations

29

Figure9Differenttreatmenttypesratio
It is rather interesting that percentage of stations discharging untreated sewages
changed since 1990 [31, 58] (figure10). But these changes are not characterized by any
tendency. It probably may be explained by changes in total operated stations number or
stationsquantityinthestatistics.

Figure10Percentageofstationsdischarginguntreatedsewages
(1990,2005and2009)

30

Conclusion
Analysisofsourcesrevealedalackofinformationaboutusedtechnologiesinofficial
reports submitted by the Parties within the scope of Antarctic Treaty Information
Exchange and Annual reports pursuant to Article 17 of the Protocol on Environmental
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. As a rule these reports merely contain information on
absenceorpresenceoftreatmentfacilities.Someinformationcanbefoundinreportsofthe
AntarcticinspectionsinaccordancewithArticleVIIoftheAntarcticTreatyandArticle14
oftheProtocolonEnvironmentalProtectiontotheAntarcticTreaty.Butitshouldbenoted
thatthisinformationisoftenratherdiscrepant.InitialandComprehensiveEnvironmental
Evaluations, SCALOP proceedings or AEON Workshop reports provide more detailed
informationaboutwastewatertreatment.
Inspiteofallpreviousattemptstogeneralizeexperienceofwastewatertreatmentin
Antarcticaavailabledata,unfortunately,isspotty.
Broad spectrum of used technologies (from maceration to membrane filtration)
indicates that there is no any unified approach to treatment type selection. In this
connection development of water quality standards in addition to requirements of the
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty is exceptionally important.
Compiling of an accessible handbook on wastewater treatment in Antarctica would
probablybeofpracticalimportanceandhelpfulindecisionmaking.

31

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