Enquiry Into Life - Sylvia Mader

1
The Study of Life

Chapter Concepts
1.1 The Scientic Process
The scientic process allows biologists to gather
information and come to conclusions about the
natural world. 2
Various conclusions pertaining to the same area
of interest are sometimes used to arrive at a
theory, a general concept about the natural
world. 5
All persons have the responsibility to decide
how scientic information can best be used to
make ethical or moral decisions. 6
1.2 The Characteristics of Life
Although life is quite diverse, it can be dened
by certain common characteristics. 7
The biosphere is made up of ecosystems where
living things interact with each other and the
physical environment. 10
The biodiversity of the biosphere is being
threatened by human activities. 12
1.3 The Classication of Living Things
Living things are classied into categories
according to their evolutionary relationships. 13
Many biological experiments are performed in the laboratory
where conditions can be more easily controlled.
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Biology is the scientic study of life (Fig. 1.1). Religion, aes-
thetics, ethics, and, yes, science, are all ways that human
beings have of nding order in the natural world. But sci-
ence differs from other human ways of knowing and learn-
ing by its process.
The process of science is unique. Science is a human
endeavor that considers only what is observable by the sens-
2 Introduction 1-2
A
bout 200 years ago, an English country doctor,
Edward Jenner, made medical history due to a keen
observation. He noticed that milkmaids usually avoid-
ed contracting smallpox, a disguring and frequently fatal
disease. Jenner reasoned that the women were somehow
protected because they had previously had cowpox, a simi-
lar but much less serious illness. To test that hypothesis,
Jenner injected a young boy with cowpox, and later
exposed him to smallpox. When his volunteer remained
healthy, the way was paved for the development of the mod-
ern version of a smallpox vaccine that has done away with
the disease entirely.
Biology uses the same methodology today as was used
by Jenner to come to conclusions that are accepted until
proven false by future investigations. The information pre-
sented in this text is the result of work done by scientists
over the ages. What is science and what methodology does
science use?
Figure 1.1 Diversity of life.
Biology is the scientic study of life, which has diversied into the many forms we nd on planet Earth. a. Vorticella, a protozoan; b. Hibiscus, a
owering plant; c. Sally lightfoot, a crab; d. Snow leopard, a mammal
es or by instruments that extend the ability of the senses.
Microscopes extend the ability of sight way beyond what
can be seen by the naked eye, for example. Observations can
be made by any one of our ve senses; we can observe with
our noses that dinner is almost ready; observe with our n-
gertips that a surface is smooth and cold; and observe with
our ears that a piano needs tuning. Various input allows sci-
entists to formulate hypotheses.
Formulating a Hypothesis
Once a scientist becomes interested in an observable event,
called a phenomenon, he or she will most likely study up on
it. The goal will be to nd any other past work in the area;
the Internet, the library, other scientists will all be consulted
to see what past ideas there may have been about this phe-
nomenon. All of this input helps a scientist use imagination
and creative thinking to formulate a hypothesis. Ahypothe-
sis is a tentative explanation of a scientic question based on
observations and past knowledge.
Hypotheses, of course, vary in the level of their sophis-
tication. A young person in elementary school might
hypothesize that plants need light in order to grow; while a
high school student might hypothesize that light allows
plant leaves to produce sugar. In any case, all the past expe-
riences of the individual no matter their source, will most
likely inuence the formulation of a hypothesis. Einstein
said that aesthetic qualities like beauty and simplicity
30 m
d.
Snow Leopard, a mammal
a.
Vorticella, a protozoan
b.
Hibiscus, a flowering plant
c.
Sally lightfoot, a crab
helped him to formulate his hypotheses about the workings
of the universe. Indeed, most every scientist looks favorably
upon the simplest hypothesis for a phenomenon and tests
that one rst.
Science only considers hypotheses that can be tested.
Moral and religious beliefs while very important to our lives
differ between cultures and through time and they are not
always testable by further observations and/or experimen-
tation.
Testing a Hypothesis
Hypotheses are tested either in the laboratory setting or in
a natural setting. The laboratory is a place that lends itself
to carrying on experiments, which are articial situations
devised to test hypotheses. Experiments can also be car-
ried out in a natural setting, called the field. David P.
Barash, who was observing the mating behavior of moun-
tain bluebirds, decided to perform an experiment to test
the hypothesis that aggression of the male varies accord-
ing to the reproductive cycle. He posted a male bluebird
model near nests while the resident male was out forag-
ing. The behavior of the male toward the model and
toward his female mate were noted during the first ten
minutes of the males return. Aggression was most severe
when the male model was presented before the rst egg
was laid, less severe when the model was presented after
an egg was laid, and least severe after the eggs had
hatched (Fig. 1.2).
Laboratory experiments are often preferred to experi-
ments in the eld because a laboratory setting eliminates
extraneous variables. Avariable is a factor that can cause an
observable change during the progress of the experiment.
The Science Focus on the next page describes a hypothetical
experiment scientists conduct to determine whether sub-
stance S is a safe food additive. Some of the possible vari-
ables include the individual characteristics of the mice,
availability of food and water, and environmental condi-
tions such as the cleanliness of the cages and the tempera-
ture and humidity of the room, and so forth. The
experimenters would try to keep all these variables constant
except the presence or absence of substance
Experiments are considered more rigorous when they
include a control group. Control in this context does not
refer to the power of the experimenterrather it refers to
the validity of the experimental results. A control group
experiences all the steps in the experiment except for the
one that is being tested. Barash used a control group. He
posted a male robin instead of a male bluebird near certain
nests. (The male bluebirds did not respond at all to a robin
model.) In the substance S experiment, the mice in the con-
trol group do not have substance S added to their food.
When an experiment has a control group, we know that the
results are due to the variable being tested and not due to
some nonidentiable chance event that occurred during the
experiment.
Chapter 1 The Study of Life 3 1-3
Stage of Nesting Cycle
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approaches to
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nest 1
nest 2
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0
first egg
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hatching of
eggs
c. Scientist studies results and comes to a conclusion.
b. Scientist performs experiment and collects objective data.
a. Scientist makes observations, studies previous data, and formulates
a hypothesis.
Figure 1.2 Example of scientic method.
Observation of male bluebird behavior allowed David Barash to
formulate a testable hypothesis. Then, he collected the data
displayed in a graph and came to a conclusion.
Biologists want to determine if sweetener S is a safe food addi-
tive and design a controlled laboratory experiment. They place
a certain number of randomly chosen inbred (genetically simi-
lar) mice into the two groupssay, 100 mice per group
(Fig. 1A). If any of the mice are different from the others, it is
hoped random selection will distribute them evenly among the
groups. The researchers also make sure that all conditions, such
as availability of water, cage setup, and temperature of the sur-
roundings, are the same for both groups. The food for each
group is exactly the same except for the amount of sweetener S.
In experiment 1, the researchers formulate a hypothesis that
sweetener S is a safe food additive at any dietary intake. The
control group receives no sweetener S and in the test group 50%
of the diet is sweetener S. At the end of the experiment, both
groups of mice are examined for bladder cancer. They nd that
one-third of the mice in the test group have bladder cancer,
while none in the control group have bladder cancer. The results
of this experiment falsify the hypothesis and the researchers
conclude that sweetener S is not a safe food additive at 50% of
dietary intake.
The researchers decide to rene their study, and in experiment
2 they hypothesize that sweetener S is safe if the diet contains a
limited amount of sweetener S. They feed sweetener S to groups of
mice at ever-greater concentrations until it reaches 50% of the diet.
Group 1: diet contains no sweetener S (the control)
Group 2: 5% of diet is sweetener S
Z
The researchers present their data in the form of a graph and
statistically analyze their data to determine if the difference in
the number of cases of bladder cancer between the various
groups is signicant and not due to simple chance. Finding that
they are signicant, the researchers conclude that they can now
develop a recommendation concerning the intake of sweetener
S in humans. They suggest that an intake of sweetener S up to
10% of the diet is relatively safe but thereafter an ever-greater
incidence of bladder cancer should be expected (Fig. 1A).
A Controlled Laboratory Experiment
Figure 1A Design of a controlled experiment.
Genetically similar mice are randomly divided into a control group and (a) test group(s) that contain 100 mice each. All groups are exposed
to same conditions, such as cage setup, temperature, and water supply. The control group is not subjected to sweetener S in the food. At
the end of the experiment, all mice are examined for bladder cancer.
Test group: sweetener in food
Control group: no sweetener in food
Bladder cancer
examination
Experiment 1
control group: no bladder cancer
test group: one-third of mice have bladder cancer
Sweetener S in food (%)
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Experiment 2
The Experimental Results
The results of an experiment are referred to as the data. Data
often takes the form of a table or a graph that allows one to
see the results in an organized manner. Barashs data are
shown in Figure 1.2. Data should be objective rather than
subjective, and mathematical data are conducive to objectiv-
ity. For example, Barash didnt report that it seemed to him
that the male bluebirds were more aggressive before the
eggs were laid (subjective); rather, he dened aggression as
the number of approaches per minute (objective) and
reported that number. When Mendel, the father of genetics,
did a pea cross concerning height, he didnt report that he
could tell at a glance there were more tall than short plants;
he reported that the ratio was three tall to every short plant.
In fact, Mendel repeated one particular experiment so many
times that he counted 7,324 peas!
To ensure that the results are not due to chance or some
unknown variable, experiments are often repeated not only
by the original scientist but by others in the same area of
expertise. Therefore, scientists must keep careful records of
how they perform their experiments so that others can
repeat them. If the same results are not obtained over and
over again, the experiment is not considered valid.
The Conclusion
After studying the results, the experimenter comes to a con-
clusion whether the results support or falsify (show to be
untrue) the hypothesis. The data allowed Barash to con-
clude that aggression in male bluebirds is related to their
reproductive cycle. Therefore, his hypothesis was support-
ed. If male bluebirds were always aggressive even toward
male robin models, his hypothesis would have been proven
false.
Science progresses and the hypothesis may have to be
modied in the future. There is always the possibility that a
more sophisticated experiment using perhaps more
advanced technology might falsify the hypothesis. There-
fore, a scientist never says that the data prove the hypoth-
esis to be true. Because of this feature, some think of
science as what is left after alternative hypotheses have been
rejected.
Scientists report their ndings in scientic journals so
that their methodology and results are available to the scien-
tic community. Barash reported his experiment in the
American Naturalist.
1
The reporting of experiments results in
accumulated data that will help other scientists formulate
hypotheses. Also, it results in a body of information that is
made known to the general public through the publishing of
books, such as this biology textbook.
Scientic Theories
The ultimate goal of science is to understand the natural
world in terms of scientic theories, which are concepts that
join together well-supported and related hypotheses. In a
movie, a detective may claim to have a theory about the
crime. Or you may say that you have a theory about the
won-lost record of your favorite baseball team. But in sci-
ence, the word theory is reserved for a conceptual scheme
that is supported by a broad range of observations, experi-
ments, and data.
Some of the basic theories of biology are:
Name of Theory Explanation
Cell All organisms are composed
of cells.
Biogenesis Life comes only from life.
Evolution All living things have a
common ancestor and are
adapted to a particular way
of life.
Gene Organisms contain coded
information that dictates
their form, function, and
behavior.
Evolution is the unifying concept of biology because it per-
tains to various aspects of living things. For example, the
theory of evolution enables scientists to understand the his-
tory of life, the variety of living things, and the anatomy,
physiology, and development of organismseven their
behavior.
Barash gave an evolutionary interpretation to his
results. It was adaptive, he said, for male bluebirds to be less
aggressive after the rst egg is laid because by that time the
male bird is sure the offspring is his own and maladaptive
for the male bird to waste time and energy being too aggres-
sive toward a rival and his mate after hatching because his
offspring is already present. (When an organism is adapted
to its environment, it is better able to survive and produce
offspring.)
Fruitful theories are ones that help scientists generate
new hypotheses, and the theory of evolution has been a
very fruitful theory. In fact, it probably helped Barash
develop the hypothesis he chose to test. Because the the-
ory of evolution has been supported by so many obser-
vations and experiments for over 100 years, some
biologists refer to the principle of evolution, suggesting
that this is the appropriate term for theories that are gen-
erally accepted by an overwhelming number of scien-
tists. The term law instead of principle is preferred by
some. In another chapter concerning energy relation-
ships, for example, we will examine the laws of thermo-
dynamics.
1
Barash, D. P. 1976. The male responds to apparent female adultery in the mountain
bluebird, Sialia currucoides: An evolutionary interpretation. American Naturalist
110:1097101.
The Scientic Method
The process of science is often described in terms of the sci-
entic method. Some scientists object to outlining the steps
of the scientic method as is done in Figure 1.3 because
such a diagram suggests a rigid methodology. Actually, sci-
entists approach their work in many different ways and
even sometimes make discoveries by chance. The most
famous case pertains to penicillin. When examining a petri
dish in 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed an area around a
mold that was free of bacteria. Upon investigating, Fleming
found that the mold produced an antibacterial substance he
called penicillin. Penicillin was later mass produced and is
still a successfully used antibiotic in humans today. Some
scientists do not test hypothesesinstead, they make
observations and add to the known data. For example, a sci-
entist might decide to nd out what types of animals live on
the ocean oor.
A discussion of the scientic process is not complete
without an admission that scientists do have to accept cer-
tain assumptions. They have to believe, for example, that
nature is real and understandable and knowable by observ-
ing it; that nature is orderly and uniform; that measure-
ments yield knowledge of the thing measured; and that
natural laws are not affected by time.
Science and Social Responsibility
Science seeks only a natural cause for the origin and history
of life. Doctrines of creation that have a mythical, philosoph-
ical, or theological basis are outside the realm of science
because they cannot be tested by observation and/or exper-
imentation. Creationism, which states that God created all
species as they are today, cannot be considered science
because explanations based on supernatural rather than nat-
ural causes involve faith rather than data.
There are many ways in which science has improved
our lives. The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines has
expanded the human life span. Cell biology research is
helping us understand the causes of cancer. Genetic
research has produced new strains of agricultural plants
that have eased the burden of feeding our burgeoning
world population. Still there are other instances in which
science has resulted in technologies that have harmed the
environment. Technology is a process, an instrument, or a
structure that is developed or constructed using scientic
principles. Biochemical knowledge was used to develop
pesticides which have helped increase agricultural yields.
Pesticides, as you may know, kill not only pests but also
other types of organisms. The book Silent Spring was writ-
ten to make the public aware of the harmful environmen-
tal effects of pesticide use.
Too often we blame science for these developments
and think that scientists are duty bound to pursue only
those avenues of research that are consistent with a certain
system of values. But making value judgments is not a
part of science. Ethical and moral decisions must be made
by all people. The responsibility for how we use the fruits
of science, including a given technology, must reside with
people from all walks of life, not upon scientists alone. Sci-
entists should provide the public with as much informa-
tion as possible when such issues as the use of atomic
energy, fetal research, and genetic engineering are being
debated. Then they, along with other citizens, can help
make decisions about the future role of these technologies
in our society. All men and women have a responsibility to
decide how to use scientic knowledge so that it benets
the human species and all living things.
6 Introduction 1-6
previous data
formulation of
hypothesis
observations
and/or experimentation
new data conclusion
theory
1 2 3
observations
Figure 1.3 Flow diagram for the scientic method.
On the basis of observations and previous data, a scientist
formulates a hypothesis. The hypothesis is tested by further
observations or a controlled experiment, and new data either support
or falsify the hypothesis. The return arrow indicates that a scientist
often chooses to retest the same hypothesis or to test a related
hypothesis. Conclusions from many different but related experiments
may lead to the development of a scientic theory. For example,
studies in biology of development, anatomy, and fossil remains all
support the theory of evolution.
Biological theories help us determine the characteristics of
life. Despite its diversity (see Figure 1.1), certain properties
characterize all living things. For example, all living things
are organized.
Living Things Are Organized
Living things have levels of organization from the atoms
that constitute all matter to an ecosystem in which they
live (Fig. 1.4). Atoms join together to form molecules such
as the DNA molecules that occur only within cells. The
cell is the lowest level of biological organization to have
the characteristics of life. Anerve cell is one of the types of
cells in the body of a white-tailed deer. Atissue is a group
of similar cells that perform a particular function. Nervous
tissue has millions of nerve cells that transmit signals to all
parts of the deers body. Several tissues join together to
form an organ. The main organs in the nervous system of
a deer are the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves.
Organs work together to form an organ system. The brain
sends messages to the spinal cord which, in turn, sends
them to body parts by way of the spinal nerves. An organ-
ism, meaning an individual living thing, is a collection of
organ systems. Adeer contains a digestive system, a circu-
latory system, and several other systems in addition to a
nervous system. Organisms usually live within a popula-
tion, which is a group of interbreeding organisms in a par-
ticular locale. Several different populations interact within
a community. For example, deer feed on many different
types of living plants. An ecosystem includes a communi-
ty and also the physical environment. Organisms not only
interact with one another, they also interact with the phys-
ical environment, as when a deer takes a drink of water
from a pond.
molecular level
(DNA)
cellular level
(nerve cell)
tissue level
(nervous tissue)
organ level
(brain)
organ system level
(nervous system)
organism level
(white-tailed deer)
other levels
(population, community, ecosystem)
Figure 1.4 Levels of biological organization.
8 Introduction 1-8
Living Things Acquire Materials and
Energy
Living things cannot maintain their organization nor carry
on lifes other activities without an outside source of materi-
als and energy. Photosynthesizers, such as trees, use carbon
dioxide, water, and solar energy to make their own food.
Human beings and other animals, like ospreys (Fig. 1.5),
acquire materials and energy when they eat food.
Food provides nutrient molecules, which are used as
building blocks or for energy. Energy is the capacity to do
work, and it takes work to maintain the organization of the
cell and of the organism. When nutrient molecules are used
to make their parts and products, cells carry out a sequence
of synthetic chemical reactions. Some nutrient molecules are
broken down completely to provide the necessary energy to
carry out synthetic reactions.
Most living things can convert energy into motion. Self-
directed movement, as when we decide to rise from a chair,
is even considered by some to be a characteristic of life.
Living Things are Homeostatic
Homeostasis means staying the same. Actually, the inter-
nal environment stays relatively constant; for example, the
human body temperature uctuates slightly during the day.
Also, the bodys ability to maintain a normal internal tem-
perature is somewhat dependent on the external tempera-
turewe will die if the external temperature becomes
overly hot or cold.
All human systems contribute to homeostasis. The
digestive system provides nutrient molecules; the circula-
tory system transports them about the body; and the excre-
tory system rids blood of metabolic wastes. The nervous
and hormonal systems coordinate the activities of the oth-
er systems. One of the major purposes of this text is to
show how all the systems of the human body help to main-
tain homeostasis.
Living Things Respond to Stimuli
Living things respond to external stimuli, often by moving
toward or away from the stimulus. Movement in humans is
dependent upon their nervous and muscular systems. Other
living things use a variety of mechanisms in order to move.
Leaves of plants track the passage of the sun during the day,
and when a houseplant is placed near a window, its stem
bends to face the sun.
The movement of an organism, whether self-directed or
in response to a stimulus, constitutes a large part of an
organisms behavior. Behavior largely is directed toward
minimizing injury, acquiring food, and reproducing.
Figure 1.5 Living things acquire materials and energy.
An osprey is a large bird that preys on shes as its source of food.
Figure 1.6 Living things reproduce.
An osprey lays two to four eggs in a large nest located on the top of a
tree, a rock pinnacle, or even a telephone pole. The edglings are
ready to leave the nest 40 to 50 days after hatching.
Living Things Reproduce
Life comes only from life. The presence of genes in the form of
DNA molecules allows cells and organisms to reproduce
that is, make more of themselves (Fig. 1.6). DNAcontains the
hereditary information that directs the structure and metabo-
lism, chemical reactions of a cell. Before reproduction occurs,
genes are replicated and copies of genes are produced.
Unicellular organisms reproduce asexually simply by
dividing. The new cells have the same genes and structure
as the single parent. Multicellular organisms usually repro-
duce sexually. Each parent, male and female, contributes
roughly one-half the total number of genes to the offspring,
which then does not resemble either parent exactly.
Living Things Grow and Develop
Growth, recognized by an increase in size and often the num-
ber of cells, is a part of development. In humans, develop-
ment includes all the changes that take place between
conception and death. First, the fertilized egg develops into a
newborn, and then a human goes through the stages of child-
hood, adolescence, adulthood, and aging. Development also
includes the repair that takes place following an injury.
All organisms undergo development. Figure 1.7 illus-
trates that an oak tree progresses from an acorn to a seedling
before it becomes an adult oak tree.
Living Things Are Adapted
Adaptations are modifications that make an organism
suited to its way of life. Consider, for example, a bird like
an osprey (see Fig. 1.5), which catches and eats sh. An
osprey can fly in part because it has hollow bones to
reduce its weight and ight muscles to depress and ele-
vate the wings. When an osprey dives, its strong feet take
the rst shock of the water and then its long and sharp
claws hold onto its slippery prey.
Adaptations come about through evolution. Evolu-
tion is the process by which characteristics of species (a
group of similarly constructed organisms that successfully
interbreed) change through time. When new variations
arise that allow certain members of the species to capture
more resources, these members tend to survive and to
have more offspring than the other unchanged members.
Therefore, each successive generation will include more
members with the new variation. In the end, most mem-
bers of a species have the same adaptations to their envi-
ronment.
Evolution, which has been going on since the origin of
life, explains both the unity and the diversity of life. All
organisms share the same characteristics of life because
their ancestry can be traced to the rst cell or cells. Organ-
isms are diverse because they are adapted to different
ways of life.
need confirmation of photo
Figure 1.7 Living things grow and develop.
Stages in the development of an oak tree from an acorn to a seedling to an adult.
Living Things Belong to a Population
Individual organisms belong to a population, all the mem-
bers of a species that live within a particular community.
The populations within a community interact among them-
selves and with the physical environment (soil, atmosphere,
etc.), thereby forming an ecosystem. All ecosystems are
included within the biosphere, a thin layer of life that encir-
cles the earth.
Although an ecosystem like a tropical rain forest
changessome trees fall and some animals diean ecosys-
tem remains recognizable year after year. We say it is in
dynamic balance. In many cases, even the extinction of
species (and their replacement by new species through evo-
lution) still allows the dynamic balance of the system to be
maintained.
Amajor feature of the interactions between populations
pertains to who eats whom. Plants produce food, and ani-
mals that eat plants are food for other animals. Such a
sequence of organisms is called a food chain (Fig. 1.8). Both
plants and animals interact with the physical environment,
as when they exchange gases with the atmosphere.
Nutrients cycle within and between ecosystems. Plants
take in inorganic nutrients, like carbon dioxide and water,
and produce organic nutrients, such as carbohydrates, that
are used by themselves and various levels of animal con-
sumers. When these organisms die and decay, inorganic
nutrients are made available to plants once more. The blue
arrows in Figure 1.8 show how chemicals cycle through the
various populations of an ecosystem.
In contrast, the yellow arrows in Figure 1.8 show how
energy ows through an ecosystem: solar energy used by
plants to produce organic food is eventually converted to
heat when organisms, including plants, use organic food as
an energy source. Therefore, a constant supply of solar ener-
gy is required for an ecosystem and for life to exist.
All living things share the same characteristics of
life: they are organized; take materials and energy
from the environment; are homeostatic; respond to
stimuli; reproduce; grow and develop; are adapted
to their way of life; and belong to populations.
10 Introduction 1-10
death and decomposition
Key:
energy
nutrients
heat
inorganic nutrients
heat
heat
heat
heat
Figure 1.8 Ecosystem organization.
Within an ecosystem, nutrients cycle (see blue arrows); plants make and use their own organic food, and this becomes food for several levels of
animal consumers, including humans. When these organisms die and decompose, the inorganic remains are used by plants as they produce
organic food. Energy ows (see yellow arrows); solar energy used by plants to produce organic food is eventually converted to heat by all
members of an ecosystem (therefore, a constant supply of solar energy is required for life to exist).
Tropical Rain Forest, a Terrestrial Ecosystem
Tropical rain forests are the most complex ecosystems in the
world. They are found near the equator where there is plen-
tiful sun and rainfall the entire year. Major rain forests are
located in South America (Fig. 1.9), central and west Africa,
and Southeast Asia. Rain forests have a multilayered
canopy which consists of broad-leaved evergreen trees of
different heights. Most animal populations live in the
canopy where they interact with each other. Brightly colored
birds, such as toucans and macaws, y around eating fruits,
buds, and pollen. Other birds, such as long-billed hum-
mingbirds feed on nectar often taken from small plants that
grow independently on the trees. Tree sloths and spider
monkeys are mammals that live in the canopy and are
preyed upon by jaguars. Other canopy animals include but-
teries, tree frogs, and dart-poison frogs. Many canopy ani-
mals, such as bats, are active only at night. Snakes, spiders,
and ants are animals that live on or near the ground and not
in the canopy.
Figure 1.9 Tropical rain forest populations interact in the manner described in Fig. 1.8.
toucan
morpho butterfly
jaguar
epiphytic orchid
dart-poison frog
So far, nearly 2 million species of organisms have been discov-
ered and named. Two-thirds of the plant species, 90% of the
nonhuman primates, 40% of birds of prey, and 90% of the insects
live in the tropics. Many more species of organisms (perhaps as
many as 30 million) are estimated to live in the tropical rain
forests but have not yet been discovered.
Tropical forests span the planet on both sides of the equator
and cover 67% of the total land surface of the earthan area
roughly equivalent to our contiguous forty-eight states. Every
year humans destroy an area of forest equivalent to the size of
Oklahoma. At this rate, these forests and the species they con-
tain will disappear completely in just a few more decades. Even
if the forest areas now legally protected survive, 5672% of all
tropical forest species would still be lost.
The loss of tropical rain forests results from an interplay of
social, economic, and political pressures. Many people already
live in the forest, and as their numbers increase, more of the land
is cleared for farming. People move to the forests because inter-
nationally nanced projects build roads and open the forests up
for exploitation. Small-scale farming accounts for about 60% of
tropical deforestation, and this is followed by commercial log-
ging, cattle ranching, and mining. International demand for tim-
ber promotes destructive logging of rain forests in Southeast Asia
and South America. Amarket for low-grade beef encourages the
conversion of tropical rain forests to pastures for cattle. The lure
of gold draws miners to rain forests in Costa Rica and Brazil.
The destruction of tropical rain forests produces only short-
term benets but is expected to cause long-term problems. The
forests soak up rainfall during the wet season and release it dur-
ing the dry season. Without them, a regional yearly regime of
ooding followed by drought is expected to destroy property
and reduce agricultural harvests. Worldwide, there could be
changes in climate that would affect the entire human race. On
the other hand, the preservation of tropical rain forests offers
benets. For example, the rich diversity of plants and animals
would continue to exist for scientic and pharmacological study.
One-fourth of the medicines we currently use come from tropical
rain forests. The rosy periwinkle from Madagascar has produced
two potent drugs for use against Hodgkin disease, leukemia,
and other blood cancers. It is hoped that many of the still-
unknown plants will provide medicines for other human ills.
Studies show that if the forests were used as a sustainable
source of nonwood products, such as nuts, fruits, and latex rub-
ber, they would generate as much or more revenue while con-
tinuing to perform their various ecological functions. And
biodiversity could still be preserved. Brazil is exploring the con-
cept of extractive reserves, in which plant and animal prod-
ucts are harvested but the forest itself is not cleared. Ecologists
have also proposed forest farming systems, which mimic the
natural forest as much as possible while providing abundant
yields. But for such plans to work maximally, the human popu-
lation size and the resource consumption per person must be
stabilized.
Preserving tropical rain forests is a wise investment. Such
action promotes the survival of most of the worlds species
indeed, the human species, too.
12
Tropical Rain Forests: Can We Live Without Them?
The Human Population
The human population tends to modify existing ecosystems
for its own purposes. As more and more ecosystems are con-
verted to towns and cities, fewer of the natural cycles are
able to function adequately to sustain an evergrowing
human population. It is important to do all we can to pre-
serve ecosystems, because only then can we be assured that
we will continue to exist. The recognition that the workings
of the ecosystems need to be preserved is one of the most
important developments of our new ecological awareness.
Presently, there is great concern about preserving the
worlds tropical rain forests, as discussed in the reading on
this page. The tropical rain forests perform many services
for us. For example, they act like a giant sponge and absorb
carbon dioxide, a pollutant that pours into the atmosphere
from the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal. If the
rain forests continue to be depleted as they are now, an
increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
expected to cause an increase in the average daily tempera-
ture. Problems with acid rain are also expected to increase,
since carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic
acid, a component of acid rain.
The present biodiversity (number and size of populations
in a community) of our planet is being threatened. It has been
estimated that the number of species in the biosphere may be
as high as 80 million species, but thus far fewer than 2 million
have been identied and named. Even so we may be present-
ly losing from 24 to even 100 species a day due to human
activities. The existence of the species featured in Figure 1.9 is
threatened because tropical rain forests are being reduced in
size. Most biologists are alarmed over the present rate of
extinction and believe the rate may eventually rival the mass
extinctions that have occurred during our planets history.
The human population tends to modify existing
ecosystems and to reduce biodiversity. Because
all living things are dependent upon the normal
functioning of the biosphere, ecosystems should
be preserved.
Taxonomy is that part of biology dedicated to naming,
describing, and classifying organisms. Taxonomists use spe-
cic criteria to classify species, including human beings, into
certain categories.
As we move from genus to kingdom, more and more
different types of species are included in each successive cat-
share very similar characteristics, but those that are in the
same kingdom have only general characteristics in common.
In the same way, all species in the genus Zea look pretty
much the samethat is, like corn plantswhile species in
the plant kingdom can be quite different, as is evident when
we compare grasses to trees.
Taxonomists give each species a scientic name in Latin.
The scientic name is a binomial (bi means two; nomen
means name). For example, the name for humans is Homo
sapiens, and for corn, it is Zea mays. The rst word is the
genus, and the second word is a specic epithet for that
species. (Note that both words are in italic but only the genus
is capitalized.) Scientic names are universally used by biol-
ogists so as to avoid confusion. Common names tend to
overlap and often are in the language of a particular country.
Taxonomy makes sense out of the bewildering variety of
life on earth. Species are classied according to their pre-
sumed evolutionary relationship; those placed in the same
genus are the most closely related, and those placed in sepa-
rate kingdoms are the most distantly related. As more is
known about evolutionary relationships between species,
taxonomy changes. Presently many biologists recognize the
ve kingdoms listed in Figure 1.10. Others disagree not only
about the number of kingdoms but also about which species
should be placed in the various categories of classication.
Categories For Humans Description
Kingdom Animalia Multicellular, moves,
ingests food
Phylum Chordata Dorsal supporting rod
and nerve cord
Class Mammalia Hair, mammary glands
Order Primates Adapted to climb trees
Family Hominidae Adapted to walk erect
Genus Homo Large brain, tool use
Species H. sapiens
Kingdoms
of Life
Representative Organisms Organization Type of Nutrition
Representative
Organisms
Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Microscopic single
cell (sometimes
chains or mats)
Complex single cell,
some multicellular
Some unicellular,
most multicellular
filamentous forms
with specialized
complex cells
Multicellular form
with specialized
complex cells
Multicellular form
with specialized
complex cells
Absorb food
(some photo-
synthesize)
Absorb,
photosynthesize,
or ingest food
Absorb food
Photosynthesize
food
Ingest food
Bacteria including
cyanobacteria
Protozoans,
algae, water molds,
and slime mold
Molds, yeast,
and mushrooms
Mosses, ferns,
nonwoody and
woody flowering
plants
Invertebrates,
fishes, reptiles,
amphibians, birds,
and mammals
bacilli spirochete Anabaena Gloeocapsa
black bread mold yeast mushroom bracket fungus
coral earthworm blue jay squirrel
moss fern pine tree
nonwoody
flowering plant
paramecium euglenoid slime mold dinoflagellate
egory. Only human beings are in the genus Homo, but many
different types of animals are in the animal kingdom. Notice
that in the example given, species within the same genus
Figure 1.10 Classication of organisms.
In this text, organisms are classied into the ve kingdoms illustrated in this table.
Summarizing the Concepts
When studying the world of living things, biologists and other scien-
tists use the scientic process. Observations along with previous data
are used to formulate a hypothesis. New observations and/or experi-
ments are carried out in order to test the hypothesis. Scientists often do
controlled experiments. The control sample does not go through the
step being tested, and this acts as a safeguard against a wrong conclu-
sion.
The new data may support a hypothesis or they may prove it false.
Hypotheses cannot be proven true. Several conclusions in a particular
area may allow scientists to arrive at a theorygeneralizations such as
the cell theory, gene theory, or the theory of evolution. Evolution is the
unifying theory of biology.
Science is objective and uses conclusions based on data to arrive at
theories about the natural world. Any explanation based on supernat-
ural beliefs cannot be considered science because such beliefs are not
tested in the usual scientic way.
Science does not answer ethical questions; we must do this for
ourselves. Knowledge provided by science, such as the contents of this
text, can assist us in making decisions that will be benecial to human
beings and to other living things.
Evolution accounts for both the diversity and the unity of life we see
about usall organisms share the same characteristics of life:
1. Living things are organized. The levels of biological
organization extend from the cell to ecosystems: atoms and
molecules cells tissues organs organ systems
organisms populations communities
ecosystems. In an ecosystem, populations interact with one
another and the physical environment.
2. Living things take materials and energy from the
environment; they need an outside source of nutrients.
3. Living things are homeostatic; internally they stay just about
the same despite changes in the external environment.
4. Living things respond to stimuli; they react to internal and
external events.
5. Living things reproduce; they produce offspring that resemble
themselves.
6. Living things grow and develop; during their lives they
changemost multicellular organisms undergo various
stages from fertilization to death.
7. Living things are adapted; they have modications that make
them suited to a particular way of life.
8. All living things belong to a population, which can be dened
as all the members of the same species that occur in a
particular locale.
Living things are classied according to their evolutionary relation-
ships into these ever more specic categories: kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus, species. Organisms in different kingdoms are only
distantly related; organisms in the same genus are very closely related.
Studying the Concepts
1. What are the steps of the scientic process? Why cant this
process prove a hypothesis true? 2
2. What is a controlled experiment? Why must a scientist test
one variable at a time? have a control group? 3
3. What is the ultimate goal of science? Give an example that
supports your answer. 5
4. Why isnt creationism considered a part of science by biolo-
gists? 6
T
he Endangered Species Act requires
the federal government to identify
endangered and threatened species and to
protect their habitats, even to the extent of
purchasing their habitats. Developers feel
that the act protects wildlife at the expense
of jobs for US citizens. In an effort to allow
development in sensitive areas, it is now
possible to move forward after a Habitat
Conservation Plan (HCP) is approved. An
HCP permits, say, new-home construction
or logging on a part of the land if wildlife
habitat is conserved on another part. Con-
servation can also mean helping the gov-
ernment buy habitat some place else.
The nations rst HCP was approved
in 1980. It permitted housing construction
on San Bruno Mountain near San Francisco,
if 97% of the habitat for the endangered
mission blue buttery was preserved. That
sounds pretty good, but by this time hun-
dreds of HCPs have been approved, and
the conservation requirement may have
slipped a bit. Tim Cullinan, a director of
the National Audubon Society, recently
found that logging companies in the Pacif-
ic Northwest are proposing the exchange
of habitat on public land for the right to
log privately owned old forests. In other
words, nothing has been given up. By
now, there are so many HCPs in the works
they are being rubber-stamped by govern-
ment ofcials with no public review at all.
Do you favor development over
preservation of habitat or vice versa? Do
you think the federal government should
be in the business of trying to preserve
endangered species? Do you think that
public review of HCPs should be allowed,
even if it slows down the approval
process? Is it the publics responsibility to
remain vigilant or is governmental review
of HCPs sufcient?
Questions
1. What are the concerns of developers
versus environmentalists with regard to
natural areas?
2. Is it short-sighted to stress the importance
of jobs over the rights of wildlife? Why or
why not?
3. In what ethical ways can each side make
their concerns known to the general
public?
Go To Student OLC
5. Why doesnt science answer ethical and moral questions? 6
6. Name eight characteristics of life, and discuss each one.
7-10
7. Food provides which two necessities for living things? 8
8. Give an example of homeostasis. Tell how the digestive sys-
tem contributes to homeostasis in humans. 8
9. Why is the phrase lifelong developmental change appro-
priate when speaking of humans? 9
10. How is an osprey adapted to its way of life? 9
11. How does evolution explain both the diversity and the unity
of life? 9
12. What are the levels of biological organization beyond the
organism? Dene each level. 10
13. Name the categories of classication, from genus to kingdom.
Which category contains more types of organisms having
general characteristics in common? 13
14. Explain the scientic name of an organism. 13
Testing Yourself
Choose the best answer for each question.
1. Science always studies an event that
a. has previously been published.
b. lends itself to experimentation.
c. is observable.
d. ts in with an already existing theory.
e. Both b and c are correct.
2. After formulating a hypothesis, a scientist
a. proves the hypothesis true or false.
b. tests the hypothesis.
c. decides how to have a control.
d. makes sure of his variables.
e. formulates a theory.
3. Ascientist cannot
a. make value judgments like everyone else.
b. prove a hypothesis true.
c. contribute to a long-standing theory.
d. make use of pre-existing mathematical data.
e. be as objective as possible.
For questions 47, match the statements in the key with the
sentences below.
Key:
a. Living things are organized.
b. Living things are homeostatic.
c. Living things respond to stimuli.
d. Living things reproduce.
e. Living things are adapted.
4. Genes made up of DNAare passed from parent to child.
5. Cells are made of molecules, tissues are made of cells, and
organisms are made of tissues.
6. Aherd of zebra will scatter when a lion approaches.
7. The long, sharp claws of an osprey can hold on to a sh.
8. An example of chemical cycling occurs when
a. plants absorb solar energy and make their own food.
b. energy ows through an ecosystem and becomes heat.
c. osprey nest on the top of telephone poles.
d. death and decay makes inorganic nutrients available to
plants.
e. we eat food and use the nutrients to grow/repair tissues.
9. Which of these is mismatched?
a. Kingdom Moneramosses, ferns, pine trees
b. Kingdom Protistaprotozoans, algae, water molds
c. Kingdom Fungimolds and mushrooms
d. Kingdom Plantaewoody and nonwoody owering
plants
e. Kingdom Animaliash, reptiles, birds, humans.
10. An investigator spills dye on a culture plate and then notices
that the bacteria live despite exposure to sunlight. He
hypothesizes that the dye protects bacteria against death by
ultraviolet (UV) light. To test this hypothesis, he decides to
expose two hundred culture plates to UV light. One hundred
plates contain bacteria and dye; the other hundred plates
contain only bacteria. Result: after exposure to UV light, the
bacteria on both plates die. Fill in the right-hand portion of
this diagram.
conclusion
hypothesis
experimentation and/or
observations
Scientific Method
observations
d.
b.
c.
Example
a.
Thinking Scientically
1. Considering controlled experiments (page 4):
a. Avariable is an element that changes. Why is sweetener S
called the experimental variable in the experiment?
b. With reference to Figure 1A, explain this denition: A
control group goes through all the steps of an experiment
except the one being tested.
c. Why is bladder cancer the dependent variable in the
described experiment?
d. Does the experiment have elements that are constant and
not variable? What are they?
e. What is the value of including a control group in an exper-
iment?
2. Considering the scientic process (pages 26):
a. Scientic hypotheses must be falsiable. Why is the
hypothesis Every human being has a guardian angel not
falsiable?
b. Why is the hypothesis Biotin is required for good health
falsiable?
c. In what way are religious beliefs different from scientic
beliefs?
Match the terms to these denitions:
a. Concept consistent with conclusions based on a
large number of experiments and observations.
b. Statement that is capable of explaining present
observations and will be tested by further experimentation
and observations.
c. Capacity to do work and bring about change;
occurs in a variety of forms.
d. Suitability of an organism for its environment
enabling it to survive and produce offspring.
e. Maintenance of the internal environment of an
organism within narrow limits.
Understanding the Terms
adaptation 9
behavior 8
biodiversity 12
biology 2
biosphere 10
cell 7
community 7
conclusion 5
control group 3
data 5
development 9
ecosystem 7
energy 8
evolution 9
experiment 3
falsify 5
gene 9
homeostasis 8
hypothesis 2
law 5
metabolism 9
organ 7
organism 7
organism system 7
phenomenon 2
population 7
principle 5
reproduce 9
science 2
scientic method 6
scientic theory 5
species 9
taxonomy 13
technology 6
tissue 7
variable 3
Further Readings for Chapter 1
Balick, M. J., and Cox, P. A. 1996. Plants, people, and culture: The
science of ethnobotany. New York: Scientic American Library.
This well-illustrated book discusses the medicinal and
cultural uses of plants, and the importance of rain forest
conservation.
Barnard, C., et al. 1993. Asking questions in biology. Essex: Longman
Scientic & Technical. First-year life science students are
introduced to the skills of scientic observation.
Carey, S. S. 1997. Abeginners guide to scientic method. 2d ed.
Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing. The basics of the
scientic method are explained.
Cox, G. W. 1997. Conservation biology. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown Publishers. This text examines the eld of
conservation, surveys basic principles of ecology and
considers how biodiversity can be preserved.
Dobson, A. P. 1996. Conservation and biodiversity. New York:
Scientic American Library. Discusses the value of
biodiversity, and describes attempts to manage endangered
species.
Drewes, F. 1997. How to study science. 2d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.
C. Brown Publishers. Supplements any introductory science
text; shows students how to study and take notes and how to
interpret text gures.
Frenay, A. C. F., and Mahoney, R. M. 1997. Understanding medical
terminology. 10th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers. Astructural approach to the study of medical
terminology.
Johnson, G. B. 1996. How scientists think. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown Publishers. Presents the rationale behind 21 important
experiments in genetics and molecular biology that became
the foundation for todays research.
Kellert, S. R. 1996. The value of life: Biological diversity and human
society. Washington D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books. The
importance of biological diversity to the well-being of
humanity is explored.
Marchuk, W. N. 1992. Alife science lexicon. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown Publishers. Helps students master life sciences
terminology.
Margulis, L., et al. 1998. Five kingdoms: An illustrated guide to the
phyla of life on earth. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co.
Introduces the kingdoms of organisms.
Minkoff, E. C., and Baker, P. J. 1996. Biology today: An issues
approach. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. This
introductory text emphasizes understanding of selected
biological issues, and discusses each issues social context.
Nemecek, S. August 1997. Frankly, my dear, I dont want a dam.
Scientic American 277(2):20. The article discusses how dams
affect biodiversity.
Primak, R. B. 1995. Aprimer of conservation biology. Sunderland,
Mass.: Sinauer Associates. Addresses the loss of biological
diversity throughout the world, and suggests remedies.
Schmidt, M. J. January 1996. Working elephants. Scientic
American 274(1):82. In Asia, teams of elephants serve as an
alternative to destructive logging equipment.
Serani, A. 1993. The epic history of biology. New York: Plenum
Press. This is a history of biology beginning with ancient
Egyptian medicine.
Using Technology
Your study of biology is supported by these available technologies:
Essential Study Partner CD-ROM
Evolution & Diversity Classication
Visit the Mader web site for related ESP activities.
Exploring the Internet
The Mader Home Page provides resources and tools as
you study this chapter.
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/mader
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Enquiry Into Life - Sylvia Mader

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The Study of Life

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