Religion One Unit HSC Course

HSC Topic One Religion and Belief Systems in Australia Post-1945 16 indicative hours

The focus of this study is religious expression in Australias multicultural and multi-faith society since 1945. The study includes an
appreciation of Aboriginal spiritualities and their contribution to an understanding of religious beliefs and religious expression in Australia
today.

Outcomes

A student:
H1: explains aspects of religion and belief systems
H2: describes and analyses the influence of religion and belief systems on individuals and societies
H3: examines the influence and expression of religion and belief systems in Australia
H4: describes and analyses how aspects of religious traditions are expressed by their adherents
H5: evaluates the influence of religious traditions in the life of adherents
H6: organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information about religion from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and
bias
H8: applies appropriate terminology and concepts related to religion and belief systems
H9: coherently and effectively communicates complex information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms

Content

Students learn to:

Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities

Discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming
> Kinship
> Ceremonial life
> Obligations to the land and people

Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to:
> Separation from the land
> Separation from kinship groups
> The Stolen Generations

Outline the importance of the following for the land rights movement:
> Native Title
> Mabo
> Wik

Analyse the importance of the Dreaming for the land rights movement

Religious Expression in Australia: 1945 to the present

Outline the changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to the present using census data

Account for the present religious landscape in Australia in relation to:
> Christianity as the major religious tradition
> Immigration
> Denominational switching
> Rise of New Age religions
> Secularism

Describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movements in Australia
> The National Council of Churches
> NSW Ecumenical Council

Evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue in multi-faith Australia

Examine the relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation

Students learn about:




HSC Studies of Religion 1, Religion and Belief Systems in Australia Post-1945, Part One

Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities

Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the dreaming

Defining Aboriginal Spirituality

Aboriginal spiritual is the way indigenous Australians learn the stories of the land and the Dreaming
o It includes Aboriginal participation in conventional religious traditions such as Christianity and their own individual
traditional forms of spirituality

Defining the Dreaming

The fundamental tenet that underpins every aspect of Aboriginal life including spiritual belief pertaining to creation and existence
o Involves all knowledge, wisdom and understanding
o Incorporates all beliefs and practices (eg kinship system, ceremonies, ritual obligations)
o Concerns and interlinks all components - human, animal and plant - through the ancestral spirit beings of the Dreaming
o Includes an explanation of the origins of the universe, suggesting that all life was crafted by the ancestral spirit beings
which may be found in animals, plants, humans, landforms and determine the rules which govern all living things
o Inextricably connected w the land; the physical medium through which the Dreaming is communicated
o Incorporates the past, present, future as present reality (metatemporal)

The Dreaming and Kinship

Kinship refers to relationships that are biologically derived, due to marriage or due to a similarity in origin or location
o Includes specific rights and obligations, including rules about respect
o As communicated through the Dreaming
o Attempt to create a rich personal, social life for all members of kin through an individual sentiment of belonging
Kinship systems consist of 300-500 adults and children
o Eg skin names show kinship
Given to babies upon birth by elders who know the family tree
Aims to prevent the occurrence of incest as it indicates who one can and cant marry
Eg straight skin marriages (koala with koala) are considered to be ideal
Often an animal and kept throughout life
o Eg totems show kinship
May derive from where a child is born or conceived
o Eg moieties show kinship
Refers to the subdivision of an Aboriginal group into two halves
Each moity is further divided into sections
Attempts to organise privileges and responsibilities
Aims to prevent the occurrence of incest as it indicates who one can and cant marry
Eg one may only marry someone from an opposite moity or another section
Kinship ties identify a system of belonging and responsibility
o Not restricted to familial relations
o Relationships extend from ones totem
A plant, animal or landform that characterises ones connection to the ancestral spirit beings within the land
o Proposes an individuals responsibility to other members of the clan
Eg assigns responsibility of imparting the knowledge of the Dreaming to the younger generation
Initiation into the Dreaming is determined by age and position in the community
o Govern the day-to-day lives of clan members
Eg denotes who an individual is permitted to marry and talk to

The Dreaming and Ceremonial Life

Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities and Ceremonial Life
Differences exist in ceremonial life due to differences in contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities
o Derived from differences in religious identification, location, urban/rural environment, source of identity, etc
o 67% adhere to Christian traditions, <1% adhere to other religious traditions, 16% are not affiliated w religion and >1%
adhere to traditional Aboriginal spiritualities according to the 2001 Census
All Aboriginals retain some connection to traditional spiritualities
o Eg through the sharing of resources, kinship responsibilities, attitudes to child rearing, the importance of the group
compared w the individual, verbal and non-verbal communication and language usage
Christian Aboriginal Spiritualities and Ceremonial Life
Elements of traditional Aboriginal ceremonial life are often incorporated into Christian ceremonies
o Eg ordination of the first indigenous female minister of the Anglican church, Gloria Shipp of the Wiradjuri clan
Aboriginal bishop was present, dance was performed by a traditional Aboriginal dancing company
Music provided by a didgeridoo and clapping sticks
Traditional smoking ceremony was performed at the outset of the ordination
After the ordination, indigenous women smeared white ochre (a mixture of clay and dirt used as paint,
representative of purity and spirituality) over Shipps body
Traditional Aboriginal Spiritualities and Ceremonial Life
Art signifies an important part of ceremonial life which serves to communicate the Dreaming
o Serves to illustrate the actions of the ancestral spirit beings in the land
o Offers multiple levels of meaning in its explanation of the Dreaming
Eg superficially, paintings offer an aerial portrayal of the land
Certain symbols are used to distinguish features of the land, such as rivers, lakes, rocks
Eg with greater understanding, paintings offer a narrative interpretation of the activities of the ancestral
spirits in crafting the land
Eg with greater understanding, paintings offer ultimate knowledge of the dreaming stories
o Such levels of understanding may only be realised through initiation
Story signifies an important part of ceremonial life which serves to translate the Dreaming into its implications for everyday life
o Serves as a means of communicating the Dreaming
o Describe the activities of the ancestral spirit beings - often in the form of animals or people - in crafting rivers, lakes,
mountains and other natural phenomena
o Interactions bw spirit beings provide a foundation for the explanation of Aboriginal tradition, law
Shapes the day-to-day life of ordinary peoples
o Conveying the stories of the Dreaming to Aboriginal children acts as an important tool for socialisation
Eg teaches Aboriginal children what is right and wrong behaviour
Ritual signifies an important part of ceremonial life which serves to directly connect the present with the Dreaming
o Serves as a means of reliving the creative ancient activities of the spirit beings in the present time
Eg not merely a retelling
o People, objects, words, movement make present the spirit beings
o Eg smoking ceremony
Smoke is used to cleanse and heal
May be symbol at public events
Traditional purposes include protection through pregnancy and healing from sickness
o Often includes the performance of corroborees or assemblies that have a sacred, festive or warlike character
o Some have adapted to features of the western world
Eg Aboriginal people of the Tiwi islands, near Darwin, perform the aeroplane dance, which was developed in
response to the Japanese bombings in 1941
Totems represent an individual as he or she existed in the Dreaming and carry ceremonial responsibilities
o Serve as an embodiment of the individual in his/her primordial state
May be in the form of an animal, plant or natural phenomena
o Link the individual or community w the sacred ancestor creator spirits
o Carry ceremonial responsibility of balance rites
Aim to assist in the proliferation of the totem (plant, animal, etc)

The Dreaming and Obligations to the Land and People

Aboriginal persons have two relationships w the land; land-occupying and land-using
Relationship bw an Aboriginal person and his/her land is portrayed through use of the term country or ritual estate
The Dreaming is inextricably connected to the land
o The land is the physical medium through which the Dreaming is lived and communicated
Serves as a foundation for belief, tradition, ritual and law as stories of the Dreaming, which convey such ideas,
are centred on the land
Serves as a dwelling for the ancestral spirit beings thereby granting spiritual identity to the Aboriginal people
o Most regard the land as their mother
o Most seek to deepen and strengthen their knowledge, understanding and appreciation of the land
o Significance is epitomised by the acknowledgement of the traditional custodians of the land that often occurs at the
commencement of any formal public event in Australia
o Identity is drawn from the land socially, emotionally and intellectually
Sacred sites or ritual estate are of particular importance to Aboriginal spirituality
o Signify areas that are connected with particular events in the Dreaming
Concealed or barred from the non-initiated
o All Aboriginals retain the ritual responsibility to take care of and learn from sacred sites
Eg responsibility of performing prescribed rituals such as balance rights, which aim for the proliferation of a
particular animal, plant or natural phenomena connected to a specific ancestral being

Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to:

> The effect of dispossession

The Effect of Separation from Land and Kinship

Introduction
Dispossession of land has produced an overwhelmingly detrimental effect upon the Aboriginal community and individual
Dispossession may be divided into three sections:
o Period of non-recognition
Characterised by the proclamation of terra nullius, the land belonging to no one, as Aboriginal peoples were
considered to be subhuman w no religion, system of law, permanent settlement, etc
Marked by the introduction of terminal European diseases, shootings, poisonings, massacres
Not official government policy; removal of Aboriginals from land was sporadic
o Period of protectionism
Characterised by a paternalism
Marked by the movement of Aboriginal people from their land to reserves or mission stations
May be argued that it saved the race from extinction
Destructive of the kinship system as clans were mixed
o Period of assimilation
Characterised by the removal of Aboriginal children from their parents
Such children received a western education, lived in government or church run institutions or were
fostered into white families
Intended to sever Aboriginal children from their cultural identity
Stolen generation are thematic across the periods of protectionism and assimilation
o Refers to the mass removal of Aboriginal children from their families by government agencies and church missions
between 1900 and 1972
Impact of Dispossession on Aboriginal Spirituality
Impact of dispossession upon spirituality has been destructive and devastating
o Removal from our lands is but the physical dimension of the wholesale dispossession and devaluation we have
experienced Aboriginal leader and activist Michael Dodson, 2000
Has produced a loss of identity
o As identity is linked to the Dreaming and Dreaming is linked to the land
o Has effected an inability to fulfil ritual responsibilities, w separation from land
o Has effected a loss of language, w separation from kinship ties
This, in turn, has effected a loss of capacity to communicate the Dreaming through its many manifestations
(art, story, ritual) and thereby, the perpetuation of the spirituality of the race
o Has effected a destruction of the kinship system, w separation from kinship ties
This, in turn, has effected a loss of Dreaming stories, traditional practices, laws and ritual responsibilities
o Has effected a sentiment of homelessness, displacements, confusion in identity, w separation from land, kinship ties
o Has effected a loss of the authority of elders, who held sacred knowledge of the land, thereby destroyed the
fundamental component of Aboriginal spirituality
Has produced a loss of adherence to traditional and non-traditional religious traditions
o Eg 30% of the Aboriginal population claimed affiliation to no religion in the 2001 census
This was almost double the total figure (17%)
Period of Non-Recognition
Settlement of Europeans in Australia marked the commencement of dispossession
Initially (first 30-40 yrs of settlement), Aboriginals were removed from the land so that it could be cultivated
o Assisted by the spread of European diseases
Aboriginals had no immunity to such diseases and were consequently very susceptible
o Assisted by large scale shootings, massacres and poisonings
It is estimated that 20,000 Aboriginal people and 2,000 Europeans died in direct violent conflict over land
Marked by resistance leaders such as Pemulwuy, who led the Aboriginal opposition in Sydney from 1788, was
wounded in 1794 and 1797 and finally killed by European settlers in 1802
Legacy was carried on by his son, Tedbury, who was killed soon after the death of his father
Darwinism suggested that complete eradication of the Aboriginal race by natural selection was imminent
o Assisted by the notion that Aboriginals were subhuman, comparable to apes on the scale of evolutionary development
Signals a disorganised, informal and sporadic response to the proclamation of Terra Nullius
o Not marked by a specific or unified policy, often undertaken by groups of vigilante settlers commanded by the police
Impact of Non-Recognition
Non-recognition led to the mass eradication of the Aboriginal race, such that it was near extinction by the mid to late 1880s
Period of Protectionism
Large-scale organisation of the process of dispossession began in the mid-1880s
o Reflects a shift in the attitude of European settlers towards Aboriginal peoples, from adversity and the intention to
eradicate to paternalism and the intention to civilise
Aimed to remove Aboriginal people from unsuitable environments, including desirable land for settlement and cultivation, and
place them in the protection of the state by detaining them in Christian missions or government reserves
o This intended to isolate Aboriginal peoples from their community ties and thereby destroy their culture
Marked by a sincere belief that this policy assisted the development of the race
o Eg improvements in education, health, quality of life through the provision of education services, health care, western
type work, religious guidance and services
o Some missionaries and officials permitted the perpetuation of Aboriginal culture but most were harsh in their
suppression of it
Impact of Protectionism
Led to the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and consequently, the implications of kinship, such as
morality, ethicality and identity
o Due to an inability to learn about the nature and implications of the Dreaming
Led to a declining quality of life as many children in government or charity run missions endured poor conditions
Led to a destruction of the link between Aboriginals and their system of spirituality
o Due to a suppression of the kinship system, totems an ceremonial rituals, all of which are media through which the
Dreaming is conveyed and perpetuated
Led to a loss of Aboriginal cultural identity
o Due to dispossession of land as cultural identity is linked to the land which, in turn, is linked to the Dreaming
Served to improve the quality of life for some Aboriginal communities through the provision of educational and health services
Argued to have saved the Aboriginal race from extinction
Period of Assimilation
Period of assimilation commenced in the early to mid 1900s
Involved the relocation of Aboriginals, particularly half-caste (those of mixed European and Aboriginal descent) children, to
missions in which they were to be assimilated into mainstream white society
o In such missions, Aboriginal people were prohibited to engage in traditional cultural practices, including language,
rituals, stories, dress, food
Intended to eradicate Aboriginal culture
Impact of Assimilation
Further inhibition of the flow of the information of the Dreaming from Aboriginal elders to children
o Including that of the totemic system, language, ceremonial rituals, kinship ties and implications
Language, particularly, deterred the transfer of traditional beliefs as the English language did not account for
such terms as the Dreaming, totems, rituals, etc
Deepened burden of being unable to fulfil ritual responsibilities in relation to the land, including the protection of totems
Led to problems in employment and education as the expectation for Aboriginal children to adapt to western work and education
was overwhelming and unreasonable
o Opportunities in employment and education were thus unequal

The Stolen Generations

The Stolen Generations refer to those Aboriginal children who were removed from their families between 1900 and 1972 by the
government and church missionaries in an attempt to assimilate them into white mainstream Australian society
o Particularly prevalent amongst half-caste children, or those children of mixed European and Aboriginal descent
Fuelled by the notion that the Aboriginal race could be bred out of existence
Some children were sent to government or charity run institutions whilst others were fostered into white families
Attempted to assist in the process of assimilation by assimilating Aboriginal children into white society
Supported by complimentary legislation
o Eg the Aborigines Protection Act, passed in 1909 in by the NSW parliament established an Aborigines Protection Board,
which, in 1915, was granted to capacity to transfer Aboriginal girls w one white parent from their homes, so that they
could be exploited in the domestic service
Supported by widespread public support
o Eg A Neville, Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia stated in 1934; there are scores of children in the bush
camps who should be taken away from whoever is looking after them and be placed in a settlement
Many children of the Stolen Generations were subject to maltreatment, sexual exploitation and humiliation
o This has produced a lasting effect;
Parental bond severed
Loss of language, culture, kinship ties and other media or crucial knowledge of the Dreaming
Decline in quality of life
Eg relatively low life expectancy or young population w 18% of the Aboriginal population aged 40+,
compared to 52% of the total Australian population aged 40+
Detrimental social trends such as alcoholism, depression, low self-confidence, low motivation
National enquiry into the compulsory separation of Indigenous children from their families and communities was conducted by
the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission in the 1990s
o Guided by Michael Dodson, the Aboriginal Social Justice Commissioner of the period, and Sir Ronal Wilson, a former
president of the Uniting Church National Assembly and the chairperson of the National Committee for Aboriginal
Conciliation at the time
o Released the 700 page Bringing Them Home Report report in 1996, after visiting 55 centres throughout all the states
and territories of Australia
Serves as a documentation of the experiences of Aboriginal children in foster homes and government, church
or charity run institutions
Suggests that some Aboriginal children experienced unjust, inhumane working conditions
Eg some children were exploited by businesses
Estimated that between 1 in 3 and 1 in 10 Aboriginal children were removed from their families between
1900 and 1972
Suggests that protectionism and assimilation were effective in removing Aboriginal children from their
spiritual ties w kinship, totems, ritual and the Dreaming
Thus, the Stolen Generations have become unable to fulfil their ritual responsibilities as governed
by the Dreaming
Suggests that separation from kinship ties led to the development of detrimental trends such as
demoralisation, depression, alcoholism and violence
Recognised a dehumanisation of Aboriginals by the mass media of the period
Recognised the grief of the birth parents
Recommended the establishment of a national Sorry Day to be celebrated annually and to in
commemoration of the Stolen Generations

> The land rights movement

Introduction to the Land Rights Movement

The modern land rights movement was instigated by Vincent Lingiari, elder of the Gurindji people and leader of the group that
came to be known as the Wave Hill mob, in 1966
o Eg dispute between the Gurindji people of NT and English cattle baron Lord Vesty led to the ratification of the first
piece of land rights legislation in 1975, an act which granted Aboriginal ownership of certain parcels of land in
Australian territories, as passed by the Fraser government
o Wave Hill mob refers to the strike of 200 Gurindji stockmen, domestic servants and their families in August 1966,
lobbying for better working and living conditions and the return of their land
Of great importance as it has helped to re-establish spiritual links between the Aboriginal people and their land
o As Aboriginal spirituality is guided by the Dreaming which is inextricably linked to the land
Eg land is the medium through which the Dreaming is communicated and perpetuated; the ancestor spirits
continue to inhabit the land, totems bind people w specific aspects of the land, sacred rituals and duties
concerning the land are necessary for the wellbeing of those who live of the land
Native title over sacred sites is considered to be most important
o As they, specifically, contain the creator spirits and are necessary for fulfilment of ritual responsibilities

The Mabo Decision

The High Court of Australia made two key rulings in 1992:
o Australia was occupied at the time of European settlement, overriding the proclamation of Terra Nullius by British
settlers in 1799
o In certain circumstances, Native Title may exist and be claimed by indigenous persons
Native title refers to the communal or individual rights and interests of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island
people in relation to land and water
Claims may discern a long-standing connection between the land and its owner(s), including stories of the
Dreaming, the nature of totems and sacred sites and the role of elders
This decision was dubbed the Mabo Decision as it was in favour of Eddie Mabo, a representative of the Merriam people of the
Murray Islands

The Native Title Act

Native title refes to traditional Aboriginal right of access, use or occupation of land
Passed by the Keating Labor government in December 1993
o In response, activist, Jesuit priest and lawyer Frank Brennan stated the High Court decision and the Act of the Federal
parliament are the reconciling pillars for the bridge that will provide recognition and justice for those who are on both
sides of the river
Aimed to corroborate the Mabo decision through by implementing strategies to facilitate the process of granting native title
o Eg the establishment of a Native Title Tribunal to register, hear and determine native title claims
Prerequisites for claiming native title include;
Confirmation that native title has not been extinguished by freehold title (title granted when
someone purchases a property)
Confirmation that native title is inconsistent with the way the land is currently being used
Continued connection w the land prior to 1788
Implications include;
Native Title could only be claimed for vacant or leased Crown (government owned) land
Freehold land could not be claimed for Native Title
Continued connection w land is difficult to prove as Aboriginal records were almost always spoken
Limitations on the effectiveness of the act include;
o Does not ensure access to sacred sites for most Aboriginal communities as only a small portion of land may be claimed
and it is very difficult to successfully claim land
Limitations have restricted the success of land claims
o Eg in 2006, there had been only 56 successful land claims made
Has assisted Aboriginal groups to gain economic and social independence

The Wik Decision

The High Court of Australia made two key decisions in 1996:
o In certain circumstances, native title and leasehold title may co-exist
Leasehold or pastoral title refers to land that is owned and leased by the government
This predominantly involves farmers and mining corporations
This covers 40% of government owned land
o In areas of dispute, where the rights of the leaseholder cannot be reconciled w the native title holder, the interests of
the leaseholder would override that of the native title holder
This decision was dubbed the Wik Decision as it was in favour of the Wik people of Cape York, Queensland
The Liberal Howard government of the time responded to this decision by releasing the ten point plan in 1998
o An amendment to the Native Title Act
o Demonstrated favoured over the leaseholder due to pressure from farming and mining lobbyists
o Included legislation to transfer the capacity to upgrade leasehold title to freehold title from Federal to state govs
This would enable leaseholders to extinguish native title
o Included the sunset clause, which prevented Aboriginal people from making native title claims beyond a certain date
This was to eliminate confusion as to when native title claims could be made and to ensure that the law was
applied w certainty
o Has reduced the capacity for many Aboriginal groups to claim native title
Due to high costs of native title claims, time consuming nature of the process, difficulty in gathering evidence
to prove connection to the land prior to 1788

The Importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights Movement

The Land Rights Movement is fuelled by the inextricable connection between identity, land and the Dreaming
o Serves as a testament to the centrality of the role of the land to Aboriginal spirituality
o As the totemic system, the kinship system, stories of the ancestor spirit beings and ritual obligations flow from the land
Eg concepts at the core of Aboriginal spirituality may not be accessed
Mabo, Wik, the Native Title Act and criticism of the Ten Point Plan by various Aboriginal advocacy groups indicate public
recognition and acknowledgement by the Australian people of the importance of land to Aboriginal spirituality
Most imperative is the claiming of sacred sites
o This enables the performance of highly important balance rites on sacred sites which serve to perpetuate the Dreaming
Has assisted in the development of economic and social independence for many Aboriginal communities
Has assisted in the perpetuation of the Dreaming as it has enabled a renewed connection bw the Aboriginal people and their land
































HSC Studies of Religion 1, Religion and Belief Systems in Australia Post-1945, Part Two

Religious Expression in Australia: 1945 to the present

The religious landscape from 1945 to the present in relation to:

> Changing patterns of religious adherence

Change in the Composition of Religious Adherence

The Nature of Change
Increase in religious pluralism
o Having many different streams, denominations within the same tradition
Eg 17 Christian Orthodox denominations are present in Aus
o Distinguishing features
Greatest proportional growth of a Ch group occurred in RC
In 1992, passed Anglicanism as Ch group w highest population
Currently, P as a totality outnumbers RC
o This divergence is closing over time
Growth in population of adherents of Christian Orthodoxy
Following WWII, particular growth of Greek, Coptic communities
Growth in population of adherents of Pentecostalism
Emerged in 1980s from church charismatic movements
o Emerging religious denominations following WWII include Polish Catholics, Italian Catholics, Maltese Catholics, Greek
Orthodox, Hungarian Catholics, English/Scottish/Irish Catholics/Protestants, German Catholics/Lutherans, Russian
Orthodox
Increase in religious diversity
o Having significant numbers of people from a wide variety of religious traditions
o Distinguishing features
Complete abolition of White Australia Policy in 1972 led to increase in RD
Led to adoption of policy of multiculturalism in 1973
Various new waves of migration
o 1960s: Vietnam War; Vietnamese Catholics, Buddhists
o 1973-: Adoption of policy of multiculturalism; Chinese Catholics, Protestants, Buddhists;
Indian Catholics, Hindus; Sri Lankan Catholics, Christians, Hindus; Turkish Muslims;
Cyprian, Greek Orthodox
o 1975: Lebanese Civil War; Lebanese Maronites, Muslims
o 1980-2007; Philippine, Tongan, Samoan Catholics, Protestants
o 1990: First Gulf War; Iraqi, Kuwaiti Muslims
o 1992-1995: Yugoslavian Civil War; Bosnian, Serbian Catholics, Muslims
o 1990-2007; Sri Lankan, Indian Tamils, Hindus, Sikhs, Catholics, Protestants; Egyptian
Coptic Orthodox; Kurdish Muslims, Christians; Iraqi Muslims; Armenian Muslims,
Christians; Chinese Buddhists, Christians; Ethiopian, Somalian Catholics, Muslims,
Orthodox
Changing social, cultural values, attitudes
Emergence of New Age spiritualities
Increased secularism
Resurgence of interest in, awareness of indigenous spiritualities
o Integration of indigenous customs into Christian expression
Reasons for Change
Changing migration patterns
o Increased religious plurality, diversity
1945: Policy of Populate of Perish
Promotion of immigration (eg thr assisted passage)
1947: Aus agrees to receive 12,000 displaced persons per year from Europe
1951: Aus has accepted 170,000 refugees
1960s: Debate about WAP
1972: Complete abolition of WAP
1973: Adoption of a policy of Multiculturalism
Change in social values and attitudes
o Increased acceptance of non-religion
o Increased acceptance of New Age spiritualities
o Increase acceptance of conversions, denominational switching
Growth of charismatic movement
o Surge in membership of Pentecostal churches
Globalisation
o Increased use of mass, electronic media; decline in necessity of a community feel
Statistical Evidence of Change
Census data
o Census data: 1947-2001 (see table on p258)
o Identifiable trends
Decline in total population belonging to 3 largest Ch denominations (Catholic, Anglican, U Church)
From 81.2% in 1947 to 56.9% in 2001
Gradual increase in total population belonging to Orthodox Ch traditions
From 0.2% in 1947 to 2.8% in 2001
Gradual increase in total population belonging to traditions other than Ch
From 0.5% in 1947 to 4.8% in 2001
Rapid increase in total population belonging to No Religion
Introduced as an option in 1971
From 6.7% in 1971 to 15.5% in 2001
o Limitations
Does not cater for hybrid forms of spirituality
Does not cater for non-institutionalised forms of spirituality
Does not accurately reflect regular engagement w religion
Eg one may identify w specific religion but not be a practising member
Not stated/inadequately described category suggests that a portion of the population is not comfortable w
disclosing their religion
Eg Census is not all-inclusive
National Church Life Survey data
o Background
Initiated in 1991
Conducted by all major Ch churches in Aus
o National Church Life Survey 2001 data: age profile by denomination
Identifiable trends
Overall there is an aging population of regular church attendants
o Anglican, Catholic, Churches of Christ, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Salvation Army, Uniting
Church all contain aging populations
The Anglican church is the most extreme case
Fewest (4%) in youngest category
Second most (28%) in oldest category
o Baptist and Seventh-Day Adventist churches have highest proportion of attendants in
middle category
Eg Baptist
Second most (21%) in middle (40-49yrs) category
Pentecostal churches attract a higher portion of younger, middle-aged members
o Second most (11%) in youngest category
o Fewest (5%) in oldest category
Includes: Apostolic, Assemblies of God, Christian City Church, Christian Revival
Crusade, Vineyard Fellowship
o National Church Life Survey 2001 data: weekly church attendance expressed as percentage of those identifying w the
denomination
Identifiable trends
Overall there is an inconsistency in those identifying themselves w a particular faith in the census,
and those regularly attending church services
Established churches attract fewest regular attendants
o Anglican: 5% attending of people identifying
o Catholic: 15% attending of people identifying
o Uniting: 10% attending of people identifying
o Presbyterian and Reformed: 7% attending of people identifying
o Lutheran: 16% attending of people identifying
Churches of Christ attract greatest proportion of regular attendants (74%)
Pentecostal churches attract second greatest proportion of regular attendants (73%)
o Limited as only regular church attendants/those in close association w the church are represented

> The current religious landscape

Christianity as the Major Religious Tradition

Majority of early Aus were Christian
o Aboriginals not counted in census
o Small Jewish minority
o Most of Aus community from British isles
Gold rush brought some Chinese Buddhists
o But forced to return home w implementation of WAP
Reduction to relative size of Christian adherents w social change
o Assisted passage scheme (1830-1980)
Initially for British but extended to all Europeans w end of WWII
o By 1951, Aus had accepted 170,000 migrants from war-torn Europe
From 1947; Aus planned to accept 12,000 per yr
o Bw 1975, 1984, Aus had accepted 90,000 from Indochina
Some Buddhist, some Catholic
o Bw 2001, 2002, 5.1% of new arrivals from Middle East
Many of which were Christian
o Change in proportion of Aus born in Aus, NZ, GB
First census; 96% of population born in Aus, NZ, GB
Bw 1993, 2003; 26% of population born in NZ, GB
Reasons for change
o Dismantling of the WPA
Increase in immigration from non-Christian countries
o Increase in popularity of New Age religions
o Increase in secularism

Immigration

Immigration Restriction Act (WAP) of 1901 limited immigrants to the British Isles and later, wider Europe
o Policy of assimilation
Immigrant expected to dismiss culture, language, etc. in favour of Aus alternatives
Eg learn English, eat English food, wear western clothing
o Some Aus of non-Christian religions forced to leave
Eg Chinese Buddhists from time of gold rush
Religious diversity did not increase greatly until dismantling of WAP in 1970s
o Only change that of Jewish population
Eg influxes before, after WWII
o Allowed for immigration of individuals from countries w a non-Christian religion as the dominant tradition
Eg Islam
Increase in relative size of Islamic community
o Thr immigration from Turkey, Lebanon, Indonesia, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan,
Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Somalia, Ethiopia, etc.
Eg Hinduism
Major growth since 1991
o Thr immigration from India, Fiji, Malaysia, etc.
Fastest growing non-C religion in Aus in percentage terms
o Growth of 54% bw 1991, 1996
Eg Buddhism
Significant growth since 1986
o From 0.5% to 2.0% of population (200,000 to 360,000)
Faster growing non-C religion in Aus in absolute terms
Partially due to immigration
o Eg from Thailand, China, Vietnam, etc.
Partially due to increase in ethnically western individuals identifying w Buddhism
Eg Judaism
Prior to 1901, most Jews from British Isles
Prior to WWII, influx of Jewish refugees from Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia
After WWII, significant influx of holocaust survivors from eastern Europe
o Eg Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Russia
1950s wave from Hungary, SA
1970/80s wave from Israel, SA
o Continued immigration of SA Jews
In recent yrs, growth relatively constant
Post WWII era of immigration enthusiasm
o Eg populate of perish
o Increase in diversity of Christianity
Introduction of 14 orthodox churches
o Increase in proportion of Catholics
Eg due to large influx from Italy
o Reduction to immigrants from traditional source (BI), increase in need for labour
Extension of acceptance to all Europeans
60s challenged the status quo
o Increased criticism of WAP
o Conflicts of Cold War (eg Vietnam War) brought about refugee crises
1980s brought about destruction of WAP, introduction of policy of multiculturalism
o Increase in cultural diversity
o Increase in religious plurality
Eg development of Orthodox churches
Eg introduction of Protestant, Pentecostal faiths in recent yrs
Salvation Army, Seventh Day Adventists, Baptists, Assemblies of God, etc.
o Increase in religious diversity
Eg development of Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism
Religion exists as important part of life for immigrants
o Cultural experience
Opportunity to be immersed in familiar language, food, rituals, etc.

Denominational Switching

DS occurs when an individual changes from one denomination to another
o Generally the denomination of birth to one of which the individual is more comfortable, enthusiastic
DS in the C faith has become a common feature of the Aus religious climate
o 29% of protestants had switched denominations in last 5 yrs
National Church Life Survey 1991
o DSers from broad range of age groups
Protestant churches: inflow and outflow (1996-2001)
Pentecostal churches: inflow and outflow (1996-2001)
o Accounting for inflows, outflows
Adherents switching from other denominations; individuals joining church for first time; individuals rejoining
church after an absence of some time; birth of children draws parents back to church; decrease in frequency
of attendance; death
Trend shows incline in DS
o Nature of trend
29% of protestants had switched denominations in last 5 yrs
Source: National Church Life Survey 1991
o Reasons for trend
Emergence of new attitude to church
Decline in importance of denominational loyalty, rise in importance of individual spiritual
satisfaction
o Church loyalty remains relatively high amongst Catholics
Lower rate of DS amongst Catholics
Revivals, evangelical missions, crusades
Involves increase in public awareness of specific denomination
o Initiatives involving meetings, seminars
Intend to reawaken Christian enthusiasm
Eg Mission to the Nation (1953) conducted by Methodist minister Alan Walker
o Weekly radio program Drama with a Challenge
Highlighted importance of religion in everyday life
o Broadcasted by 60+ stations, heard by approx 1m every week
Eg Billy Graham Crusades (1959, 1968, 1979)
o Involved counselling of Aus who wanted to be better Christians
o In 1959, quarter of population attended at least one seminar
Drew attention to specific denominations, encouraged Aus to DS
Trend shows greatest amount of switchers in, out of Pentecostal churches
o Nature of trend
28% of adherents of Pentecostal faith switched in bw 1991, 1996
14% of adherents of Pentecostal faith switched out bw 1991, 1996
Eg Assemblies of God; 14% switched in, 20% switched out (1996-2001)
o Reasons for trend
Greatest amount of switchers in
Aggressive evangelism
o Demonstration of energy, enthusiasm
o Masses are engaging and of high entertainment value
o Development of spiritual services
Capacity to appeal to the young, disillusioned
Heavy focus on the gifts of the holy spirit
Greatest amount of switchers out
Heavy commitment required
o Requirement of tithing
The act of a person contributing one tenth of their income to the religious body
in which they belong
o Services are consuming of energy, time
Trend shows stability amongst conservative churches
o Nature of trend
Adherents of conservative churches have remained relatively loyal
Eg Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints (Mormons), Jehovahs Witnesses
o Reasons for trend
Aggressive evangelism has contested unattractive qualities
Aggressive evangelism characterised by;
o Revivals, crusades
o Emphasis on salvation
o Spiritual security
Unattractive qualities characterised by;
o Lengthy services
o Narrow, rigid view of religious matters, approach to worship
o High expectations of commitment
Eg tithing

The Rise of New Age Religions

Extensive growth in adherents of NA religions in recent decades
o Considered to have emerged from counterculture of 60s
Eg questioning of traditional sources of thought, religion
o Characterised by:
Identification w diverse, new/ancient sources of religion
70s brought about emergence of: Ananda Marga, The Moonies, The Orange People, The Children
of God, The Scientologists
Increased popularity of parareligious activity
Actions working alongside a religious tradition but not a part of the religious tradition itself
Eg Yoga, transcendental meditation
Focus on personal enlightenment
Focus on potential for world peace
Growth of NA spiritualities initially met w concern
o Over time, they have come to be accepted in mainstream society
Characteristics of NA spiritualities
o Universal consciousness, concern for environment, concern for gender equality, no holy text, no central organisation or
formal clergy, no creed or central, rigid belief
Flexibility in belief, practice
Belief common to most NA spiritualities is that of the Age of Aquarius
o Humanity is entering a new age (astrologically founded)
Concerned w the common humanity of all people
o Follows on from the Age of Pisces
Concerned w patriarchal domination
Subordination of individual for purpose of empowering organised religion
Common NA beliefs, concepts
o Monism; everything comes from single source of divine energy
o Pantheism; God is to be found within the self
o Reincarnation; the individual is born again, after death, to live a life responsive of past karma
o Karma; good, bad deeds that add to, subtract from an accumulated record
o Aura; energy field radiated by the individual that can be used to diagnose an individuals state of being
o Personal transformation; this may occur through an intense, mystical experience
o Ecological responsibility; the notion that mother Earth must be respected
o Universal religion; all paths of life (religions) lead to spiritual fulfilment
o A new world; the Age of Aquarius will bring about utopia; universal peace, health, happiness, ecological sustainability,
gender/racial/religious equality
Common NA practice may involve
o Channelling; making contact w the mystical (eg spirits)
o Crystals; healing properties
o Meditating; release of the conscious in favour of the subconscious
May involving chanting of mantra, focus on an object
o Music; to create inspirational, mystical, melodic atmosphere
o Divination; foretelling the future
May involve tarot cards, palm or crystal reading
o Astrology; belief that the orientation of celestial bodies can predict an individuals future
o Holistic health; attempts to cure disorders of the mind, body, spirit
Promotion of individual balance
May involve acupuncture, homeopathy, iridology, massage, reflexology
o Human potential movement; therapies, practices that allow the individual to advance spiritually
May involve yoga, transcendental meditation

Secularism

Involves complete separation of the individual from religious influences
o Brought about by reformist political policies
Eg development of a secular education system
Trend shows gradual, contained decline in regular church attendance
o Nature of trend
Bw 1788, 2008 regular church attendance has fluctuated bw 10%, 20%
Note: regular attendance defined as attending a service at least once a month
In 2002, 18.6% of Aus attended church services regularly
Note: focus is on Christian church attendance
o 70% of Aus claim affiliation to C church
o Only in this sector is long-term statistical data available
Source: Well Being and Security Survey
o Reason for trend
Gradual decline in importance of religion in everyday lives of Aus
Reflective of social change
Trend shows increase in Aus claiming no affiliation to a religion
o Nature of trend
Increase in Aus stating no religion in the census
Eg rose from 7% (1971) to 16% (2001)
Increase in Aus claiming religion to be of no importance
Eg 42% of respondents to Australian National Universitys Negotiating the Life Course 2000
claimed religion to be of no importance
Increase in celebration of secular marriages
Eg currently 50% of all marriages conducted by civil celebrants
o Reason for trend
Gradual decline in importance of religion in everyday lives of Aus
Reflective of social change

Religious dialogue in multi-faith Australia

> Ecumenical movements within Christianity

Involves communication and cooperation bw people of different C denominations
Approaches to ecumenism
o Non-denominational approaches
Involves ignorance of differences bw organisations
Eg youth organisations (Girls Brigade, Young Mens Christian Association)
Eg Christian education (Australian College of Theology)
o Began in 1891 as national, strictly Anglican organisation
o Became non-denominational w government accreditation, expansion in 1970s
o Interdenominational approaches
Involves collaborate approach, acknowledgement, acceptance and representation of differences
May occur at a personal level
Whereby individuals from different denominations interact
May occur at a congregational level
Annual Week of Prayer for Christian Unity
Pulpit exchanges
o Congregations swap ministers, priests for specific services
Combined social action
Combined youth support
o Eg shared religious education, seminars or presentations
Combined fundraising
o Eg Christmas Bowl Appeal, Force TEN
Combined events promoting reconciliation
May occur at a national or state level
National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA)
o John Wright (Anglican Archbishop of Sydney) formed Joint Australian Council of the
Churches Contemplating Reunion in 1922
Disbanded in 1930 due to disagreement about episcopalism
o Australian Council of Churches (ACC) established in 1946
o Comprised of 15 member churches
Anglicans, Lutherans, several Orthodox churches (Coptic, Greek, Romanian,
Syrian), Salvation Army, Uniting Church, Religious Society of Friends, Armenian
Apostolic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Churches of Christ,
Congregational Federation
o Later named National Council of Churches in Australia (1994)
Roman Catholics joined w Vatican II
Lutherans rejoined in 1998
o Baptists, Presbyterians are not a part of NCCA
o Party to several organisations:
A member of the Christian Conference of Asia
An associate council of the World Council of Churches
o Involved in:
Advancement of indigenous rights, overseas aid, support for refugees, womens
rights, environment sustainability, youth issues, social justice issues, promotion
of peace and justice
o Supports the Christmas Bowl Appeal
In which assistance is provided for the poor, persecuted
o An associate church of the World Council of Churches
Of which the RC church is not a member
NSW Ecumenical Council
o All members belonging to NCCA belong to NSW
Additional members include: St. Thomas Indian Orthodox Church, Syrian
Orthodox Church, Mar Thoma Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo church
Some churches have observer status: Romanian Orthodox, Lutherans,
Presbyterians, Churches of Christ
o Led by the General Secretary Rev. Dr. Ray Williamson (2007)
o Involved in:
Christmas Bowl Appeal
Advancement of the status of refugees
Eg The House of Welcome
o Assistance for newly released detention centre detainees in
transition into communities
o Involves organisation of accommodation, English lessons,
employment assistance
Theological reflection
Social justice initiatives
NSW Council of Churches
o More contained, smaller-scale movement
o More conservative, evangelical than NSW Ecumenical Council
o Member churches include:
Sydney Anglicans, Baptists, Christian Reformed, Church of Christ, Fellowship of
Congregational Church, Presbyterian Church, Salvation Army
National Council of the Royal School of Church Music Australia, Ecumenical Church Music
Committee
o Conducts summer schools for church musicians of all denominations
o Aims to promote study, practice, improvement of church music
Sydney College of Divinity
o Offers degrees in Christian theology
Australian Hymn Book
o First edition published in 1977, second edition published in 1997
o Used by Anglican, RC, Uniting, Church of Christ, Lutheran churches
National Church Life Survey
o Employed by RCs, Protestants since 2001
o Conducted once every 5 yrs
o 500,000+ parishioners from 20 denominations partake
Catholic, Uniting Church Agreements on Inter-church Marriages
Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC)
o States common doctrines of faith
National Ecumenical Aged Care Chaplains Conferences
o Common issues, problems addressed
o Resources shared
The nature of ecumenism
o Most successful when differences are understood, appreciated
o May occur at local, state or national level
Formally or informally
o Effective ecumenism involves commitment to a common future
Potential to rejuvenate the church
Advantages of ecumenism
o Promotes unity, gives stronger witness to the community, builds trust, gives greater efficiency, reduces duplication,
allows for pooling of resources, assists family unity through inter-church marriages, ecumenical bodies can act on
behalf of 80-90% of all Christians, increased power in lobbying govs

> Interfaith dialogue

Involves communication, cooperation bw people of different faiths
Historical outlook of interfaith dialogue
o Expansion of religious diversity of Aus w immigration following WWII
Elicited re-evaluation of traditional Australian cultural properties (eg sectarianism)
o Non-Christians became significant minority by mid-1980s
Early initiatives made towards interfaith dialogue
o Fifth World Assembly of the World Conference on Religion and Peace (WCRP) held in Melbourne in 1989
Significant force toward interfaith dialogue
Gain of publicity
o Interfaith Appeal for Peace held in Sydney in 2000
Stand against religious violence in Indonesia
Initiated by Australian Federation for Islamic Councils, National Council of Churches in Australia
o Increased momentum for interfaith dialogue as Aus becomes more religiously diverse
Interfaith initiatives may occur:
o At a local level
Womens Dialogue Network of NSW
Formed by Centre for Christian-Muslim Relation
Aims to develop closer links bw Christian, Muslim women
Multi-faith centres established by various universities
Eg Griffith University Multi-Faith Centre
o Support leant by members of Christianity, Buddhism, Bahai, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism and
Aboriginal elders
Anzac day service at St. Marys Cathedral in Sydney in 2001
Buddhist monks, Christian ministers partook
Celebration of the Commonwealth Service
St. Andrews Cathedral, Sydney
Students of two different faiths working together through their Studies of Religion course
o At a state level
Victorian Jewish-Christian Dialogue Committee
Studies of Religion courses at high school
Promotes inter-faith understanding among younger generations
o At a national level
Interfaith forum formed part of the Living in Harmony initiative
Project of the Uniting Churchs Frontier Services and Port Hedland, WA
o Two Tibetan monks created a mandala
o Aboriginal women taught Thai women how to skin a kangaroo tail
o Creation of a cookbook entitled Crocodile, Curry or Capsicum
The Council of Christians and Jews
Active in Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Perth
Aims to promote common understanding bw members of both faiths
Acknowledges common heritage
Common stand against anti-Semitism
Activities include:
o Annual Holocaust remembrance service
o Education seminars designed to deepen mutual understanding, respect
The Columban Centre for Christian-Muslim Dialogue
Active in Turramurra, Sydney
Enables dialogue bw members of the different faiths
o Particularly women
Extended its support to seminars involving Jewish speakers in 2004
Works closely w:
o Affinity; in organisation of initiatives that facilitate a greater understanding bw Christians,
Muslims
o The Womens Interfaith Network; in development of a greater understanding bw Muslim,
Christian women and women of various other faiths
The Affinity Intercultural Foundation
Established in 2001 by a group of young Muslim Australians
Aims to facilitate a deeper understanding bw Muslim community and Australians of various other
faiths
Seeks tolerance, interaction, understanding through education, dialogue
o Targets peace, harmony
Has been involved in initiatives w RC, Anglican, Protestant church groups
Multi-faith religious services centre at the Sydney Olympics, 2000
Commission for Dialogue with Living Faith and Community Relations of the NCCA
The Australian RC Churchs Committee for Ecumenical and Interfaith Relations
Uniting Church National Assembly Committee on Relations with Other Faiths

> The relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation

Historical outlook pertaining to the involvement of various religious traditions in the process of reconciliation
o Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation (CAR) established in 1991 by the federal gov
Aimed to establish an instrument for reconciliation within 10 yrs
o Patrick Dodson addresses National press Club in April 1996 as the Chairperson of the Council for Ab Rec
Reconciliation can mean many different things... Above all, it must mean some form of agreement that deals
with the legacies of our history, provides justice for all, and takes us forward as a nation.
o Presentation of final proposal for a national document for Reconciliation by the CAR May 27, 2000
Thousands of Australians walk for Reconciliation over the Sydney Harbour Bridge on May 28, 2000
o Kevin Rudd apologises for past differences on behalf of Aus people on February 13, 2008
Genuine representation from all major faiths, Aboriginal community
Reconciliation has ongoing support from all major religious traditions
o The Muslim community in Australia is most supportive of Aboriginal reconciliation on spiritual, moral, humanitarian
and prudential pragmatic grounds
Dr. MA El Erian, Emeritus Professor, former president of the Islamic Society of Australia
o I believe that we will only know who we are, and build on a firm foundation, when we have grieved our past and made
a peace with Aboriginal people. When we do this, the celebration of life here can authentically begin
Rev. Dorothy Rae-McMahon, Uniting Church of Australia
o We welcome this initiative *the Uniting Church About Face exchange program+ and hope it will have results, changing
dramatically for the better the lives of indigenous people who have suffered alienation and dispossession in their own
land for far too long
Statement of the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference
o We support the efforts of the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation in promoting understanding and tolerance aimed at
building a better Australia
Isi J. Leibler, President of the Executive Council of Jewry
o Reconciliation can only come when Australians treat black Australians as equal before God
Rev. Dr. Keith Rayner, former Primate of the Anglican Church of Australia
o We as a church strongly endorse the process of reconciliation with Aboriginal people
Clive Ward, National President of the Churches of Christ
o We resolve, we commit ourselves to reconciliation so that all may share with equity and justice, and live peacefully, in
this land that is Australia
Declared by 20 NSW church leaders during an ecumenical liturgy at St. Marys Cathedral Sydney in December
1997
Change in the relationship bw Aboriginal people, European churches since missionary days
o Establishment of Aboriginal Christian church movements
Many churches mingle traditional Aboriginal cultural practices w aspects of church life
Eg ceremonies, rituals
Facilitates a closer Aboriginal understanding of Christianity
Facilitates a closer Aboriginal understanding of lost cultural practices
Reviving, remodelling of tradition
o Blending of Aboriginal, Christian practices controversial
Believed to be destructive of Aboriginal culture
For mainstream churches to try to absorb Aboriginal culture is genocidal
o Chicka Dixon, Compass, ABC TV, August 1 1999
Initiatives by churches in promotion of reconciliation
o Graham Neate, president of National Native Title Tribunal, is a member of the Brisbane Baptist Tabernacle
Retains understanding of the Indigenous spiritual link to the land, Christian ties
o Rona-Tranby project
Creation of a record of Aboriginal oral history
Funded by money left by a Jewish couple, Tom and Eva Rona
Conducted by Aboriginal Elder Eliza Kennedy of Nglyampaam people (western NSW)
o Organisation of About Face exchange program
Joint initiative of Uniting Church of Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Christian Congress
150 non-indigenous Australians of ages 18-30 lived in indigenous communities for period of time
Described by participants as profound, life-changing
o Aboriginal pastor Ricky Manton and wife Kayleen invited to perform service at St. Augustines Anglican Church, San
Remo, Vic
Consequent formation of partnership bw parish and Aboriginal Evangelical Fellowship of Dandenong
o Common rejection of Howard govs attempt to weaken Wik legislation