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2Unit Physics - Quanta to Quark Assessment Task Charles Prestidge-King

Nuclear Reactors
The basic principles of a coal-fired power station and a nuclear fission reactor are similar in that their
function is for the end goal of electricity generation through the rotation of turbines by superheated steam.
In the case of a coal-fired power station, this steam is produced by burning large amounts of coal to heat
water travelling along wall-mounted pipes to very high temperatures. A fission reactor, on the other hand,
bombards fissionable material with neutrons which have been slowed down to thermal velocities by
moderator material from an initial neutron source, and undergoes nuclear fission, a process in which the
nucleus of a heavy element breaks down into two nuclei of roughly eual si!e
ref. "#
that are more stable
than the original atom. As well as forming radioactive products, the fission process also emits several
neutrons and releases a very large amount of energy. These emitted neutrons can
induce fission in nearby nuclei of fissionable material and release more neutrons
that can repeat the seuence, causing a chain reaction in which a large number of
nuclei undergo fission and an enormous amount of energy is released. A
fundament of this process is that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the
sum of the masses of the free neutrons and protons that constitute it, the difference being the mass
euivalent of the energy of formation of the nucleus from its nucleons.
ref. $"
As such, the difference
between the two masses, or mass defect, is a reflection of the binding energy of an atom. The energy
released is in line with %insteins euivalence of mass and energy and his assertion that &the euation % is
eual to m c-suared, in which energy is put eual to mass, multiplied by the suare of the velocity of light,
showed that very small amounts of mass may be converted into a very large amount of energy and vice
versa.' ( Albert %instein
ref. )*
A typical fission euation which shows the amount of energy released from the
fission process is as follows +all values are given in atomic mass units, e,cept where marked-.
$#"
/ 0
1
n
1#2
3a 0
2"
4o 0

$+
1
n -

0 5+
*
e -
Total mass of reactants 6 $#".*7#2$#1 0 1.**8)772 6 23!"#2#$u!
Total mass of %roducts 6 1#8.2*)#78$ 0 27.2*"871" 0 $+1.**8)772- 0 5+*.***"78"8*1"$-
6 23#!$333#&u!
'ecrease in mass 6 $#).*"$")8 - $#".8###"2) 6 "!2(&2"$)u!
*nergy released 6 *.$12$*87 9 2#1." 6 2")!(&3 +e, +# d.p.-
:eactors utilise the energy released by the fission process in the form of heat, via a coolant material and a
series of heat e,changers to boil water to produce steam. ;uclear reactors can be classified as either a-
thermal reactors, where the neutrons producing the fission have energies comparable to gas particles at
normal temperatures +<%= 1e>- or b- fast reactors, where the neutrons producing the fission have far
higher energies +<%?1ke>-. @e Aroglies proposal of mass as wavelike gives neutrons a wavelength ( a
slow, or thermal neutron in this case has a wavelength 7 orders of magnitude above high energy
neutrons. The wavelength gives the distance a neutron can be from a nucleus for it to be able to
e,perience fission. The analogy of a target e,panding from 1 to 1#m for slow arrows is helpful here. In
either case, there are five key elements within a reactor necessary for the production of nuclear energy.
fissile fuel, moderators, coolant, control rods, and radiation shielding.
Thermal reactors are generally fuelled with enriched uranium ( natural uranium that has been processed
by gaseous diffusion, a process whereby uranium ore is sprayed with fluorine to produce uranium
he,afluoride +/B
)
-, which is then passed through filters which allow the lighter uranium-$#" to travel
through faster, leading to a gas with a high concentration of /-$#" in it. This gas is processed to give
pellets of uranium o,ide +/C
$
- comprised of #-5 D +ref. "" reclarifying this as #-8D- of the fissile /-$#",
instead of the *.511*D
ref. )$
found in nature. In most cases, the uranium in the pellets that are then packed
into !irconium or stainless steel tube fuel rods are a mi,ture of fissile +/-$#"- and fertile +/-$#"- material.
These fuel rods are spaced at regular intervals in the nuclear reactor and are surrounded by moderators.
lighter elements that impede neutrons to thermal kinetic energy levels. 4oderators comprised of water,
heavy water +@
$
C-, carbon in the form of graphite, or beryllium can be used. The control rods are used to
absorb neutrons to ensure the chain reaction does not become uncontrollable, i.e., maintained at a critical
level. These are typically made of boron or cadmium and can be moved in or out of a reactor to alter the
rate of reaction. The energy released in a fission reaction is carried away mostly as kinetic energy of the
fission products, which collide with other atoms in the vicinity, producing heat. This heat is collected by the
coolant, which can be ordinary or heavy water, high-pressure gas, or liuid sodium, as well e,perimental
coolants such as gallium.
ref. 7
:adiation shields are also used by reactors to reflect neutrons back into the
core and protect the core walls from radiation damageE biological shields consisting of high-density
concrete are also used to protect people and the environment. Bission was first demonstrated by the
Italian physicist %nrico Bermi on the $
nd
@ecember 127$ in Fhicago. The nuclear reactor or atomic pile
was built in a suash court under a grandstand at Gtagg Bield in Fhicago. This atomic pile, containing "*
tonnes of uranium fuel, was moderated by 7** tonnes of graphite bricks. /sing the same basic concepts
as are used today, a twenty-eight minute chain reaction was produced.
-m%act on .ociety
The 4anhattan HroIect was the codename given to the Ioint development of nuclear weapons +codenamed
Tube Alloys-
ref. $8
by the Allied countries of the /nited Gtates and Aritain during Jorld Jar Two, in the
years 127$-127", which culminated in the dropping of two atomic bombs on Kapanese cities in 127" in an
attempt to force them to surrender. /nder pressure from 3eo G!ilard and %dward Teller, Albert %instein
sent a letter to the American Hresident :oosevelt, urging Lwatchfulness and, if necessary, uick actionL on
the part of the /nited Gtates in atomic-bomb research.
ref. $"
The initial fear of the ;a!is developing such a
weapon was realised when it was found Mermany had begun a similar program in 127*. G!ilards theory of
a chain reaction was thought to be the key to producing an atomic bomb.
There were two maIor problems in building an atomic bomb. one was the difficulty in obtaining a large
uantity of uranium-$#" that they reuired to build the bomb, as theori!ed by Aohr.
ref. $)
The principle of
gaseous diffusion, as discussed in section one, was used here rather than the financially impossible
centrifuge method. Geaborg theorised that the ideal Hu-$#2 could be produced by allowing /-$#8 to
absorb a neutron by leaving it in a nuclear reactor for an e,tended period of time. Jith these two
techniues of refinement and Bermis demonstration of a nuclear fission reactor in @ecember 127$, the
problem of fuel was solved. The second problem was that of reaching supercritical mass - an amount of
atomic material sufficient for an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction. It is upon this principle of an
uncontrolled release of very high amounts of energy that an atomic bomb operates. A nuclear reactor
instead operates on a tightly controlled chain reaction, as has been seen. This is the most basic
differentiation between a nuclear reactor and a bombE however, the details of criticality are also important.
The most general condition for the control of a nuclear chain reaction is the constant k, which is defined as
the ratio of the number of fissions produced in one neutron generation to the number of fissions in the
preceding generation. If k61, a steady chain reaction can be maintained through the use of control rods,
moderators, and reflectors. In an atomic bomb, k ?1 to achieve to supercritical mass.
In a reactor the fuel used is made up of #-8D /-$#", but an atomic bomb is made of either very highly
+2*D- enriched /-$#", or of Hu-$#2, which is highly fissile. This concentration of fissile material is used to
ensure that k ? 1. In a supercritical highly-enriched bomb, $ +rather than 1- of the $ or # released neutrons
from a nuclei during fission are able to cause another fission, leading very large amounts of energy to be
released increasingly uickly ( $ to # billion generations a second.
A /-$#" bomb operates by holding two subcritical masses of /-$#" apart at opposite ends of a tube, or
gun barrel. Cn detonation of the weapon, these masses are imploded together by a convention e,plosive
charge, T;T, so criticality is attained suddenly and the chain reaction spreads throughout the combined
supercritical mass before it again breaks into subcritical fragments. The two subcritical masses of /-$#"
each have hollows cut into their centres, which are lined with beryllium, a good source of neutrons. A ball
of polonium in the centre is an alpha source. These alpha particles hit the beryllium, causing a large
number of neutrons to flow, leading to the fission reaction that causes the e,plosion. @euterium or tritium
+fusionable materials- can be used to intensify the e,plosion through a superabundance of neutrons.
The results of the proIect were seen with horrific conseuences on August )th, 127" +:ef. ## claims )
th

and 2th, ref. $) and $" reaffirm this- when a bomb comprised of 82D /-$#", codenamed 3ittle Aoy, was
dropped on the Kapanese city of Niroshima. Three days later a Hu-$#2 bomb, codenamed Bat 4an, was
dropped on ;agasaki. Kapan surrendered on August 1*
th
, after 17**** civilians and military personnel
were killed instantly ( the effects of radiation poisoning places the known death toll of the bombings as
around #"**** to date
ref. 71
. The 4anhattan HroIect produced key advances in nuclear understanding that
led to the worlds use of nuclear energy for electricity production and nuclear medicine. In 122$, nuclear
plants supplied 18 per cent of the /GAs electricity
ref. 7
. As well as this, countries like Brance are dependent
upon nuclear energy. Nowever, 4emories of Fhernobyl and Three 4ile Island, and now the spectre of a
terrorist attack on a nuclear plant, have ensured that the general public is as wary of nuclear power as
ever.
ref. 1)
In the destructive capabilities of nuclear energy, the damage done to the world by the bombings
of Niroshima and ;agasaki is not limited to the death toll aboveE indeed, that is Iust one of the
conseuences. The alternative to the dropping of atomic bombs here was an American invasion of Kapan,
known as Cperation Clympic, which would have resulted in an estimated ten million combined deaths.
The invasion would have been supplemented by increased conventional bombing. @uring one
+firebombing- raid on TokyoOover 1$*,*** people were killed.
ref "2
In this light, the use of the atomic bomb
was the lesser of two evils. A protracted campaign would have also led to Goviet advance into Kapan,
giving them a undesired foothold in Kapan. Indeed, the proIect ensured mankind had the ability to destroy
itself ( 4utually Assured @estruction during the Fold Jar and the resulting arms race cost humanity the
chance to eradicate disease and hunger.
ref. 8
In its capability to both destroy and create, nuclear energy
has had a massive effect on society since JJII.
*n/ironmental -m%act
A fuel rod in a reactor lasts three years, however, only a small proportion of the uranium nuclei present
+#D- will have undergone fission when these rods are removed. @ischarged fuel rods, after being stored
underwater at the reactor site, can be reprocessed ( through immersion in nitric acid, workable uantities
of uranium and plutonium can be e,tracted from spent rods. An unfortunate by-product of both the initial
chain reaction and its reprocessing is the creation of radioactive waste, which falls into one of three
categories, depending on the amount and type of radioactivity the material radiates. 3ow-level waste +33J-
is generated from hospitals, laboratories, and industry, and is made up of paper, filters, protective clothing,
medical supplies, and so on, which contain small amounts of radioactivity with short half-lives. 3ow-level
waste from any establishment involving ionising radiation is relatively harmless. Intermediate-level waste
+I3J- contains higher amounts of radioactivity and can reuire special shielding. This level typically
consists of metal cans that were used to contain fuel at a reactor, clothing or euipment that has been
highly contaminated, and sludges derived from treatment processes in nuclear power stations. In contrast,
high-level waste +N3J- may be the spent uranium fuel itself, or the principal waste from its reprocessing (
the e,traction of the remaining /-$#" from the waste fission products. N3J is predominantly highly-
radioactive fission products with long half-lives. The radioactivity that is emitted by this nuclear waste is
one of three basic types. Alpha decay is a type of radioactive disintegration in which some unstable atomic
nuclei dissipate e,cess energy by spontaneously eIecting an alpha particle.
ref. $"
An alpha particle, which is identical to a helium nucleus, has a low penetrative and +accordingly- ionising
power and is generally harmless to humans. %lectron-like beta decay is a group heading for three
processes of radioactive disintegration by which a nuclei in unstable elements dissipates energy,
undergoing a change of one unit of positive charge, without any change in mass number. This radiation is
released in either negative beta decay, positron emission, or electron capture. Aeta has a reasonably high
penetrative power and can damage cells, but is easily blocked by a sheet of aluminium. Mamma emission
is the release of gamma rays +photons, or packets of electromagnetic energy, of e,tremely short
wavelength, and accordingly a very high energy- by unstable nuclei. Mamma, which is highly penetrative
and very dangerous to humans, is the prime concern in the disposal of nuclear waste. These three kinds of
radioactivity occur naturally, and the former two are the cause of transmutation, a term that refers to the
conversion of one chemical element into another. The mass defect and energy released by transmutation
can be calculated using the same method as in section 1.
The concept of a half-life refers to the time reuired for half of the atoms in any given uantity of a
radioactive isotope to decay
ref. "$
, or, euivalently, the time interval reuired for the number of
disintegrations per second of a radioactive material to decrease by one-half.
Menerally 1*-$* half lives is called the ha!ardous life of any given nuclear waste, which leads to problems
in disposal. 3ow-level waste can be disposed of easily by compacting or burning it before placing it in
trenches, covered with at least a metre of soil. Intermediate-level waste may be solidified in concrete or
bitumen for disposal, and then buried in deep underground trenches. Jaste with a long half-life is buried
far deeper. Three current methods of immobilising high-level wastes are, as the Aritish plant of Gellafield
does, sealing its liuid form in stainless steel tanks which are then surrounded by concrete+nucPrad
energy-E through vitrification using borosilicate glass which is then sealed in stainless steel canisters and
buried deep underground, or by using GQ;:CF +Gynthetic :ock-, which immobilises the radioactive waste
in the crystal lattice of the stable minerals in a synthetic rock such as Gynroc-F.+/IF- This immobilised
material can then stored underwater in storage ponds at reactors, or buried in remote locations at a depth
of R"**m, surrounded by a stable rock structure. In all of these methods, there must be no leakage of
radiation to contaminate both the environment and humans. The integrity of a nuclear waste dump is one
problem that disposers must deal withE half-life, as mentioned before, ensures that disposers must take
into account the 51**** year half-life of /-$#". Qucca 4ountain, in the /nited Gtates, has been listed as a
permanent repository for N3J, however the seismic condition +its position over a faultline- of the mountain
casts doubt on this proIect. The radiation emitted by N3J has the capability to break molecules apart
through ionising energy, measured in Gieverts. @amage to the cells of bone marrow and the small
intestine, the most easily damaged
ref. #
, will cause the production of red blood cells to cease and death is
assured in a human. The deaths of the entire fire crew fighting the bla!e at Fhernobyl and the subseuent
rendering of the area surrounding it as uninhabitable, and the overall capability of radiation to destroy life,
the location and safety of our nuclear waste dumps is of prime concern. Aoth /IF+ref. 72- and ;%I+ref. "*-
are optimistic, though ( both claiming the nuclear industry is the only energy industry which takes
responsibility for all its wastes, and costs this into the product.
ref. 72

AN.T0 12ucas 3eights4
The Australian ;uclear Gcience and Technology Crganisation +A;GTC-s NIBA: +Nigh Blu, Australian
:eactor- at 3ucas Neights in Gydney and the ;ational 4edical Fyclotron are the primary sources for the
radioisotopes used by industry and medicine, which are created by firing beams of high-speed particles at
the nucleus of an atom.
Iodine-1#1 is a radioisotope that is used in medicine to treat hyperthyroidism, and is inIected intravenously
after removal of the thyroid gland as a cancer treatment.
i
The poisonous isotope is freely absorbed by the
thyroid nodules and concentrates there rather than the rest of the body. Iodine-1#1 is also used in
diagnosis of the adrenal medullary and for imaging suspected neural crest and other endocrine
tumours.
ref. #"
The radioisotope cobalt-)* is used in engineering due to the very high energy gamma rays it
emits, which are in turn beamed at obIects in order to test its thickness and integrityE the radiation that
passes through is recorded on film, with greater amounts of radiation penetrating thin patches, cracks or
flaws, which can then be easily identified and repaired. This can also be incorporated into robotic
machinery to detect and correct imperfections automatically.
The use of phosphorus-#$ in agriculture is an important way of ma,imising the efficiency of fertilisers.
Hhosphorus-#$ is added to fertilisers and the amount of emitted beta radiation from this radioisotope
+which can penetrate plant tissues- is measured as the radioisotope moves around the plant, giving a
measurable rate of the speed at which the plant uptakes fertiliser. @ue to its half-life of 17.# days and its
ability to be used in very small uantities, phosphorus-#$ is easy and safe to use, reuiring only a simple
Meiger-4Sller counter. A;GTC also has a role in neutron scattering - the process of determining the
structure and properties of matter through probing a material with thermal neutrons generated in research
reactors and observing the way the nuclei of the materials atoms scatter them. The scattering pattern is
determined by the Fompton wavelength of a neutron +1.#12"2*828+1*- T 1*
-1"
m-
ref. 75
in combination with
the structure of the material. This value is in accordance with deAroglies wave-particle duality proposal in
12$#, forming diffraction patterns such as measurable interference fringes. 9-rays, as used by the Araggs,
are the most common method of investigating matter, but neutrons have an advantage over ,-rays in
several ways. one, in their neutral charge, allowing them to penetrate deeply into matter without being
deflected by Foulombs force of electrostatic repulsionE two, in that they have naturally magnetic
movement, which allows the close study of magnetic structures and materials which has led to the
development of magnetic storage devices such as computer hard drivesE three, in that they have a
vibrational energy similar to the vibrational energy of atoms in the lattice in solids and liuids, allowing
neutrons to be used to study this atomic motionE four, in that their wavelength is comparable to the atomic
spacing of atoms in a latticeE five, that they radiate at a far lower energy than ,-rays, allowing for the study
of materials without destruction or cellular damageE and si,, in that they scatter well from protons, making
them ideal in determining the structure of materials containing hydrogen bonds. This includes all organic
molecules in living things as well as inorganic substances such as hydrocarbons.
The NIBA: reactor at 3ucas Neights is due for replacement by the :eplacement :esearch :eactor +:::-,
which is set for completion in $**". The issues of contention surrounding this proIect are those of
economic feasibility, safety, the production of radioisotopes, and the need for coal-fired power stations to
be replaced. The :::, which will cost more than U)** million
ref. #)
with the @ept. of Binance giving it at
U"#$ million
ref. #2
- enough money to build 1$" new primary schools. The Hrobabilistic Gafety Assessment
conducted on the +NIBA:- reactor in 122# rated it &well within international safety standardsL.
ref. 38
Miven this level of safety, it hardly seems necessary to build a new reactor, however the security of NIBA:
was thrown into doubt when three teams of Mreenpeace protestors scaled the reactor in @ecember $**1.
In our current climate of fear of a terrorist attack, especially against a nuclear reactor, the la, security at
NIBA: is one reason for the ::: to be built, as it has a metal grilling around the building it is housed in
that is proofed against aircraft crashes up to a Fessna "**. The open pool concept and the negative
reactivity feedback coefficients of the core
ref. #8
mean that the ::: is inherently safer than the NIBA:.
$*D of all Australias radioisotopes are produced in cyclotrons, devices that produce a fraction of the
waste a reactor does. This number, Mreenpeace claims, can be greatly increased. Australia could also
import radioisotopes. In my opinion, the ::: should be built on the grounds of increased safety and the
necessity of continued research in nuclear physics, but it should remain a research reactor only. @espite
the damaging levels of FC
$
produced by a coal-fired power station, the reactor should investigate cleaner
ways of providing nuclear energy rather than provide this energy itself.
5i6liogra%hy
5ooks7

1- %instein - a AeginnerVs Muide, Kim Areithaupt, Nodder and Gtoughton, +c- $***.
$ - Ballout - Nedley 4arston and the Aritish Aomb Tests in Australia, :oger Fross, Jakefield Hress, +c-
$**1
# - JhatVs the Aig IdeaW - ;uclear Hower, Beli, Hirani and Fhristine :oche, Nodder FhildrenVs Aooks,
+c- 1225
7 - Fonservation $*** - :adiation and ;uclear %nergy, Koy Halmer, Aathpress Hublishing, +c- 122$.
" - The HroIect Hhysics Fourse ) - The ;ucleus, Norwit! Mroup Aooks, Hty 3td, by A. ;ash et al., +c- 125*
) - Hhysics In Fonte,t. The Borces of 3ife, Aill Xealey et al., C,ford /niversity Hress, +c- $**1.
5 - Hhysics R The Borces of 3ife, Xealey, A., et al., C,ford /niversity Hress +c-122"-1228.
8 - %,cel NGF Hhysics, ;eville Jarren, Hascal Hress, +c- $**1 +$nd %dition-
2 - Kacaranda NGF Gcience Hhysics $, 4. Andriessen et al., Kohn Jiley and Gons Hublishing, +c- $**1.
1* - Introductory Atomic Hhysics, K. Qarwood and <.K. Flose, 3ongmans +c- 12))
11 - A 4odern Introduction to Hhysics in Gi, >olumes - Atomic Hhysics, G.T. Autler and N. 4essel, Norwit!-
Mrahame, +c- 12)1-12)" +softcover edition-
1$ - Industrial uses of radioisotopes, Kohn K 4c4ahon and Arnold Aerman, ;ew Qork Y 12"8
.cientific 8ournals and 'igital +edia7
1# - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 158 issue $#21, article &@epleted uranium casts a shadow over peace in Ira', p.7,
@uncan Mraham-:owe, :eed Ausiness Information Y $**#
17 - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 158 issue $#21, article &Instant of success for fusion on a shoestring', p. $1,
%ugenie Gamuel, :eed Ausiness Information Y $**#
1" - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 158 issue $#21, article &<illing it softly', p. #), Keff Necht, :eed Ausiness
Information Y $**#
1) - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 152 issue $7*5, article &America steels itself to take the nuclear plunge', p. 1*,
@avid Fhandler, :eed Ausiness Information Y $**#
15 - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 18$ issue $775, editorial &;uclear bunkum', p. # Keremy Jebb, :eed Ausiness
Information Y $**7
18 - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 18$ issue $775, article &;uke talks in ruins', p. 7, author unknown, :eed Ausiness
Information Y $**7
The following have been taken from www.newscientist.com, and the author in all cases was uncited.
All are Y :eed Ausiness Information 1221-$**#.
12 - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 1#* issue 155", article &;uclear power', p. $*
$* - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 1#) issue 1872, article &Fan nuclear power ever pay its wayW. Hostwar pioneers
were convinced they could generate electricity cheaply. Aut nearly 7* years later, nuclear power is still
struggling to survive without subsidies' p. 7$
$1 - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 1"2 issue $177, article &;uclear Nangover', p. 1#
$$ - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 155 issue $#81, article &Bission facts', p. $)
$# - ;ew Gcientist >ol. 152 issue $7*8, article &The Flean Mreen %nergy @ream, p. 8
$7 - ;ational Meographic, >ol. 18*, issue $, August 1221, article &A comeback for nuclear powerW', Heter
4iller, p. )*, ;ational Meographic Gociety Y 1221
$" - Aritannica $**1 @elu,e %dition F@, +c- Aritannica, Inc. 1227-$**1.
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7* - http.PPwww.greens.org.auPmediacentrePmediareleasesPIohnkayeP1$*5
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7# - http.PPwww.serve.comPnukeresisterPnr1$)P1$)lucas.html
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"1 - http.PPwww.nirs.orgPfactsheetsPhlwfcst.htm
"$ - http.PPwww.lbl.govPabcPAasic.html
"# - http.PPdbhs.wvusd.k1$.ca.usPwebdocsPFhem-NistoryP4eitner-Bission-12#2.html+two of roughly eual
si!e, etc-
"7 - http.PPwww.atomicarchive.comP, includes.
http.PPwww.atomicarchive.comPinde,.shtml
http.PPwww.atomicarchive.comPBusionPBusion1.shtml
"" - http.PPwww.chem.duke.eduPRIdsPcruiseZchemPnuclearPagriculture.html
") - http.PPweb1.caryacademy.orgPchemistryPrushinPGtudentHroIectsP%lementJebGitesPiodinePuses.html
"5 - http.PPwww.britannica.comPnobelPnuclearfission.html
"8 - http.PPatom.kaeri.re.krP
"2 - http.PPwww.saskschools.caPcurrZcontentPhistory$*Punit#Psec$Z*2.html
)* - http.PPwww.aip.orgPhistoryPeinsteinPvoice1.htm
)1 - http.PPwww.madsci.orgPpostsParchivesPmay$**1P2888#)$78.Hh.r.html
)$ - http.PPpearl1.lanl.govPperiodicPelementsP2$.html
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In conversation with Dr. Peter Doran on 07-07-04, as well as HSC Excel Physics

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