ME492

MATERIALSINENGINEERINGDESIGN

MaterialsandProcess
SelectionforaCryogenic
HeatExchanger

April5,2012

GROUP#4
DawsonJames
JeffreyPowell
JamesStevenson
DerekVisvanathan
i

ExecutiveSummary
Thereisanincreasingdemandfornaturalgasasitisthecleanestburningofallfossilfuels.
Whenpipelinescannotbeusedtotransportthenaturalgasitisliquefied(liquefaction
temperature163)asithasagreatlyreducedvolume,makingtruckandnavaltransportation
morefeasible.Inordertoachievethelowtemperaturesrequiredtoliquefythenaturalgasa
cryogenicheatexchangermustbeused.Thisreportoutlinestheselectionprocedureforthe
type,materialandprocessesrequiredtofabricateacryogenicheatexchanger.
Aspiralinshellheatexchangerutilizesthintubesfilledwithcoolantwoundontheinsideofa
cylindricalshell.Thisdesignmaximizestheamountofsurfaceareabetweenthetubingandthe
naturalgasallowingforahighheatflowfromthegastothecoolant.Thetubesrequireless
advancedprocessestofabricatethanfinsandthespiralshellheatexchangerrequires
significantlylessmaintenancethanaplateandfinexchanger.Heatexchangersusedforthis
purposearequitelargewithlengthsupto500manddiametersof5m.
Wroughtaluminum2026wasfoundtobethebestmaterialforthetubinginsidetheheat
exchanger.Aluminumalloyshaveahighthermalconductivityresultinginthedesiredheatflow
inthecoolant.Aluminumisalsolessexpensivethannickelalloysandwillnothaveadverse
reactionswiththenaturalgaswhichwasaproblemwithcopperandbrass.Alongwiththe
thermalconductivityandcost,aluminumwillbeabletowithstandthepressuresinsidetheheat
exchangerpassingallobjectives.
Tomaximizeheattransferthinwalledtubingwillbeused.Therearemanyprocessesthatare
abletocreatethethinwalledtubingbutwiredrawingwasfoundtobethebestoption.Wire
drawingcancreatesmallcrosssectionalareasrequiredforthethinwalltubingandis
compatiblewiththeselectedaluminumalloys.Wiredrawingcanalsoyieldtighttolerances.
Anotherprocessthatissuitableisrollforming.Withsimilarspecificationsaswiredrawingitwill
alsoperformtherequiredfunction.Wiredrawinghaslowertoolingandcapitalcoststhanroll
formingandisthereforethemostidealprocess.
i

TableofContents
ExecutiveSummary........................................................................................................................................i
ReasonsandProcessofLiquefyingNaturalGas...........................................................................................1
IntroductionandDesignStatement..............................................................................................................1
DesignConstraintsandSelectionCriteria.....................................................................................................2
Function:...............................................................................................................................................2
Constraints:..........................................................................................................................................2
Objectives:............................................................................................................................................2
FreeVariables:......................................................................................................................................2
MaterialIndices:...................................................................................................................................2
Conceptualdesigns.......................................................................................................................................4
MaterialSelectionforHeatExchangerTubes...............................................................................................5
Limits:.......................................................................................................................................................5
MaterialSelectionSummary....................................................................................................................6
ProcessSelectionforHeatExchangerTubes................................................................................................8
JustificationforMaterialsandProcesses.....................................................................................................9
CostEstimation...........................................................................................................................................11
FinalDesignandMaterials..........................................................................................................................11
SummaryandConclusion...........................................................................................................................12
Bibliography................................................................................................................................................13
Appendix.....................................................................................................................................................14
MaximizeHeatFlowPerUnitArea:........................................................................................................14
MaximizeHeatFlowPerUnitMass:.......................................................................................................15
MaximizeHeatFlowPerUnitCost:........................................................................................................16
Costestimationresults...........................................................................................................................18

ii

ReasonsandProcessofLiquefyingNaturalGas
Naturalgasconsumptionisincreasingduetothedemandforcleanerenergyproduction.Inmanycases
pipelinesarenotavailabletosupplythenaturalgasdirectlyfromtheextractionplant.Initsnatural
gaseousstate,naturalgastakesupalargeamountofvolumewhichmakestransportationvery
expensive.Inordertodecreasetheshippingvolume,naturalgascanbeliquefiedwhichreducesits
volumetoapproximately1/600thofitssize.Themaindifficultyinliquefyingnaturalgasisits
classificationasacryogenicfluid,meaningitcondensesatbelow150C.
Anotherreasonforliquefyingnaturalgasisthattheprocessremovesimpuritieswhichmeanonceit
reachesitsdestinationitonlyneedstoberegasifiedpriortodistribution.Liquidnaturalgasisalsonon
toxicandnoncorrosivehowever;itisexplosivewhenputincontactwithwater.Oncenaturalgasis
extracted,itfirstgoesthroughseveralcleaningprocesses.AnycondensatesareremovedalongwithCO2
mercury&H2S.Thenaturalgasalsogoesthroughadehydrationstagetoremoveanytraceamountsof
water.Thegasthengoesthroughseveralcoolingstageswithairfinheatexchangersandcompressors
untilitreachesthefinalcryogenicheatexchanger.Thecryogenicheatexchangerusesanotherliquefied
gas,typicallyliquidnitrogenoroxygenintheliquefactionprocess.Finally,theliquidnaturalgasisput
intocryogenicseacarriersorcryogenicroadtankersandshippedtothefinaldestination.

IntroductionandDesignStatement
Thematerialsandprocessselectionwillbedeterminedforacryogenicheatexchangerusedinthe
liquefactionofnaturalgas.Theprocessofliquefyingnaturalgasrequiresatemperaturebelow163
degreesCelsiusandinthisprocesstheothertraceelementspresentinthenaturalgasareseparatedout
leavingpureliquidmethane.Thisprocessoccursatambientpressureonthenaturalgassidebutthe
refrigerantthattravelsthroughtheheatexchangermaynotoperateatthispressuredependingonthe
typeofprocessutilized.Thereforethestressduetopressuredifferencemustbeconsideredalongwith
thethermalconductivityofthetubingmaterial.Therearetwotypesofheatexchangersusedinthis
application,oneisacoiledtubeheatexchangerandtheotherisfinandplateheatexchangertheyare
commonlymanufacturedusingaluminumandtitaniumalloys,thisreportwillinvestigatetheoptimum
materialforthistypeofheatexchanger.Theoptimumprocessformanufacturingwillalsobe
determined.

DesignConstraintsandSelectionCriteria
Function: Cryogenic heat exchanger used to cool natural gas to its saturation temperature (-163C) at
which point it will liquefy and become liquefied natural gas (LNG).
Constraints:

Withstandthepressuredifferencebetweenworkingfluids,

Operateattemperaturebelowto163

Moderateductilitysotubingcanbebent

Doesnotcorrodeduetoworkingfluidsorbyproducts(suchasH2S)

Haveexcellentlowtemperature(cryogenic)durability

Objectives:

Maximizetheheattransfer/flowperarea,

Minimizecost,

FreeVariables:

Wallthicknessoftubing,

Materialchoice

MaterialIndices:
Themethodofheattransferthroughthetubingwillbeconductionwhichisgivenby:

Where:

istheheatflux(

isthethermalconductivity(

),
),

isthetemperaturedifferencebetweentheworkingfluids(

,and

isthetubewallthickness( ).

Heatflow, ,isgivenby:

Where:

istheheatflow( ),and

isthesurfaceareaofthetubing(

Substitutingtheheatfluxfromconductionyieldsthefollowing:

Wallthicknessisaremainingfreevariablewhichrelatesthepressuredifferencesbetweentheworking
fluids.

isthematerialsyieldstrength(

Where:

),

istheradiusofthetube( ),

isthepressuredifferencebetweentheworkingfluids(

),and

isthewallthickness.

Finallybysubstitutingthicknessamaterialindexbasedonbothyieldstrengthandthermalconductivity
canbeattained.

Inordertheminimizecosttheheatflowperunitmassisused( / ).

Oncethisindexisderivedmultiplyingmassbycostwillresultintheindexforcost.

Conceptualdesigns
Thereareseveraltypesofheat
exchangersthatareeffectivefor
theliquefactionofnaturalgas.
Eachexchangerwillusethe
coolantliquidmethaneinorder
tobringthenaturalgastoits
saturationtemperaturethrough
theuseofatypicalvapour
compressionrefrigerationcycle.

Figure1 Shellandtubeheatexchanger

Oneofthesimplestheat
exchangerisashellandtubeheatexchangerwheremanysmalltubesareranthroughareservoirof
coolant.Thesmalltubesallowformaximumsurfaceareatobeincontactwiththecoolantallowingfor
thehighestheatflowfromnaturalgastothecoolant.Themajorityofheatexchangersarecounterflow
inwhichtheworkingfluidsarepumpedinoppositedirections.Sotheinletsideofthenaturalgaswillbe
theoutletsideofthecoolantandviceversa.Multipletubepassescanbeusedtoincreasetheamountof
surfaceareaandheattransferthatoccurs.Amodificationoftheshellandtubeheatexchangeristhe

Figure2aSpiralwoundheatexchanger

Figure2bPlateandfinHeatexchanger

spiralwoundheatexchanger.Inthiscasethenaturalgasisintheshellarea(AAshellstream)while
coolantrunsthroughthetubestreams.Thisconfigurationhasaveryhightubesurfaceareabutisfar
morecomplexthanatypicalshellandtubeheatexchanger.Plateandfinheatexchangerscanhave
highersurfaceareaforheattransfer.Theyarealsoabletowithstandhighpressures.Platesare
sandwichedtogetherwithsmallfinsinbetweentofurtherincreasethesurfacearea.Thistypeofheat
exchangerismoredifficulttomanufacturethanthosethatutilizetubing.Inadditiontomanufacturing
complicationstheincreasedsurfaceareamakesthefluidpathwaysverysmall.Thiscanleadtoan
increaseincloggingdependingontheworkingfluidsbeingused.

MaterialSelectionforHeatExchangerTubes
WhiledeterminingthematerialsneededforthetubesintheLNGcryogenticheatexchanger
threeobjectiveswereconsidered:

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitArea
MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitMass
MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitCost

Limits:
Elongation:>20%Strain
MaximumServiceTemperature:<163C
5

ThermalConductororInsulator:GoodConductor
TolerancetoCryogenicTemperatures:Excellent

MaterialSelectionSummary
Usinglevel2CESEduPackwiththelimitsstatedabove,thefollowingaretheninematerialsthat
passthelimitstage:

AgehardeningwroughtAlalloys
Brass
Bronze
Commerciallypurelead
Copper
Leadalloys
Nickel
Nickelbasedsuperalloys
NonagehardeningwroughtAlalloys

Thetopfivematerialsusinglevel2foreachobjectiveare:
MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitArea:

AgehardeningwroughtAlalloys
Brass
Copper
Nickel
NonagehardeningwroughtAlalloys

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitMass:

AgehardeningwroughtAlalloys
Brass
Copper
Nickel
NonagehardeningwroughtAlalloys

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitCost:

AgehardeningwroughtAlalloys
NonagehardeningwroughtAlalloys
Brass
Bronze

Copper

Breakingdowneachalloyusinglevel3CESEduPackallowedforamoreaccuratematerial
selectionforeachofthestatedobjectives.Copper,brass,andbronzewererejectedfromthe
materialselectionprocessastheyhaveanadversereactionwithH2Swhichisabyproductof
theliquefactionprocess.Thefollowingarethetoptenmaterialsinorderofperformanceindex
forAluminumandNickelalloys:
MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitArea(seeFigure2):
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)

Aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511

Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4
Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4
Nickel,DuranickelAlloy301,annealed&aged
NickelCoCralloy,UDIMET700,bar

Nickel,PermanickelAlloy300,annealed
NickelFeCralloy,UDIMET630,bar

NickelCoCralloy,AEREX350,coldworked,aged
45Ni3MoFesoftmagneticalloy
Nickel,commercialpurity,grade200,soft(annealed)

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitMass(seeFigure4):
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)

Aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511

Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4
NickelFeCralloy,UDIMET630,bar

NickelCoCralloy,AEREX350,coldworked,aged
Nickel,DuranickelAlloy301,annealed&aged
NickelCoCralloy,UDIMET700,bar

NickelCoCralloy,EP741NP

Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4
NickelFeCralloy,D979,bar
45Ni3MoFesoftmagneticalloy

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitCost(seeFigure6):
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511
Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4
Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4
Aluminum,S520.0:LM10TB,cast
Aluminum,5154,wrought,O

6)
7)
8)
9)
10)

Aluminum,6060,wrought,T4
Aluminum,2024,wrought,T0
Aluminum,5251,wrought,O
Aluminum,commercialpurity,1080,wrought,O
45Ni3MoFesoftmagneticalloy

Materialsthatmeeteachofthethreedesignobjectivesare:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511
Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4
Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4
45Ni3MoFesoftmagneticalloy

ProcessSelectionforHeatExchangerTubes
Thefieldofavailableprocesseswasfirstnarrowedusingthetreeselectiontouseonly
processescompatiblewithaluminum.Usinglimitselectionthelistwasnarrowedtoinclude
onlyprimaryshapingprocesses,circularprismaticobjectsandcontinuousmethods.Finallydue
tothethinwallthicknessrequired,processeswhichcouldntprovideathicknessoflessthan1
mmwereremoved.Thefinalfiveprocesseswerethenrankedaccordingtotherangeof
thicknessavailablebelow1mm.
Thetopfiveprocessesforshapingthetubesare:
1. Wiredrawing
2. Rollforming
3. Shapedrawing
4. Coldshaperolling
5. Powderextrusion

Wiredrawingconsistsofpullingasolidcylindricalblankthroughahardeneddieinorderto
reduceitscrosssectionalarea.Tubedrawingisasubsetofwiredrawingwherethecylindrical
blankhasahollowcenterandamandrelisplacedinsidetokeeptheinteriordiameteratthe
valuethatisrequired.Thisprocessallowsforawallthicknessdownto0.1mmandatolerance
of0.010.04mm.Rollformingconsistsoffeedingacontinuoussheetofmetalthroughrollers
inordertocreatetheshape.Fortheheatexchangertubes,anadditionalweldingprocess
8

wouldhavetobedoneinordertosealtheseambetweenthesections.Shapedrawingissimilar
towireortubedrawingwhereacontinuousblankispulledthroughadietocreatethefinal
geometry.Thedifferenceisthatamandrelisnotusedtocreatethedesiredwallthickness
whichlimitstheminimumwallthickness.Coldshaperollingissimilartorollformingexceptthe
processisdoneatroomtemperatureandproducesbettersurfacefinish.Thedownsidetocold
shaperollingisthehigherstressesinvolvedwhichdontallowforasectionthicknesslessthan1
mm.finally,powderextrusionusesheatedloosemetalpowdereitherformedintoabilletor
placeddirectlyintoachamber.Thematerialisthenpressedthroughadiewhichformsitinto
therequiredshape.Powderextrusionhasthesameproblemascoldshaperollingwherethe
sectionthicknessmustbegreaterthan1mm.

JustificationforMaterialsandProcesses
Inordertodetermineappropriatematerialsforthecryogenicheatexchangertubes,objectives
andconstraintshadtobedefined.Themainconstraintsassociatedwiththeheatexchanger
tubematerialare:

MinimumElongationof20%Strain

MaximumServiceTemperatureLessThan163C

GoodThermalConductor

ExcellentTolerancetoCryogenicTemperatures

Additionally,objectivesweredeterminedtoincorporateperformanceindiceswithourmaterial
selections.Sincetheheatexchangertubesmainpurposeistotransferheatfromonefluidto
another,thermalconductivityisamajoraspectwiththismaterialselection.Therefore
consideringmass,area,andcostwiththermalconductivity;threeobjectiveswereconsidered:

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitArea

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitMass

MaximizeHeatFlowperUnitCost

Usinglevel2CESEduPack2011withthelimitsandobjectivesstatedabove,thetopfive
materialsdeterminedwerefoundtobe:
9

AgehardeningwroughtAlalloys

Brass

Copper

Nickel

NonagehardeningwroughtAlalloys

Duetohighcorrosionrateswithhydrogensulphide,whichisabyproductofnaturalgas,
copperandbrasswereeliminatedfromourselection.Withcopperandcopperalloysremoved
fromourselectionlist,alevel3CESEduPackanalysisofthetopmaterialswasconducted
incorporatingthethreeperformanceindicesstatedearlier.Thisproducedthetopthree
materialswhichallperformedwellineachobjective.Therefore,thetopthreeoverallmaterials
fortheheatexchangertubes,inorderofperformanceindex,are:
5) Aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511
6) Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4
7) Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4

Wiredrawingwaschosenforitswiderrangeofavailablecrosssectionalareas.Thisprocessisalso
simplerthanrollforming,whichmakesitlessexpensive.Wiredrawingalsoconsistsofoneprocess
doneinstepsunlikerollformingwhichwouldrequireanextraweldingstep.Wiredrawingallowsa
rangeofcrosssectionalareasof.01to10mmwithanexcellenttolerancerangeof0.01to0.04mm.
Theprocessisalsocontinuouswhichallowsfortheproductionofverylongtubes,thisisidealdue
toatypicalheatexchangerbeing500minlength.

Figure3Wiredrawingprocess

10

CostEstimation
Thetotalamountoftubingwasbasedonanaverageweightof91000kg.Thecomparisonof
potentialmaterialscanbeseeninTable1oftheappendix.Fromthetableitcanbeseenthat
Aluminum6082isthecheapest,withacostperunitweightof$1.258/kgwhichbringsthetotal
costofthematerialto$243,780.Thiscostdoesnotincludethecontainmentvesselandthe
weldedmountingstructure.
Forthechosenmaterialmorefactorswereconsideredsuchasthermalconductivityand
aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511waschosen.Outofthetwoavailableprocesses,onlythe
capitalcostandthetoolingcostcouldbeconsidered.Thecheapestprocessturnedouttobe
wiredrawingasseeninTable2withacombinedcostof$104,720.Thetotalcostoftheheat
exchangertubingincludingmaterialandprocesscameto$360,430.

FinalDesignandMaterials
Astherearesignificantbyproductscreatedintheliquefactionofnaturalgastheplateandfin
heatexchangerwasrejectedbecausethesmallpathwaysmaybecomecloggedduring
operation.Itwasdecidedthataspiralwoundheatexchangerwouldbettersuitedforthis
application.Thisheatexchangerhasmuchhighersurfaceareaoftubingresultinginhigherheat
flowfromthenaturalgastothecoolantwhencomparedwithamoreconventionaltubeinshell
exchanger.Also,thermalexpansionandcontractioncanoccurinaspiraltubeheatexchanger
withoutbreaking.Thetubingforthisheatexchangerwillbemadeoutofthefollowing
aluminumalloys(inorderfrommosttoleastdesirable):
1) Aluminum,2026,wrought,T3511
2) Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4
3) Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4

Aluminumhasahighthermalconductivityallowingformaximumheattransferthroughoutthe
heatexchanger.Aluminumalloyswillnotreactwithanyofthecoolants,naturalgasorby
productsfromtheliquefactionsothereisnoriskofcorrosion.Aluminumisalsoreadily
availableandinexpensivematerialthatiswidelyusedinheatexchangersandother
11

mechanism.Thereisanaddedadvantagebecausealuminumcanbebenttocreatecomplex
pipingnetworkswithoutbreakingandiscompatiblewiththeprocessselected,wiredrawing.
Aluminumhasloweryieldstrengththannickelalloysbutthe2000seriesaluminumalloyswill
besufficientforthisfunction.Typicallytheheatexchangersusedtoliquefynaturalgasare5m
indiameterandrangebetween200mand500mlong.Usingaluminumwillkeepweightand
costdownwhilethespiralheatexchangerwillreducethemaintenancerequiredwhich,
consideringitssize,isvital.

SummaryandConclusion
Themostdesirablematerialswereallagehardenedaluminumalloyswhicharelowincost,
havehighyieldstrengthandhighthermalconductivity.Thesematerialsweresimilartothose
currentlyusedinthesetypesofnaturalgasheatexchangerswhichtypicallyusealuminum.
Othermaterials,suchascopper,wouldbeattractivehadtheynothavehadadversereactions
withbyproductsofthereaction.Aluminumisalsoductilesoitcanbebentintothespiral
shapesonceithasbeenmanufacturedintothinwalledtubes.Perhapsthemostimportant
constraintthataluminummetwasitslowminimumoperatingtemperature(below200C).
Afterpassingallconstraintsaluminumscoredhighinallthreeofthematerialindices:heatflow
perunitarea,heatflowperunitmassandheatflowperunitcost.
Wiredrawingistheprocessthatbestfitstherequirementsformakingsmallthinwalledtubes
whilestillhavinglowcostswhencomparedtoothermethods.Asanaddedbenefittherewillbe
noadditionalprocessesrequiredotherthanthefinalassembly.Afterresearchingcurrent
materialsandprocesswefoundthatthemethodsandmaterialsselectedforthecryogenicheat
exchangeraresimilartowhatiscurrentlyused.

12

Bibliography
AirProducts.(2008,February).RetrievedMarch23,2012,from
http://www.airproducts.com/~/media/Files/PDF/industries/energylngbrochure0408.ashx
Ashby,M.F.(2011).MaterialsSelectioninMechanicalDesign4thEd.Burlington:Butterworth
Heinemann.
TheLindeGroup.(2008,December09).GryogenicHeatExchangersforLNGPlants.Retrieved
March23,2012,from
http://www.hts.org.uk/downloads/Linde_LNG_HEX_09Dec2008_Extract.pdf

13

Appendix
MaximizeHeatFlowPerUnitArea:
MaterialIndices:

Slope=1

Figure4Level2CESEduPack2011Materials

Figure5Level3CESEduPack2011Al,NiAlloys

14

MaximizeHeatFlowPerUnitMass:
MaterialIndices:

Slope=1

Figure6Level2CESEduPackMaximizeHeatFlowperUnitMass

Figure7Level3CESEduPack2011Al,NiAlloys

15

MaximizeHeatFlowPerUnitCost:
MaterialIndices:

Slope=1

Figure8Level2CESEduPackMaximizeHeatFlowperUnitCost

Figure9Level3CESEduPack2011Al,NiAlloys

16


Figure10Level3CESEduPackProcessrankofsectionthicknes

17

Costestimationresults

Table1Materialcost

Material

UnitCost($/kg)

Avg.TubingWeight

TotalCost

(kg)

($)

2.81

91,000

255,710

Aluminum,2024,wrought,T4

2.85

91,000

259,350

Aluminum,6082,wrought,T4

2.58

91,000

234,780

Aluminum,2026,wrought,
T3511

Table2Processcost

Process

TotalCost($)

CapitalCost

ToolingCost

($)

($)

WireDrawing

95,200

9,520

104,720

RollForming

667,000

19,000

686,000

18