ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008

ELEMENT EIGHT

Radius of Exposure

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ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008

ELEMENT 8 RADIUS OF EXPOSURE

8.1 Introduction:

Hydrogen Sulfide is a very toxic gas in small concentrations. The

concentration that is currently considered immediately dangerous to life and
health is 100 parts per million. H2S will paralyze your respiratory system
rapidly if you are exposed to 1000 parts per million.

The purpose of this element is to introduce methods to determine how far an

H2S release may spread. This will enable us to develop emergency action
plans.

First, we need to know who may be affected by a sudden or continuous

release. Second, we can control the risk of exposure for personnel who work
within the exposure radius.

Gas dispersion modeling is a tool that can be used to describe how far a gas
release may spread. This element is intended to introduce you to some of the
types of models, and provide further information on where you could find
more effective models.

We will take a look at early "radius of exposure" equations, and describe

where computer simulated software can be found. It is important to
understand that the early models make assumptions. We will see why early
models are limited as far as accuracy, and should be used as rough guidelines.

The actual radius of exposure will depend on site-specific considerations.

8.2 H2S Release Dispersion Models:

When considering application of an H2S dispersion model, the user should examine
the type of release which might be expected, for example, will the gas be dense or
buoyant; will it be dry or wet; etc. Application of dispersion must consider if the
release may have a vertical or horizontal plume configuration. See page 15 plume
configurations. The prevailing wind and environmental factors such as humidity and
temperature variables will influence the dispersion. Engineering calculations to
determine H2S absolute open-flow rates based on pressure and hole size are necessary
to ensure relative accuracy of the dispersion radius of exposure and travel distance.

Historical incidents of H2S accidental releases have led to the development of

computer models to simulate the dispersion of the gas or vapor cloud over a given
area. The importance of such modeling becomes apparent in planning for emergency
evacuation of the affected population.

The Pasquill-Gifford equation is widely used by the Texas Railroad Commission in

the Statewide Rule 36 to address the protection of the general public.

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This equation can be found in the Texas Rule 36 under section (c)(2) (A) and (B) and
corresponds to a nomograph contained in the rule to identify a radius-of-exposure for
100ppm and 500ppm H2S. It is pointed out that for the rule; public protection begins
at 100ppm.

8.3 Texas Rule 36

When considering application of an H2S dispersion model, you must examine

the type of release that might be expected. For example, will the gas release
be dense or buoyant; will it be dry or wet; etc. Bear in mind that H2S is
heavier than air, but may be mixed with lighter than air gases. The actual
vapor density of the plume or release may be lighter, heavier, or equal to that
of air.

The release may have a vertical or horizontal plume configuration.

The prevailing wind and environmental factors such as humidity and

temperature will influence the dispersion.

Engineering calculations to determine H2S absolute open-flow rates based on

pressure and hole size are necessary to ensure relative accuracy of the
dispersion radius of exposure and travel distance.

The Pasquill-Gifford equation is widely used by the Texas Railroad

Commission and can be found in Statewide Rule 36 to address the protection
of the general public. This equation can be found in the Texas Rule 36 under
section (c)(2) (A) and (B) and corresponds to a nomograph contained in the
rule to identify a radius of exposure for 100ppm and 500ppm H2S.

This rule requires contractors to provide different levels of emergency

planning based on the expected radius of exposure to Hydrogen Sulphide.

For example, if the stream concentration is less than 100ppm H2S, contractors
are exempt from the rule.

If the 100ppm ROE is less than 50 feet, contractors are exempt from most
requirements except training. The exception is with storage tanks, where if the
concentration of vapor is 500ppm or higher, you must install signs and
possibly fences around the tank. This is called Case 1.

If the ROE is greater than 50 feet and less than 3000 feet, but does not include
a public area and a the 500ppm ROE does not include a public road then there
are set requirements. A limited amount of personal protective equipment must
be used, operation equipment must conform to the National Association of
Corrosion Engineer standards, and administrative controls are required
(signage). This is called Case 2

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ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008
If the 100ppm ROE is greater than 50 feet and includes a public area or if the
100ppm ROE is greater than 3000 feet regardless of public areas, then the
controls required are greater. At this point, gas detection systems will be
needed, contingency plans implemented, and set procedures for reporting
leaks are required. Rule 36 suggests contractors use the American Petroleum
Institute's recommendations as a source of additional. This is Case 3.

A quick overview of the compliance requirements is shown in the following

table reproduced from the 1990 Rule 36, page 7.

Provision Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

H2S concentration test X X X

H-9 or compliance certificate X X X
Training X X X
Government office notification X X X
Drill stem tests restricted X* X* X
BOP test X* X* X
Materials meet NACE stds. X X
Warning & marker X X
Security X X
Contingency plan X
Control & safety equipment X
Monitors X X
Mud (pH control or scavenger) X*
Wind Indicators X X
Protective Breathing Equipment X X
Choke manifold, secondary remote
Control, and mud/gas separator X
Flarestacks X*

The asterisk(*) indicate exactly which district is affected. Districts 5 and 6

only.

If the expected concentration of H2S is unknown then according to Rule 36, a

100ppm ROE of 3000 feet must be assumed.

As you can see, the ROE calculation is an important tool for planning whilst
working in an H2S environment in Texas. These calculations are also used in
international areas, specifically Italy, or where a contractor requests guidance.

A scientific calculator is required to determine the radius of exposure using the

Pasquill Gifford equation. You also need to know the production rate of the
well and the concentration of H2S in the well. The H2S concentration used in
the equation is the mole fraction of H2S and can be calculated by dividing the
parts per million by 1,000,000. The flow rate is in cubic feet per day.

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The oil and gas industry applies this equation to pipelines or facilities within
gas processing plants. Other applications include an uncontrolled release of
gas due to loss of well control.

In the drilling industry, the flow rate used should either be the well's adjusted
open-flow potential, or if the operator feels this is too high, the well's capacity
to flow against a zero backpressure is acceptable for the equation.

The equation as originally formulated, is a three-plane coordinate system. The

X-axis is that direction in which the wind would be blowing at a continuous
rate. The Y-axis is the vertical coordinate and the Z-axis is the horizontal
coordinate.

There are quite a few assumptions made. These also limit the reliability or
accuracy of the results.

The equation assumes that the emission will be constant such that some
distance downstream there is a point at which the 100ppm concentration will
also be constant over the 24-hour period.

Normal Gaussian distribution of the Y and X planes are assumed; that is, there
is less concentration in ppm of H2S on the sides of the release and the highest
concentration is at the centre.

It is also assumed that the emission point will be at or near ground level. It
eliminates a very complex component that is used to determine stack height.
The Environment Protection Agency, as well as the Texas Natural Resources
Conservation Commission uses this equation.

The original Pasquill-Gifford equation took several meteorological parameters

into consideration. These parameters are classed into Categories A,B,C,D,E,
and F.

Class A is the unstable condition, with stronger wind velocity, more radiation,
uneven terrain, etc.

Class F is the most stable and is used in the equation to represent the most
conservative stability condition. A one-mile per hour wind velocity is
assumed to represent the least amount of air mixing.

This accounts for the equation providing the largest radius of exposure, thus
the more conservative approach. The equation is not so accurate that if you
calculated a 100ppm radius of 1500 feet exposure that the gas will not go
beyond it.

The Pasquill-Gifford method of calculating radius of exposure is not infallible.

The field data collected by the Texas Railroad Commission on a 10-minute
sampling time indicate that for ground level H2S concentrations, a safety

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ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008
factor of 2 or 3 is present. The calculation is based on a worst case scenario to
create the maximum radius of exposure.

This approach was selected to provide oil and gas operators with a uniform
method of calculation. It should be noted that most states consider this
method acceptable and some have adopted it or use variations thereof.

In high-density population areas, where the radius of exposure includes a large

area, a more sophisticated model that takes into account better-defined
parameters should be considered. Approval from various state regulatory
agencies may be required to approve lesser radii of exposure that result from
more technically developed dispersion models.

Here are the equations used in Rule 36:

X or 100ppm ROE = [(1.589)(mole fraction H2S)(Q)]0.6258

X or 500ppmROE = [(0.4546)(mole fraction H2S)(Q)]0.6258

Where: X = radius of exposure in feet

Q = maximum volume determined to be available for escape

in cubic feet per day

H2S = mole fraction of H2S in the gaseous mixture

ROE = radius of exposure

Fortunately, if you do not have a scientific calculator available, the equation

results have been tabled in the form of what we call a nomograph. Let's take a
moment to look at the ones available. There are two here, one is used to
quickly find the 100ppm H2S radius of exposure and the other is used to find
the 500ppm ROE.

On the left side of the graphs is a scale where you can choose the quantity of
H2S in parts per million or percent H2S.

On the right side is a scale where you can choose the flow rate of the well and
is labeled as Q. It is important to note that the Q scale is in million cubic feet
per day. On the top of the scale it says Q in (m2cfd). M in this case represents
1000, so m2 is 1000 times 1000 or 1,000,000.

The middle scale represents the radius of exposure in feet. Simply locate
the flow rate on the right, the H2S concentration on the left and hold a
straight edge between the points. Where it intersects the middle scale is
the expected radius of exposure.

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Here is one example using the radius of exposure monographs:

Sample problem:
A pipeline has a flow of 25 M2CF/D of gas that contains 2000ppm H2S.

Refer to the 100ppm ROE. Graph and locate the 25 M2CF/D and the 2000ppm
H2S points. By connecting the points with a straight edge, read the 100ppm
ROE which is 1200 feet.

Refer to the 500ppm ROE. Graph, and by using the same method above, read
the 500ppm ROE which is 550 feet.

8.4 American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice 55

Another equation used to determine the radius of exposure can be located in

appendix C of API RP 55. This is a recommended practice for safe
operations whilst producing wells containing H2S

The equations used here take into consideration some additional variables.

• Is the release continuous or a puff (short-term release).

• Is the release100 % H2S or not?
• What is flow rate of well?
• Did the release occur in the day or night? Different weather
conditions were considered depending on the time of day.

The ROE equation = Antilog (A X log (H2S) + B); where,

• A and B are constants taken from table C1 in API RP 55.

• You must determine for night or day release.

• You must determine for continuous or puff release.

• You must consider ROE ppm H2S range you are mapping.
There are 5 different ROE calculations for each consideration.

Example 1:
Determine the ROE100ppm for a continuous release of 100% H2S at a rate of
11,170 SCFH (standard cubic feet per hour) in daylight hours. This assumes a
5-mile per hour wind.

Using Table C-1, the coefficients applicable to this scenario are:

A = 0.58
B = 0.69

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Using the equation:

The H2S used here is the mole fraction of H2S times the flow rate in cubic feet
per hour. This would be 11,170 X 1,000,000/1,000,000 or 11,170 scfh.

ROE100ppm = Antilog ( A times log (H2S) + B) we arrive at:

ROE100ppm = Antilog (0.58 X log (11,170) + 0.69 or 628 feet.

Note: We used 11,170 for our H2S because we are dealing

with a 100% H2S release.

Example 2:
Determine the ROE100ppm for a continuous release of 100% H2S at
a rate of 11,170 scfh in nighttime. This assumes a 2.2-mph wind speed.
Using Table C-1, the coefficients applicable to this scenario are:

A = 0.66
B = 0.69

Once again, the H2S figure used would be 11.170scfh and the answer would
be:

ROE100ppm = Antilog (0.66 X log (11,170) + 0.69 or 2300 feet.

To calculate the instantaneous release the H2S part of the equation equals the
total cubic feet released in a specific period of time. Therefore, if the well
contained 100% H2S, flowing at a rate of 11,170 scfh, then the total released
in 10 minutes would equal (11,170 scfh divided by 60 minutes per hour) X 10
minutes.

Example 3:
The above calculation would equal:

(11,170 scfh / 60) X 10 or 1862 scf

What happens if we have a well that does not contain 100% H2S as is
commonly encountered. First we would have to determine the H2S portion of
the equation as with the following example:

Example 4:
We have a continuous release of natural gas containing 5,000,000 SCFD. The
H2S concentration is 8,000 parts per million.
Let’s say we have a gas well that contains 8,000 ppm H2S. The well is
producing 5,000,000 SCF per day. How many cubic feet of H2S are released
each hour.

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ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008
First the H2S concentration must be written as a mole fraction. Divide 8,000
ppm by 1,000,000ppm.

Mole fraction of H2S = 8,000/1,000,000 = 0.008 MF H2S.

The well is releasing 5,000,000 SCFD, of which 0.008 MF is H2S, so the well
is releasing 5,000,000 X 0.008 or 40,000 SCFD H2S.

The well is therefore releasing 40,000 divided by 24 hours per day or 1666
SCFH H2S.

You would use this value to calculate a continuous release. If this well had an
instantaneous release that lasted 10 minutes then find the amount released per
minute or divide 1666 by 60 minutes per hour, which is 27.8 SCFM and
multiply the result by 10 minutes or 278 SCF. Use this amount when
calculating ROEs using Table C-1 puff models.

As we mentioned there are many assumptions with the Texas rule 36

equations. There are also assumptions made with the API equations.

• Wind speed? 5 mph for days, 2.2 mph for nights.

• Stack height = 10 feet above sea level.
• There are no obstructions to flow, buildings, etc.
• The gas release is considered neutrally buoyant.

8.5 FACTORS AFFECTING DISPERSION OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE:

Weather conditions:

Poor dispersion Good Dispersion

Calm winds (0 mph) Fair winds (above 10 mph)
Stable Air Unstable Air
Cloudy skies Clear Skies
Winter season Summer season
Night-time Daytime
Fog No fog
Low temperature High temperature
(below 30 degrees ˚F) (above 90 degrees ̊ F)

Leak Characteristics:

Poor Dispersion Good dispersion

High H2S concentration Low H2S concentration
Large volume Small volume

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ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008

High pressure Low Pressure

Terrain Features:

Poor Dispersion Good dispersion

Low places, ravines, gullies Flat, open ground
Buildings and obstructions No buildings or obstruction
Trees Grassland

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ELEMENT 8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE INSTRUCTOR & TECHNICIAN COURSE HSI008

INSTRUCTOR EXPLAIN THE RADIUS OF EXPOSURE

NOMOGRAPHS FOR 100PPM, AND 500PPM HERE.

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8.6 Further Information:

• API RP 55 (American Petroleum Institute), Appendix C

In the appendix there are several proprietary computer models as well as

publicly available ones. It is not meant in this element to promote any
particular model. Personnel should carefully evaluate site-specific conditions
to choose between any model.

Proprietary available models include but are limited to:

• CHARM is a model developed by Radian Corp. in Austin, TX.

• FOCUS was developed from Quest Consultants out of Norman,

Oklahoma.

• TRACE was developed by Dupont in Westlake Village, California.

• WHAZAN is a model developed from Technica International out of

Woodstock, Georgia.

Publicly available models include but are not limited to:

• DEGADIS is a United States Coast Guard model and further

information can be obtained from the National Technical Information
Services (NTIS) out of Springfield, Virginia.

• HEGADAS is a Shell research model and information can be obtained

through NTIS.

• SLAB is a model developed by the Lawrence Livermore National

Laboratory in Livermore, California.

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