05B­EE 

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
ASSIGNMENT

ABCs of Networking

TAIMUR   05B‐001‐EE 
HARIS        05B‐003‐EE 
DANISH     05B‐004‐EE 
 
 Table of Contents

1 OVERVIEW .................................................................................................... 1
2 WHAT IS A NETWORK? .............................................................................. 2
3 WHAT IS A LAN/WAN? ................................................................................ 3
4 PEER-TO-PEER AND SERVER-CLIENT NETWORK .............................. 5
4.1 PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK ............................................................................ 5
4.2 SERVER-CLIENT NETWORK ......................................................................... 6
4.3 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 6
5 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS .......................................................... 7
5.1 NOVELL NETWARE..................................................................................... 7
5.2 WINDOWS SERVER...................................................................................... 7
5.3 UNIX ......................................................................................................... 7
5.3.1 Solaris ................................................................................................ 8
5.3.2 Mac OS X Server ................................................................................ 8
5.3.3 Linux .................................................................................................. 8
5.4 OS/400....................................................................................................... 9
6 OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION MODEL ....................................10
7 BASIC LAN COMPONENTS........................................................................13
7.1 NETWORK SERVER.....................................................................................13
7.2 COMPUTERS AND OTHER PERIPHERALS .......................................................13
7.3 CABLE (MEDIA) .........................................................................................14
7.3.1 Twisted Pair Cable ............................................................................14
7.3.2 Coaxial Cable ...................................................................................14
7.3.3 Fibre Optic Cable .............................................................................15
7.3.4 Summary ...........................................................................................17
7.4 NIC ...........................................................................................................17
7.5 NETWORK INTERCONNECTION HARDWARE .................................................18
7.5.1 Repeater ............................................................................................18
7.5.2 Hub ...................................................................................................18
7.5.3 Bridge ...............................................................................................19
7.5.4 Switch ...............................................................................................19
7.5.5 Router ...............................................................................................20
7.5.6 Gateway ............................................................................................20
7.5.7 Summary ...............................................................................................21
APPENDIX - OSI MODEL & PROTOCOLS ......................................................22
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................23

SEMESTER-1 05B-EE (A)

1 OVERVIEW
What is this module about?

We will talk about the basic concept of network connectivity in this module.

Why we need to know about network connectivity?

It's unlikely that any business would purchase an MFP (Multi-Function Product),
to connect to a single computer, or just to be used as a stand-alone copier. A
high-end, versatile piece of equipment like an MFP is almost certainly going to
be connected to a network. To successfully sell an MFP, in fact to even have an
intelligent discussion with your prospect’s Information Systems professional, you
need to have an understanding of computer networks so to propose a
configuration to better meet your prospect’s needs.

Chapter Summary
In chapter “What is Network?”, we will discuss about the usage of network.

Chapter “What is a LAN/WAN?” shows the difference of LAN and WAN.

“Peer-to-peer and Client/Server” In this chapter, we will define the role of the
devices in the network, as server, client or peer.

“Network Operating Systems” shows some major operating systems used

for network.

“OSI (Open Systems Interconnection Model)” is the primary architectural

model that defines the international standard for network communications
products and protocols.

“Basic LAN components” introduces network server, computers and

peripherals, cable, and commonly used network interconnection hardware.

1
2 WHAT IS A NETWORK?
Telephone allows people to communicate with each other who are far apart.

Network allows computers, servers, mainframes, and other peripherals (such as

printers, scanners,
multifunction products,
etc.) to communicate.
Each of these devices
that is connected to
the network is called a
node. It also makes
sharing of information
(such as text, pictures,
sounds, etc.) possible among computers.

If you were to break a network down into its simplest component, you would
have 2 pieces.

¾ Physical network – the wiring, network cards, computers and other

equipments the network uses to transmit data.

¾ Logical network – the logical arrangement or rule that allows these

physical pieces to work together.

2
3 WHAT IS A LAN/WAN?
A LAN (Local Area Network) is a network that connects data processing
equipments (mainly consisting of computers) within a building site.

Many people mistake LAN as a small network as LAN is usually described as

"a network within an office”. However, LANs are not necessarily small. LAN can
refer to:
¾ A small network linking two personal computers at home,

¾ A network linking several personal computers in a room of a building,

¾ A large network linking all the equipments in a university, a factory, or an

office building.

.
Figure 3.1: Different size of LAN

To the contrary, a network that covers a wide area by linking few building or
LAN sites (for example, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Jakarta, Phnom Penh and
Bangkok) is called a WAN (Wide Area Network).

Computers connected to a WAN are often connected through public networks,

such as the PSTN1 (Public Switched Telephone Network). They can also be
connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is
the Internet.

1
The international telephone system based on copper wires carrying analogue voice data. This is in contrast to newer
telephone networks base on digital technologies, such as ISDN and FDDI.

3
Figure 3.2: LAN Figure 3.3: WAN

4
4 PEER-TO-PEER AND SERVER-CLIENT NETWORK
If multiple PCs are connected in a network, a PC can access the hard disk of
the other PC or use the printer connected directly to the other PC2.

There are three basic roles that a computer will assume on a network:

¾ Client – A client will utilize, but not provide, network resources.

¾ Peer – A peer can utilize and provide network resources.

¾ Server – A server generally provides, but does not utilize, network

resources.

The two types of networks for the three roles to communicate are Peer-to-Peer
Network and Server-Client Network.

4.1 PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK

Computers are connected to a network with equal rights of access.

Users must configure their PCs by themselves about who can access to what
resources (such as hard disk or printer that are connected to their computers).
Each user assumes the responsibility of operating a network.

/ Increasing the numbers of network users make it more difficult to

operate the network.

Figure 4.1: Peer-to-Peer Network

2
Provided the owner shares the resources (e.g. hard disk or printer) to the other users in the network.

5
4.2 SERVER-CLIENT NETWORK
This architecture is suitable for offices with many users as it eliminates a lot of
hassles and annoyances when the user group grows.

A server machine is installed to control the network operation. This server

works as the centerpiece of the network. It provides access to network resources
through centralised administration and security. There is a network
administrator to manage the server and control how each client machine uses the
network.

Figure 4.2: Server-Client Network

4.3 SUMMARY
Peer-to-Peer Service-Client
Setup - Simple and easy to introduce. - Careful planning is needed.
Introduction - The introduction costs are - The introduction costs are high because
cost low. the system requires:
- Expensive server machine
- Network administrator.
Administrator - Not needed. - A network administrator is needed to
- Each network user maintains manage the server and network.
own PC’s networking functions.
Security - Poorer in terms of security. - Provide higher quality security.
Suitable for - Small LANs with several PCs. - Medium to large LANs used by
companies.

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5 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
The NOS (Network Operating System) in a LAN network works together with
the desktop operating system. It is more complicated and has more
responsibilities than the OS for a PC. NOS is responsible:

¾ To prepare data that will be transmitted along the network cable

between devices

¾ To administrate sharing of files and other network resources, such as

printers and scanners.

¾ For security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the

system.

In ABCs of Basic Computer, we have learnt some commonly used OS for

personal computers. Here are some commonly NOS used for servers.

5.1 NOVELL NETWARE

In 1984, Novell introduced NetWare, the first software-based network operating
system that is specifically designed to run on network servers. In the 20 years
since then, Novell has continually set the standard for enterprise-class security,
reliability, manageability and cross-platform interoperability [5].

Latest release is NetWare 6.5.

5.2 WINDOWS SERVER

¾ From Microsoft. It is the Windows for servers.

¾ Latest product is Windows Server 2003 Family (a.k.a.3 Windows NT 5.2

and for a time called "Windows.NET server"), released in July 2003.

5.3 UNIX
UNIX was originally developed by AT&T’s Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s [7]
[8]. It is widely used in universities, research institutes, government bodies and
computer companies due to its portability, flexibility, and power.

3
A.k.a.= Also known as

7
UNIX is nowadays available in various versions from different companies. Each
has customized UNIX to do many specialized tasks and utilities. The most well
known ones are Sun Solaris, Mac OS X, and Linux.

5.3.1 SOLARIS

¾ From Sun Microsystems

¾ 1st release (Solaris 1, a.k.a. SunOS 4.1.1) in November 1990. Latest

version Solaris 10 was released in February 2004 [9].

5.3.2 MAC OS X SERVER

¾ From Apple, used for Macintosh servers.

¾ Unix-based OS with their Macintosh GUI

¾ 1st release of Mac OS X Server 1.0 in March 1999. The latest version is
Mac OS X Server 10.3.2, released in December 2003 [9].

5.3.3 LINUX

¾ Originally created by Linus Torvald on 1st Aug 1991 [3].

¾ Open source4 and is freely available to everyone [3].

¾ There are now literally hundreds of companies and organizations and an

equal number of individuals that have released their own versions of
operating systems based on the Linux kernel5. This has contributed to
the fast growth of Linux [3].

¾ IBM, Novell, Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard and other giants of the

computing world have embraced Linux and support its ongoing
development [3].

¾ More than a decade after its initial release, Linux is now being adopted
worldwide as a server platform primarily. Its use as a home and office
desktop operating system is also on the rise [3].

¾ Latest release is Linux 2.6.5, on 3rd April 2004 [9].

4
All software is built with source code. Open source means the code can be seen and changed.
5
It is this kernel that forms the base around which a Linux operating system is developed.

8
5.4 OS/400
¾ IBM OS for its AS/400 and AS/400e line of midrange servers [2].

¾ AS/400 was formally renamed as “eServer iSeries”, but it is still

commonly known as AS/400 [2].

¾ OS/400 is closely attuned to the AS/400 hardware design and generally

comes as part of the basic package, thus there is no alternative
operating system to compete with it [2].

¾ Latest version: OS/400 Version 5 Release 2 [11].

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6 OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION MODEL
In order for data transfer over a network to be successful, all hardware
and software must work together and communicate in a common
"language". Thus, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was
developed and officially adopted as an international standard by the
International Organization of Standards (ISO) in 1984. It is now the primary
architectural model for network communications. Most of the network
communication protocols and networking products used today are compliant
with the OSI model [13].

DO NOT confuse ISO with OSI.

ISO => an organisation, a group of people

OSI => a standard, a bunch of documents

Computer 1 Computer 2
(Sending) (Receiving)

DATA Application Application DATA

I DATA Presentation Presentation I DATA

II DATA Session Session II DATA

III DATA Transport Transport III DATA

IIII DATA Network Network IIII DATA

IIIII DATA Data Link Data Link IIIII DATA

IIIIII DATA Physical Physical IIIIII DATA

Figure 6.1: The OSI Model [12]

10
The multi-coloured figure above shows the following concepts:

1. The OSI Model divides data communication between two end points in a
telecommunication network into 7 layers.

2. Application layer produces DATA.

3. Each protocol layers adds a header to the data it receives from the layer
above it. This is called “encapsulation”. The encapsulated data is
transmitted in Protocol Data Units (PDUs).

4. The PDUs are passed down through the stack of layers until they can be
transmitted over the Physical Layer.

5. Any layer on one machine speaks the same language as the same layer
on any other machine, and therefore can communicate via the Physical
layer (this communication is represented by the Symbols).

6. All information is passed down through all layers until it reaches the
Physical layer (represented by the ).

7. The Physical layer chops up the PDUs and transmits the PDUs over the
wire. The Physical layer provides the real physical connectivity between
machines over which all communication occurs (represented by )

8. Data passed upwards is un-encapsulated before being passed farther up

(coloured bars IIIIII).

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Table below presents each layer of the OSI Model and its respective functions
[1] & [13].

OSI Layer Function

6
Application Layer - Defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer
(Layer 7) in network
- Provides standardized services such as, file and job transfer and
operations
Presentation Layer - Usually part of an operating system.
(Layer 6) - Translates data from Application Layer to a format the Session Layer
can understand.
- Performs data format conversion. Compresses, decompresses,
encodes, decodes, encrypts and decrypts data.

Session Layer - Manages user sessions and dialogues

(Layer 5) - Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users
- Reports upper layer errors
Transport Layer - Manages the end-to-end message delivery (for example, determining
(Layer 4) whether all packets have arrived) and error recovery. It ensures
complete data transfer.
Network Layer - Determines how data are transferred between network devices
(Layer 3) - Routes and forwarding, addressing, internetworking, error handling,
congestion control and packet sequencing.
Data Link Layer - Consists of 2 sub layers, LLC and MAC.
(Layer 2) - Defines procedures for operating the communication links
- Detects and corrects packets transmit errors

LLC (Logical Link Control)

- Controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
MAC (Media Access Control)
- Controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and
permission to transmit it.
Physical Layer - Defines physical hardware connection specifications between network
(Layer 1) medium and devices
- Defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics
- Responsible for transmitting data across a wire.

Table 6.1: OSI Layers

6
This layer is not the application itself, although some applications may perform application layer functions.

12
7 BASIC LAN COMPONENTS
Before we learn more about how a network operates, let’s take a look on some
basic LAN components [refer to Appendix for their positions in the OSI Model].

7.1 NETWORK SERVER

A network server is essentially a fast computer that has a large hard disk and
a fair amount of memory.

¾ It is the centre in the server-client network.

¾ A LAN server controls the usage of the shared resources (e.g. files,
storage, application programs, printers, and other devices). The NOS and
shared applications are installed in the hard disk on a server. Users
access files and applications on the server just as they would access their
own hard disks.

¾ Nowadays servers are set up to perform dedicated function, and they are
named after the functions, e.g. network server, file server, database
server, print server, web server, mail server, etc. [1]

7.2 COMPUTERS AND OTHER PERIPHERALS

Computers and other peripherals, such as printers and scanners, are the clients
in a network.

Figure 7.1: Computer and Other Peripherals in LAN

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7.3 CABLE (MEDIA)
The type of cable chosen is influenced by the network topology used, the layout
of the building, and cost. There are 3 common types of network cable.

7.3.1 TWISTED PAIR CABLE

7.3.1.1 UTP

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

consists of twisted pairs of cable. It
resembles telephone wire and is often
terminated with RJ45 connectors,
which look like a larger version of telephone connectors. The twists in the cable
provide protection against radio-frequency interference, which can cause
unreliability in the network.

7.3.1.2 STP

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) also consists of

twisted pairs of cable but is covered by a heavy
foil shield that protects it from
electromagnetic interference. STP provides
more protection in areas with heavy machinery
or near fluorescent lights.

7.3.2 COAXIAL CABLE

Coaxial cable (like TV cable) is heavier.

It used to be the standard for Ethernet,
but most new networks use UTP or
STP. Coaxial cable is difficult to lay and
is not commonly used today. Coaxial
cable could be found in older network
installations.

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7.3.3 FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

Fibre optic (or optical fibre) cable

transmits information as light pulses along
a bundle of glass filaments, which is
encased in plastic. It can operate in
conjunction with any current, or proposed,
LAN/WAN standard.

Below shows the advantages of fibre optic cables over copper cables [14].

Strength of fibre optic cables

Size and Weight Thinner and lighter
Speed Operates at high speeds - up into the gigabits per second
Bandwidth Greater bandwidth, carries more data
Data transmission Digital transmission
(Metal cables transmit data in analogue signal)
Resistant to - Electromagnetic Interference
- Radioactivity
Security/ High security. If someone taps into the fibre cable, the continuous
Eavesdropping pulse of light is disrupted and the signal ends [15].

Reliability Fast and reliable. Re-transmission of signals is not required for fibre
optic cables.
Distance Signals can be transmitted further without the need to be “refreshed" or
strengthened.
Lasting Not corrode as rapidly as metal cables
Maintenance Costs much less to maintain

Most telephone company long-distance lines are now fiber optic [2]. The
massive Internet and local networking, which demand extremely high
bandwidths and reliability, have given fibre optic a chance to stand out among
the other media [16].

15
Fibre optic cables used outdoor and indoor have different structure. Outdoor
cable must be extremely rugged [16].

Figure 7.2: Lightweight Indoor Fibre Optic Cable

Figure 7.3: Outdoor Fibre Optic Cable

16
7.3.4 SUMMARY

Different network topologies (Ethernet, FDDI, and Token Ring) can use various
types of cable (UTP, STP, coaxial, and fibre optic), though certain networks are
associated with certain types of cable. For example, people generally associate

Table 7.1: Media Type Designation7 [2]

Transmission Base band Physical medium that carries the signal
8
Speed (Mbps) signalling
10 Base 2 Thin-wire coaxial cable with a maximum segment length
of 185 meters
10 Base 5 Thick-wire coaxial cable with a maximum segment length
of 500 meters
10 Base 36 Broadband coaxial cable carrying multiple base band
channels for a maximum length of 3,600 meters
10 Base T Twisted-pair cable (usually UTP)
100 Base T4 4 pairs of telephone twisted pair wires
100 Base TX 2 pairs of data grade twisted-pair wire
10 Base F Fibre optic cable
100 Base FX Two-strand fibre optic cable
Ethernet with coaxial and UTP wiring, while FDDI is associated with fibre optic
cable.

DO NOT confuse Mbps with MBps.

Mbps = Mega bits per second (used to measure bandwidth on a

telecommunication medium)

MBps = Mega Bytes per second (used to measure data transfer to and from a
computer storage device)

7.4 NIC
To connect computers or other devices to a network, you need to install a NIC
(Network Interface Card) for each of these devices. This card helps to move data

7
This designation is an IEEE shorthand identifier.
8
Base band signalling means only Ethernet signals are carried on the medium

17
 out of the computer or device and onto the network cable, so it can be
transmitted to another device on the network.

The choice of the NIC to be installed depends on the network topology and the
type of network cable used.

All the devices on the same network segment (or area) must have the same type
of NIC (i.e.9 Ethernet network devices must have Ethernet NICs, etc.). Just as a
ship cannot dock at an airport, a Token Ring NIC cannot transmit or read
Ethernet data.

Figure 7.4: Typical NIC for Laptop Computer Figure 7.5: Typical NIC for peripheral devices

7.5 NETWORK INTERCONNECTION HARDWARE

7.5.1 REPEATER

Repeaters are used to regenerate analogue or digital signals that are distorted
by transmission loss. Analogue repeaters usually can only amplify the signal
while digital repeaters can reconstruct a signal to near its original quality [2].

7.5.2 HUB

Hubs are commonly

used to connect
nodes in a network
or segments of a
LAN. Both repeaters
and hubs are OSI
model Layer 1 devices. They simply amplify and transfer the received signals to
the next segment, without identify the destination it is intended too. They cannot
do the intelligent routing that is performed by bridges and routers [2].

9
abbr. of Id est in Latin: means “that is”.

18
7.5.3 BRIDGE

A bridge links two or more LANs that use the same protocol together [2].

When bridge receives data, it:

1. Identifies if the MAC (Media Access Control) address10 in the data packet
is on the left or right side of the bridge.

2. Forward the data to the intended MAC address. That is, if the receiver PC
is on the same segment of the sender PC, bridge will not forward the
message to the other segment [17].

Figure above shows:

¾ Without bridge: Network A is not linked to Network B. Computer A can

only send data to Computer B, but not Computer C and D.

¾ With bridge: Network A is linked to Network B. Computer A can send

data to not only Computer B, but also Computer C & D.

7.5.4 SWITCH

Just like bridge, switch channels incoming data from any of multiple input ports to
the specific output port that will take the data toward its intended destination.
While bridge works at OSI model layer 2, switch works at Layer 2 or Layer 3,
depending on the type of network [2].

10
Note: MAC address is NOT the IP address. MAC address is your computer's unique hardware number [2][2].

19
 ¾ In an Ethernet LAN: a switch determines the destination from the MAC
address (device physical address) in each incoming data frame – OSI
model Layer 2.

¾ In the Internet (Wide Area Network or WAN): a switch determines the

destination from the IP address in each data packet – OSI model Layer
3. Layer 3 switches also perform routing functions, and are called IP
switches.

7.5.5 ROUTER

Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks
connect [20]. Compared to bridge, router works at OSI model Layer 3 (higher
level) and is able to perform more complex analysis to determine the best path
[20]between 2 nodes in the network by creating/maintaining/analysing a table
(known as routing table) of the available routes. [2]

7.5.6 GATEWAY

Gateway is like very smart router. It connects different types of networks, by

translating messages from one protocol to another [1] [2]. Sometimes known as
“protocol converter” [18].
For What it serves as …
Home Users The ISP (Internet Service Provider) that connects the user to the
Internet.
Enterprise Users The proxy server and firewall that routes the traffic from a
workstation to the outside network that is serving the Web pages.

The gateway is also associated with both

¾ Router, which determines where packets are sent,

¾ Switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in and out of the
gateway.

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7.5.7 SUMMARY
NETWORK A Linking Device NETWORK B

Application Application
(Layer 7) (Layer 7)

Presentation Presentation
(Layer 6) (Layer 6)
Gateway
Session Session
(Layer 5) (Layer 5)

Transport Transport
(Layer 4) (Layer 4)

Network Network
Switches/Router
(Layer 3) (Layer 3)

Data Link Data Link

Bridge
(Layer 2) (Layer 2)

Physical Physical
Repeater / Hub
(Layer 1) (Layer 1)

Figure 7.6: Inter-networking Devices and OSI Model

As you can see, bridge, switch, router and gateway have quite similar function –
forwarding the package to the destination node. The major differences are:

¾ Different OSI model layer

- Identify destination by MAC address or IP address
- Hardware or software level of support
¾ Different complexity
- Identify the available routes
- Identify best routes (be it shorter path or faster traffic)
- Support larger network
¾ Different in price
Figure 7.7 shows the positioning of the inter-networking devices in the OSI
Model. It Illustrates the OSI higher-layer device can serve the lower layers, e.g.
a gateway can be used in place of a router in a network.

21
APPENDIX - OSI MODEL & PROTOCOLS
OSI Layers TCP/IP Internet Novell Netware Microsoft Networking Apple Computer
Application DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration AppleShare
(Layer 7) Protocol), DNS (Domain Name
Systems), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), HTTP (HyperText Transfer
Protocol), Telnet (TCP/IP Terminal
Emulation Protocol), URL (Uniform
Resource Locator) NCP (Netware Core Protocols)
Presentation BGMP (Border Gateway Multicast AFP (AppleTalk Filing Protocol),
(Layer 6) Protocol)

Session LDAP (Lightweighted Directory NetBIOS (Network Basic PAP (Printer Access Protocol)
(Layer 5) Access Protocol) Input/Output System)

Transport TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) SPX (Sequenced Packet ATP (AppleTalk Transaction
(Layer 4) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) eXchange) Protocol)
NetBEUI (Network Basic
Network IP IPX (Internet Packet eXchange) Extended User Interface) DDP (Datagram Delivery
(Layer 3) (Internet Protocol) Protocol)

Data Link Network Interface Cards: Local Talk, Token Ring, FDDI, Ethernet, etc.
(Layer 2) NIC Drivers: ODI (Open Datalink Interface), NDIS (Network Independent Interface Specification), etc.
Physical Transmission Media (Cable):
(Layer 1) Twisted pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fibre Optic Cable, etc.

Table above only shows part of the protocols in each protocol suits. For complete list or further knowledge, you may like to refer to
http://www.javvin.com/

22
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.webopedia.com

[2] http://www.whatis.com

[3] http://www.linux.org/info/index.html

[4] http://www.redhat.com/

[5] http://www.novell.com/products/netware/vp_interview.html

[6] http://wwws.sun.com/software/linux/news/2002news.html

[7] http://www.unix-systems.org/what_is_unix/history_timeline.html

[8] http://www.unix.org/what_is_unix/history_timeline.html

[9] http://www.levenez.com/unix/history.html

[10] http://www.apple.com/pr/library/1999/mar/16opensource.html

[11] http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/eserver/iseries/software/v5r2.html

[12] http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/theory/osi/

[13] http://www.javvin.com/

[14] http://www.arcelect.com/fibercable.htm

[15] http://wrc.chinalake.navy.mil/warfighter_enc/COMPUTER/Tutorial/
lan.htm

[16] http://bluefuzzball.org/daath/networks

[17] http://www.practicallynetworked.com/networking/bridge_types.htm

[18] http://www.hyperdictionary.com/computer

[19] http://www.mandrake.demon.co.uk/Apple/ltalk/

[20] http://www.howstuffworks.com

[21] http://www.computeruser.com/resources/dictionary/

[22] http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ita/index.htm

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