Introduction

[1.1] Pop and rock music are frequently generalized as being in 4/4 meter throughout.
(1
!ike most generalizations" this is
substantially true" but#also like most generalizations#on closer e$amination the reality pro%es to be more complicated.
&umerous e$amples of rock songs that de%iate from the 4/4 norm through asymmetrical or changing meters" either
temporarily or on a large scale" are offered by '%erett (())*a" +),-*" .osenberg (()1)" /4-/*" 0oore (()1(" //-/," and
1tephens (()1+. .ecent studies ha%e sho2n that listeners readily entrain to a regular meter and readily percei%e disruptions
of the metric hierarchy (!adinig et al. ())*" 3oning ()1(" 4itch ()1+. 5his study e$plores the functions of such disruptions"
focusing on the interactions of metric dissonance 2ith phrase structure and form in 6nglophone rock music" 2ith a bias
to2ard classic and progressi%e rock" the repertoires 7 kno2 best.
((
7n the section that follo2s" 7 apply and adapt the model
of grouping and displacement dissonances de%eloped by 8aminsky (1*,* and 8rebs (1*** to rhythmic" metric" and
hypermetric structural le%els. 5he second section of the article offers a categorization scheme for metric dissonances in
terms of their formal functions" demonstrating that they can ser%e on a small scale as initiating dissonances" links bet2een
sections" or cadential hemiolas" and on a large scale to help demarcate formal sections. 5he last section presents corpus
studies of music by the 9eatles" the .olling 1tones" :imi 3endri$" !ed ;eppelin" 5ool" .adiohead" and ()) of .olling 1tone
0agazine<s =5op >)) 1ongs of 6ll 5ime"? and compares their different usages of metric dissonance by category and o%er
time.
[1.(] 5he temporal organization of music can be sho2n as a series of layers mo%ing from subdi%isions of the beat at the
subtactus le%el" through the rhythmic or tactus le%el" the metric or bar le%el" to the hypermetric le%el and abo%e" as sho2n in
Example 1. 3igher le%els of organization are percei%ed as grouping structures rather than metric structures" although phrase
and hypermeter occur at the same le%el and often coincide. 5his model subdi%ides 9ro2er<s (1**+ paradigm of rhythmic
organization into foreground (subtactus and tactus" middleground (meter and hypermeter and background (larger units"
2hich are go%erned by different kinds of memory. !ondon describes metric entrainment at the lo2est three le%els and
possibly at the hypermetric le%el (()1(" 1/-1,. 9ecause of the high degree of repetition" the short length of repeated units"
and clear formal boundaries demarcated by changes in te$t" te$ture" and other parameters" structural patterns of larger units
such as phrases and sections are generally more perceptually salient in %ernacular music than in many forms of art music.
@olume ()" &umber (" :une ()14
Aopyright B ()14 1ociety for 0usic 5heory
4ormal 4unctions of 0etric Cissonance in .ock 0usic
D
&icole 9iamonte
&E5'F 5he e$amples for the (te$tGonly PC4 %ersion of this item are a%ailable online atF
httpF//222.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.14.().(/mto.14.().(.biamonte.php
8'HIE.C1F meter" rhythm" form" phrase structure" rock music
6915.6A5F 5his article e$plores the interactions of metric dissonance 2ith phrase structure and form in rock music" offers
categorization schemes for common formal functions of metric dissonance" and presents se%eral corpus studies of metric
dissonance in the 2orks of single artists and bands as 2ell as in a crossGsection of rock songs. 5hese data allo2 for
comparati%e analyses of the metric profile of a gi%en artist or band" suggest genre correlations 2ith particular metric patterns"
and demonstrate a trend of increasing metric dissonance throughout the history of rock.
Received March 2014

1 of 19
[1.+] 6s numerous commentators ha%e obser%ed" the layers in this model of temporal organization do not all beha%e in
precisely the same 2ay" nor are they percei%ed in the same 2ay.
(+
.hythmic dissonances" 2hich do not normally disrupt the
meter (8rebs<s =submetrical dissonances?J 1***" +)" occur at the tactus le%el#in 4/4" the quarterGnote beat#and belo2.
!ayers belo2 the tactus typically include at least one le%el of subdi%ision that might be quadruple" duple" triple" or
inGbet2een#for e$ample" straight 1/th notes" straight ,th notes" triplet ,ths" or une%en pairs in a s2ing or shuffle rhythm
(8rebs<s =lo2Gle%el dissonances?J 1***" >+.
(4
0etric dissonances disrupt the bar and the conducting pattern" 2hich is
normally quadruple" sometimes duple or triple" or less commonly an additi%e combination of these. 0etric dissonances in
rock music typically play a syntactic role in articulating formal function" discussed in greater detail belo2" as 2ell as an
e$pressi%e role in heightening tension.
(>
7n maintaining a distinction bet2een the rhythmic and metric layers" 7 am follo2ing
3uron (())/" !ondon (()1(" and other cogniti%e theorists.
(/
6 similar distinction bet2een rhythmic dissonances that fit
2ithin a comparati%ely regular metric grid and metric dissonances that do not is made by 3atten (())(" (K/-KK and !o%e
(()1+" 4," as 2ell as 1ykes (1**(" 5emperley (1***" (/" Pressing (())(" +)1" and '%erett (())*a" , and +11-1>" in
discussions specific to popular music. 3ypermetric dissonances disrupt the 2ellGestablished popGrock norm of 4Gbar units.
(K
1chachter (1*,K" ,,-,* and 3uron (())/" 1*>-1*/ ha%e obser%ed the increased preference for dupleGbased groupings at
higher le%els of organization" 2hich 3uron calls the =binary default.? 7n rock music" displacements and groupings other than
quadruple are more common at lo2er le%els and increasingly less common at the hypermetric le%el and abo%e. Cissonances
at any le%el may be 2eak or strong and smallGscale or largeGscaleJ 2eak and smallGscale dissonances are likely to function on a
single le%el" 2hile strong and largeGscale dissonances ha%e the potential to disrupt the ne$t higher le%el as 2ell.
[1.4] .ock music de%eloped from a combination of other genres" including rhythm L blues and country" but from its
beginnings it 2as strongly associated 2ith dance. 5hus many rock songs are indeed in a regular 4/4 meter" 2hich is often
o%ertly iterated in the accompaniment pattern. 7nterest and tension are created through rhythmic dissonance at the tactus
le%el" 2hich is an essential style feature of the genre (3esselink ()14. .hythmic dissonance is typically most prominent in
the main melodic layer" normally %oice or lead guitar" figured against the ground of a generally regular pattern in the drum
part" 2hich is most often M or 1 bar long. Cue to the ubiquity of these short repeated patterns in the drum parts and the
e$plicit metric frame2ork pro%ided by the timekeeping layer(s of the te$ture such as the drum part and rhythm guitar" the
metric unit of the bar and the background grid of the meter ha%e greater salience in rock and other %ernacular musics than in
art music.
(,
5hus 7 ha%e adopted a paradigm that separates rhythm and meter" in contrast to the model of meter as the sum
total of interacting rhythmic layers in a 2ork used by 8rebs and others. 6s Nracyk has obser%ed" =.ock bears constant
2itness to the distinction bet2een meter and rhythm? (1**/" 1+4.
Theoretical Model
[(.1] 8rebs (1*** identifies t2o basic types of metric dissonanceF displacement dissonance" in 2hich the grouping of units
remains the same but the position of the first unit is shifted either for2ard or back2ard in time" and grouping dissonance" in
2hich the grouping of units changes" as in a hemiola (Example 2a.
(*
'ither type of dissonance can be direct" occurring
simultaneously 2ithin the musical te$ture" or indirect" occurring successi%ely bet2een phrases or sections. Cirect
displacement dissonances remain out of phase until one or the other pattern is adOusted" but direct grouping dissonances
cyclically realign at a period equal to the product of their groupings (duple and triple groupings align e%ery si$ units" triple
and quadruple groupings align e%ery t2el%e units" etc.. 0irka (())*" 14+ further categorizes metric dissonances as split"
belonging to different auditory streams" or merged" belonging to the same stream. 5his study 2ill consider both displacement
and grouping dissonances as they most commonly occur in rockGcompositional practiceF indirect and split.
[(.(] 9utler (())/ groups rhythmic patterns in electronic dance music into categories that are similar to those of
displacement and grouping dissonanceF syncopated rhythms" comprising accents on 2eak beats that (unlike in 8rebs<s
model may or may not form a regular pattern and may or may not periodically realign" and diatonic rhythms" comprising an
odd number of attacks distributed across an e%en number of beats" 2hich are ma$imally e%en and ma$imally
indi%iduated#each note has a unique set of relationships to the other notes (,1-,*.
(1)
Iaters (1**/ further subdi%ides
grouping dissonance into t2o typesF measureGpreser%ing" in 2hich the barlines line up but the beats do not" and tactusG
preser%ing" in 2hich the beats line up but the barlines do not (Example 2b. 5his distinction is essentially the same
relationship en%isioned on different structural le%els" but it is 2orth making because of the salience of the bar as an
organizing unit in popular music.
[(.+] 8rebs does not include a model for asymmetrical or oddGcardinality meters 2ith" for e$ample" > or K beats to a bar" or
for changing meters 2ithout a larger periodicity.
(11
6symmetrical meters are typically percei%ed" and are often e$plicitly
marked in the musical te$ture" as combinations of duple and triple groupingsF > is +P( or (P+J K is +P(P(" (P(P+" or less
commonly" (P+P(. !ondon (()1( refers to these as nonGisochronous (&7 meters" 2hich are ma$imally e%en and ha%e
groupings of roughly but not precisely equal size that participate in a larger isochronous cycle.
(1(
9ecause of these larger
periodic cycles" asymmetrical meters are considered consonant" but because of their unequal groupings they are inherently
less stable than symmetrical meters such as 4/4. Ahanging or asymmetrical meters in one section often create an indirect
grouping dissonance 2ith regular 4/4 meter in an adOacent section" most commonly bet2een the introduction and %erse or
bet2een the %erse and chorus.
2 of 19
[(.4] 5he follo2ing section offers e$amples of displacement and grouping dissonances at rhythmic (tactus" metric" and
hypermetric le%els. 6lthough the primary concern of this study is the metric or bar le%el" 7 ha%e pro%ided e$amples at the
le%els immediately abo%e and belo2 for comparison" as 2ell as a fe2 e$amples of dissonances that participate in more than
one le%el.
Rhythmic Dissonance
[+.1] 6n instance of direct rhythmic displacement at the tactus le%el occurs in the chorus melody of 8ansas<s =Aarry En
Iay2ard 1on? (1*K/. 5he first line of the chorus is sho2n in Example 3aJ the ne$t t2o lines are %ery similar and are set in
the same trochaic tetrameter (four strongG2eak syllable pairs.
(1+
6t its registral high point" the melody is displaced back2ard
by an eighth note and it remains out of phase 2ith the meter until the fourth beat of the second bar. 7n this and the
follo2ing e$amples" points of consonant alignment are sho2n 2ith arro2s and outGofGphase notes are bracketed" 2ith the
grouping structure sho2n inside the bracket. 5his kind of medial rhythmic dissonance" 2hich increases tension and
momentum 2ithin the body of the phrase 2ithout challenging the meter" resol%es to consonance at the end of the phrase.
[+.(] 6 more e$tended rhythmic displacement dissonance is found in the %erse of 9lack 1abbath<s =Paranoid? (1*K)" sho2n
in Example 3b" 2ith the microtiming anticipations in the %ocal melody quantized to the nearest si$teenthGnote pulse.
(14
5he lyric lines are t2ice as long as in the pre%ious e$ample (trochaic octometer" and the rhythmic displacement is almost
immediate" so that after the first attack" none of the notes in the first t2o bars are on the beat. 5he back2ard eighthGnote
displacement chain in the melody is increasingly fragmented from the beginning to the end of the phrase. 5he first note is on
the do2nbeat" and then the melody is displaced for the remainder of the first t2o bars. 5he third bar has a consonant
do2nbeat follo2ed by one bar of displacement" and the fourth bar has consonant attacks on beats 1 and +" 2ith a single
displaced note in bet2een" taking up Oust under half a bar" so that the points of consonant alignment accelerate to the end of
the phrase" in conOunction 2ith the accelerating harmonic rhythm and the increased dissonance bet2een the guitar and %ocal
parts.
[+.+] .hythmic grouping dissonance at the tactus le%el is demonstrated by the introduction to 6A/CA<s =4or 5hose 6bout
to .ock (Ie 1alute Hou? (1*,1" sho2n in Example 3c. 5hrough its accent pattern" the guitar groups 1/ eighth notes in
4/4 meter into four groups of + and t2o groups of ( (++++((" a rhythm 7 call the =double tresillo? since it represents a
doubling of the ++( grouping structure of the tresillo" or =threeGside? of the cla%e pattern. 5he doubleGtresillo rhythm is
common in Oazz from the midGt2entieth century on2ards and in rock and related genres from the 1*K)s on2ardsJ other
cla%eGbased rhythms are discussed briefly belo2 in paragraph /.4. !ike the e$amples of rhythmic displacement sho2n abo%e"
the pattern begins and ends in alignment 2ith the 4/4 meter but is out of phase in the middle" creating tension 2ithin the
body of the phrase. 5he first t2o statements of the pattern are unaccompanied and could be heard as metrically ambiguous"
but 2hen the drums enter at the beginning of the third statement the 4/4 meter is clear.
[+.4] 0y final e$ample of rhythmic dissonance at the tactus le%el is the opening of @an 3alen<s =:ump? (1*,+" sho2n in
Example 3d" 2hich uses both displacement and grouping dissonance.
(1>
5he synthesizer rhythm can be heard as a double
tresillo pattern displaced back2ard by an eighth note 2ith a silent initial triple grouping" follo2ed by a truncated %ersion of
the pattern that shifts to duple groupings after only t2o triple groupings. 5he rhythm aligns 2ith the meter only on the 2eak
beat ( of the first and third bars" and on the do2nbeat of the hypermetrically 2eak second barJ thus the pattern is
significantly more unstable than the 6A/CA e$ample" but still functions 2ithin the 4/4 metric frame.
Metric Dissonance
[4.1] 7ndirect displacement dissonance at both the rhythmic and metric le%els is e$emplified in =5ell 0e 1omething Nood?
by .ufus 2ith Ahaka 8han (1*K4. 7n the %erse" the bass and %ocals are aligned" and the guitar ans2ers 2ith a midGrange
chord on alternating beats" 2hich sound like offGbeats but 2hich align 2ith the drum part. 5he prominence of the %ocals and
bass in combination 2ith the accented 2ords in the te$t (=got"? =knock"? =pride"? =Gside? create perceptual strong beats" as
sho2n in Example 4a" but this puts the hiGhat on the beat and the bass and snare off the beat" in sharp contradiction to the
normati%e pattern. 7n this hearing there is an e$tra halfGbeat at the end of the %erse" 2hich reassigns the do2nbeat 2hen all
the parts line up at the beginning of the chorus. 5he chorus begins on a do2nbeat ,M quarter notes after the last barline of
the e$ample" and ends 2ith a =missing? halfGbeat 2hen it mo%es back to the %erse. 6n alternati%e but more counterintuiti%e
hearing puts the bass drum" snare drum and guitar on the beat and the bass guitar and accented %ocals off the beat" requiring
no metric adOustment bet2een sections. 7n either interpretation" this is an instance of the =loose %erse/tight chorus? (!@5A
form described in 5emperley ())K" in 2hich choruses are rhythmically" te$turally" and tonally more unified than %erses. 5he
displacement in '$ample 4a is rhythmic because the shift by an eighth note occurs belo2 the tactus le%el" but it is also metric
because the do2nbeat is reassigned and the 4/4 pattern cannot be maintained uninterrupted.
[4.(] 6 smallerGscale instance of an eighthGnote displacement occurs 2ithin the chorus of 1te%e Iin2ood<s =1lo2do2n
1undo2n"? as sho2n in Example 4b. 0y transcription follo2s the drum part and harmonic rhythm" assigning the bass
drum" cymbal hits" and chord changes to do2nbeats. 7n this interpretation" the second bar of the e$ample is missing a
halfGbeat and the third bar has an e$tra halfGbeat. 9ecause this disruption is comparati%ely brief" ho2e%er" it is also possible to
3 of 19
maintain a 4/4 hearingJ thus this dissonance is rhythmic but only 2eakly metric.
[4.+] 7ndirect grouping dissonance at the metric le%el is created bet2een the changing meter in the %erse of .ush<s =4ree
Iill? (1*,) and the regular 4/4 of the chorus. 5he first phrase of the %erse is sho2n in Example 4c. 1ome rock songs use
changing meters in regular pairs" so that alternating bars of +/4 and 4/4 can be heard as a larger cycle of K beats. 7n =4ree
Iill? the pattern is still larger and less regularF once the full band has entered after the 4Gbar introduction" the metric
groupings are Q/QKQ/QKQ/Q,Q. 5he repetition of this pattern occurs at the midpoint of the %erse" so the meter and
hypermeter are not only asymmetrical but also out of alignment 2ith the form. 5he additi%e structure of the meter is clear"
ho2e%er" because the beginning of each bar is marked by the ascendingGfifth moti%e and anticipation of beat ( in the melody"
and the end of each bar is marked in the drum part by a shift from the backbeat pattern to e$tra hits or fills that adOust to the
%arying bar lengths. 7n addition to the changing groupings" there is also a subtle rhythmic dissonance created by the
anticipations" 2hich form t2o triple groupings at the beginning of each bar" in conflict 2ith the backbeat and highlighted by
the disOunct motion and change of contour. 5his song is another instance of !@5A formF the changing meter" unison
te$ture" and !ydian mode of the %erse resol%e in the chorus to a regular 4/4 and chordal te$ture in C maOor (not sho2n.
Hypermetric Dissonance
[>.1] 6n instance of indirect hypermetric displacement occurs at the end of the bridge in 5he 9eatles< =7 Iant to 3old Hour
3and? (1*/+" sho2n as a chord chart in Example a.
(1/
7n this song" the 4Gbar units of the introduction" %erse" and refrain
establish a quadruple hypermeter. 5he %erse plus refrain form a larger unit" a modified 1(Gbar blues in N maOor. 5he first
phrase of the bridge" 2hich tonicizes the subdominant" conforms to this 4Gbar hypermeter" but the second phrase" 2hich 2e
e$pect to end on the dominant (C" elides into a repetition of the introduction (no2 2ith %ocals" 2hich also ends on the
dominant (C. 9ecause of this elision" the third phrase of the bridge arri%es one bar earlier than e$pected" an effect enhanced
by the faster harmonic rhythm" and the bridge section is ele%en bars long rather than t2el%e" disrupting the 4Gbar hypermeter.
[>.(] 3ypermetric grouping dissonance is e$emplified in another 9eatles song" =7 6m the Ialrus? (1*/K" diagrammed in
Example b. 5he +Gbar %ocal phrases are out of alignment 2ith the harmonic pattern. 5he harmony in the first bar is an 6
maOor chord o%er a bass 6 that mo%es do2n a step to N. 5he repetition of this progression in the third bar sounds like a ne2
beginning" grouping the chord pattern as (P4 or perhaps (P(P(. 5he drums" ho2e%er" follo2 the %ocal phrases" shifting
after three bars from a bassGdrum hit on beats 1 and + to a bass hit on each beat. 6lthough the 9eatles are kno2n for their
irregular phrase structures ('%erett ())*b" in the broader conte$t of rock music in general" these regular +Gbar phrases
di%erge from the 4Gbar norm. Iithin the conte$t of this song" they represent an increase in stability o%er the ambiguous
groupings of the KMGbar introduction and >Gbar bridge" and create an indirect grouping dissonance against the regular 4Gbar
phrases of the outro.
!ac"beat #ccompaniment $atterns
[/.1] 9efore mo%ing on to the formal functions of metric dissonance" 7 2ill address the status of an important foundational
metric unit" the backbeat. 5he most common drum pattern throughout rock and related genres is a backbeat pattern kno2n
as the =standard rock beat? (Example %"
(1K
a quarterGnote pattern in 4/4 consisting of a bass (or kick drum on beats 1 and
+ and a snare drum on beats ( and 4" 2ith the hiGhat cymbals or sometimes the ride cymbal iterating a regular ,thGnote
subdi%ision.
(1,
5he snare drum is higher in pitch" has a sharper timbre" and as the sound 2a%eform belo2 the notation
sho2s" is louder than the bass drum#thus it is registrally" timbrally" and dynamically more prominent. 5his creates a clear
distinction 2ithin the pattern bet2een oddGnumbered and e%enGnumbered beats" and places se%eral types of phenomenal
accent on 2hat are traditionally the 2eak beats in a 4/4 pattern. 9utterfield (())/ interprets the role of the snare in this
pattern as fundamentally anacrustic because of its timbre" frequency" and durational bre%ity compared to the bass drum. 7
interpret this last reason as support for the opposite interpretationF 7 hear the snare hits primarily as reacti%e rebounds"
functionally more continuational than anacrustic.
(1*
9ecause the bass drum is more resonant than the snare" it is more
strongly connected to the snare than the snare drum is to the bass. 1ubdi%isions of the snare hits into ,th or 1/th notes on
beats ( and/or 4 make the backbeats more anacrustic" because they are follo2ed by a longer duration" and subdi%isions of
the bass drum into ,th notes on beat 1 and/or + make the backbeats more continuational" because they are preceded by
shorter durations.
(()
[/.(] 9ecause it is an essential component of the meter" functioning as a timeline#a rhythmic ostinato around 2hich the
other parts are organized#7 consider the backbeat in rock music to be an instance of displacement consonance rather than
dissonance. 7 hold this %ie2 in part because there is still an accent on beats 1 and +" as demonstrated by the propensity of
musically untrained listeners to clap on beats 1 and + of a backbeat rather than ( and 4 (see 3ein ()1+. 0ore importantly"
the backbeat is conte$tually consonant because it is a basic rhythmic unit that typically continues throughout the song" 2ith
no e$pectation of a resolution to a consonant pattern. 6 pitchGbased analogy is the consonant status of the dominant Kth
chord in the conte$t of the bluesF it is the basic harmonic unit" 2hich does not resol%e. :ust as the tension of the dominant
function in blues is often e$pressed through alterations or e$tensions of a dominant Kth chord such as raised or lo2ered
chord fifths or ninths" temporal dissonance in rock music is typically e$pressed by patterns that create tensions against the
underlying backbeat. 9utler e$presses a similar %ie2 of the backbeat as consonantF =7n rock" funk" and other traditions 2ith
4 of 19
roots in 6fricanG6merican musical practice" strong phenomenal accents on the second and fourth beats of the measure are
so per%asi%e that this trait can be regarded as normati%e . . . there is little reason to regard the attacks on beats ( and 4 as
belonging else2here? (())/" ,K. 7n a recent paper" Iilson (()14 makes the same argument for regarding triple meter in the
1arabande as a =dualGaspect meter? 2hich establishes a beat hierarchy and a separate accent pattern" creating a =comple$
metrical consonance? that treats the emphasis on beat ( as e$pected and referential and thus not in need of resolution.
1imilarly" ;biko2ski (())4" (,* puts forth the proposition that meter in pop and rock is typically quadruple 2ith t2o le%els
that distinguish beats 1 and + from beats ( and 4. 7n contrast" the conception of =shado2 meter? e$plored in .othstein
(1**> and 1amarotto (1*** interprets regularly recurring accent patterns as challenging" rather than enriching" the primary
meter.
[/.+] 6n essential characteristic of the backbeat pattern is that beats 1 and + are in a lo2er register than beats ( and 4" e%en in
instrumentations other than drums. 7n Rueen<s =Ie Iill .ock Hou"? the standard rock backbeat is e$pressed 2ith foot
stomps and hand claps rather than bass and snare hits (Example &a. 7n :imi 3endri$<s =4o$y !ady"? the guitar riff
rhythmically and registrally doubles the backbeat (Example &b. 7n both of these e$amples" beats 1 and + are subdi%ided"
enhancing the continuational function of beats ( and 4. 7n =4o$y !ady"? the anacrustic function is taken o%er by the 1/th
notes at the end of these beats. 5he backbeat 2as a stock accompaniment pattern in music from the lateGeighteenth and
nineteenth centuries and later in ragtime" typically in the form of a bass note follo2ed by a midGrange chord.
((1
9oth the
bassGchord accompaniment pattern and the backbeat are strongly associated 2ith dance" perhaps because their repeated
tra%ersals of register suggest or impel motion.
(((
[/.4] 9ackbeat patterns are accompanimental and are typically iterated in one layer of the te$ture. 6nother %ery common
family of patterns is based on the cla%e rhythm" 2hich can be found in both melody and accompaniment layers. 0any
common syncopations in rock music are based on the son cla%e" a ++4(4 grouping. Part of this rhythm<s appeal may be its
progression from dissonance to consonance on t2o le%els" 2ithin both ,Gpulse and 1/Gpulse cycles" or 1G and (Gbar units in
4/4 2ith an ,thGnote subdi%ision. 7 interpret the first bar as a grouping dissonance that resembles an une%en triplet 2ith a
short final beat adOusted to conform to a 4/4 background" but it could also be considered a for2ard displacement of beat ("
or a back2ard displacement of beat +. Esborn describes this as an =idiomatic subdi%ision? in rock music (()1)" 4/J Ahor
(()1)a" ()1)b differentiates bet2een cla%e patterns as surface rhythms" 2hich is their most common role in rock music" and
as rhythmic frame2orks at a background le%el" as in many !atin and 6froGAuban musics. .hythms in this family" including
the cla%e" tresillo" double tresillo" and related patterns (Example ' are %ery common in rock and related genres.
((+
5hey are
more likely to be iterated by multiple layers of the te$ture than displacement syncopations" perhaps because displacement in
multiple layers challenges the do2nbeat" 2hile cla%eGbased rhythms realign 2ith it e%ery one or t2o bars.
(ormal (unctions o) Metric Dissonance
[K.1] 0etric dissonances in rock typically contribute to formal articulation at the phrase or section le%el.
((4
!ike rhythmic
dissonances (see note 1*" metric dissonances can be interpreted as e$pressing the Aaplinian formal functions of
introduction" initiating" medial" cadential" and postcadential" on one or more le%els (see Aaplin 1**,. 1mallGscale metric
dissonances that disrupt only a fe2 bars or e%en a single bar typically function in one of three 2aysF as an initial ambiguity or
irregularity that dra2s attention to the beginning of a phrase or section" as a cadential hemiola that creates a sense of
accelerating motion to2ard the end of a phrase" or as a truncated link at the end of a formal section that pro%ides
momentum into the follo2ing sectionJ the functions of these techniques are initiating" concluding" and transitional"
respecti%ely. !argerGscale metric shifts frequently emphasize sectional contrasts bet2een %erses" choruses" bridges" and
framing sections such as introductions and codas. 0ore specifically" indirect metric dissonances bet2een sections often mark
some sections as more dissonant and unstable than others. 5hese functions are sho2n in Example *.
[K.(] 7nitiating dissonances are metrically irregular or ambiguous openings" attentionGgetting de%ices that ser%e to mark the
beginning of a phrase or section. 5here are t2o basic typesF anomalous bars 2ithin a pre%ailing meter" 2hich are usually
tactusGpreser%ing grouping dissonances" and initial do2nbeat or grouping structures that differ from the ones that ultimately
pre%ail" 2hich !ondon calls =metric fakeGouts.?
((>
5ypically the metric dissonance is resol%ed later in the phrase. 5he first
technique" of initial irregularity" is demonstrated in the introduction and %erse of 5he 9eatles< =0artha 0y Cear.? 5he top
t2o sta%es of Example 1+a sho2 the beginning of the piano introduction" 2hich is repeated (in full 2ith the addition of
%ocals and strings as the first %erse. 6n e$tra beat in the opening phrase creates a metric ambiguity" 2hich then resol%es into a
regular 4/4 for the rest of the section. '%erett (1***" 1*K describes this as an initial bar of >/4 mo%ing to 4/4. 7n The Beatles:
Complete Scores" the initial grouping of > beats is subdi%ided into a bar of +/4 follo2ed by a bar of (/4" but because of the
moti%ic repetition of N-9 -A in the melody" 7 ha%e transcribed it as (/4 follo2ed by +/4. 5his interpretation also makes
more sense in light of the instrumental %erse at 1F(( of the recording" 2hich is accompanied by a backbeat (as 2ell as a
thicker te$ture including brass" sho2n on the bottom staff. Parsing the opening as (/4 follo2ed by +/4 aligns the bass drum
2ith the do2nbeat in the second bar" although it falls out of alignment until the rest at the end of the fourth bar realigns it
2ith the other parts in the fifth bar.
[K.+] 5he second type of initating dissonance" the =fakeGout"? is e$emplified by the beginning of 5he Aars< =:ust Ihat 7
&eeded? (Example 1+b" a metrically displaced opening. 5he loud chords spaced four beats apart suggest do2nbeats" but
5 of 19
2hen the %ocals come in and the harmony changes on 2hat turns out to be the real do2nbeat" 2e retrospecti%ely reinterpret
the chords in the introduction as displaced back2ard by a quarter note. 5he palmGmuted guitar strumming does begin on
beat 1 of the real meter" but in the absence of any other metric cues this could also be heard as beginning on beat ( follo2ing
an empty do2nbeat. 6dditional e$amples of initiating dissonances are sho2n in Example 1+c" correlated 2ith !ondon<s
categories of metric fakeGout (())/.
[K.4] Aadential hemiolas are a familiar form of grouping dissonance" in 2hich the percei%ed %alue of the beat or the bar is
changed leading into a cadence.
((/
7n art music" most commonly a triple meter temporarily shifts to a duple grouping" 2hile
con%ersely" in rock music" typically a quadruple meter becomes triple.
((K
'ither of these formulations could create a sense of
acceleration because of the shorter groupings or a sense of deceleration because of the e$panded tactusJ Iillner (1**1 refers
to these as contraction and e$pansion hemiolas respecti%ely. Aadential hemiolas are usually of short duration and are only
minimally disrupti%e" realigning 2ith the meter after t2o or four barsJ hence in many cases they can be interpreted as
rhythmic rather than metric dissonances.
[K.>] 7n the chorus of Ca%id 9o2ie<s =Ahanges? (Example 11a" the pre%ailing 4/4 meter is first destabilized by a half bar"
and then becomes triple meter for four bars. 5he shorter bar lengths and faster harmonic rhythm#no2 changing e%ery
quarter note" t2ice as fast as the halfGnote changes in the %erse and the first part of the chorus#intensify the motion leading
into the cadence at the end of the section. 5he refrain of !ed ;eppelin<s =.ock and .oll? (Example 11b features t2o
different types of cadential hemiola" at the quarterGnote le%el and the ,thGnote le%el.
((,
5he e$ample sho2s the final phrase
of the %erse" a (4Gbar blues. 5he initial +Gbeat moti%e" =7t<s been a long time"? is repeated t2ice" displaced back2ard by a
quarter note each time relati%e to the 4/4 meter.
((*
1ince the last statement of !ed ;eppelin<s moti%e is interrupted" a ++(
tresillo pattern is formed. 7n the second part of the phrase" the grouping shifts do2n to the ,thGnote le%el and the 2ord
=lonely? is repeated in a double tresillo rhythm (++++((. 7n the 9eatles< =5he 'nd? (Example 11c" the une%en triple
di%isions of the tresillo rhythm used for =6nd in the end? and =lo%e you take? pa%e the 2ay for a cadential hemiola that uses
an e%en triple rhythm to accomplish one of the fe2 true metric modulations in rock music. 5he change from a quarterGnote
tactus to dotted quarters functions as a builtGin ritard leading to a slo2er 4/4 than the mediumGtempo 4/4 used earlier in the
song. 5he metric modulation coincides 2ith a tonal modulation from 6 maOor to A maOor (t2o keys moti%ic to the Abbey
Road medley.
(+)
Example 11d offers a fe2 additional e$amples of cadential hemiolas in rock music.
[K./] PartialGbar links are smallGscale grouping dissonances at the ends of formal sections. 5hey function as sectional
boundary markers and connecting turnarounds into the ne$t section. 6nomalous measures in rock songs are usually
truncations#most often" a (/4 bar in the conte$t of a regular 4/4#2hich minimally disrupt the meter and hypermeter and
also create momentum leading into the ne$t formal section. Eften" a melodic arri%al on beat + is reinterpreted as the
do2nbeat of a ne2 unit to create the (/4 bar" a technique dubbed =metric reinterpretation? by .othstein (1*,*" >( and
others" and =metric deletion? by !erdahl and :ackendoff (1*,+" 1)1. Ene such e$ample occurs in Prince<s =Purple .ain"?
2hen the arri%al on the title te$t at the end of the %erse" on beat + of the eighth bar" is reinterpreted as the do2nbeat of the
first bar of the chorus (Example 12a" eliding the end of the %erse into the beginning of the chorus. Ether cues for this
structural shift are the sharp increase in te$ture at this point and the change in harmonic rhythm" breaking the regular pattern
of one chord per bar maintained in the rest of the %erse. Cerek and the Cominos< =!ayla? (Example 12b e$emplifies a
contraction rather than an elisionF the cadential arri%al in the chorus is on the do2nbeat of the se%enth bar" and the eighth
=turnaround? bar is truncated. 5he metric slippage in this song happens in tandem 2ith tonal slippage since the %erse begins
in A minor" a half step lo2er than the chorus in C minor. 6dditional e$amples of partialGbar links are sho2n in Example
12c.
[K.K] Ene of the most common largeGscale uses of metric dissonance follo2s the formal model that 5emperley (())K calls
=loose %erse/tight chorus? or !@5A. 1ongs 2ith this structure ha%e choruses that are more regular than the %erses in se%eral
2aysF more rhythmically consonant" harmonically stable" te$turally unified" and lyrically regular and repetiti%e (as 2ell as
being louder and te$turally thicker. 5he contrast bet2een =loose? and =tight? recalls Aaplin<s (1**, formal model of
tightGknit and looseGknit themes" and de%elopment sections of sonata forms and bridge sections of %erseGchorus forms also
share some structural characteristicsF both are typically located in the middle of the 2ork" end 2ith a dominant prolongation"
and feature destabilizing techniques such as sequence" modulation" and fragmentation. 5hus" broadly speaking" sonata form
and %erseGchorus form feature the same kinds of sectional contrasts" although the sections do not occur in the same orderF in
sonata form" tightGknit main theme" looseGknit subordinate theme" and unstable de%elopmentJ in %erseGchorus form"
looseGknit %erse" tightGknit chorus" and unstable bridge. 7n the !@5A model the chorus functions as both a contrast to the
%erse and a resolution of it" and is often repeated multiple times at the end of the song to create a de facto coda. 6 shift from
changing or asymmetrical meter to regular meter bet2een the %erse and chorus can ser%e as an additional parameter
reinforcing the role of the chorus as culmination and resolution (these roles are perhaps analogous to that of the main theme
in a sonata recapitulation.
(+1
Ihile irregular changing meters are metrically unstable and cannot be entrained" asymmetrical
meters#including regular changing meters such as a consistent alternation of +/4 and 4/4" equi%alent to a larger K/4
grouping#are consonant" and often participate in a larger cycle. 3o2e%er" because they are less regular than 4/4 they may
be percei%ed as more dissonant in comparison.
(+(
4ormal sections in changing or asymmetrical meters can create indirect
grouping dissonances 2hen Ou$taposed against sections in 4/4 or other more regular meters.
6 of 19
[K.,] Ene instance of !@5A is 6lice in Ahains<s =5hem 9ones? (Example 13a. 5he %erses are in K/4 and the refrains in
4/4J the refrains also use simpler rhythms and more diatonic harmonies. 7 ha%e sho2n the %erses as eight bars long follo2ed
by 4Gbar refrains" follo2ing the proportions of the 1(Gbar blues" but it is also possible to hear each %erse section as t2o 4Gbar
%erses" an interpretation that better reflects the aabb rhyme scheme. 7n the formal diagram belo2 and those that follo2"
sections in asymmetrical meter are shaded in light gray. 5he %erse of .ush<s =!imelight? (Example 13b features a frequently
changing meter" 2hile the single metric shift in the chorus has a programmatic function related to the te$tF a less normati%e
+/4 meter underlies the first half of the chorus" 2hich describes a concern 2ith appearances" 2hile the more normati%e 4/4
underlies the second half" 2hich describes the importance of recognizing an underlying reality. 5he beginning of the last
chorus is intensified by a direct metric dissonanceF the singer and guitarist are in triple meter as before" but the drummer
suggests a conflicting duple meter (second audio e$ample. Ether e$amples of metric !@5A structures are sho2n in
Example 13c.
[K.*] 6s noted abo%e" the formal organization of !@5A structures stands in contrast to the traditional model of sonata form"
in 2hich the tightGknit main theme is presented first" follo2ed by the looseGknit second theme" but both often feature an
unstable middle section#the de%elopment or bridge#that heightens tension. Ihile de%elopmental techniques in rock music
are far more constrained than those used in art music" bridge sections and sonata de%elopments ha%e a %ariety of features in
commonF medial temporal position" ma$imal contrast 2ith other sections" departure from the tonic (in rock music this often
occurs through tonicization of 7@ rather than successi%e modulations" increased harmonic dissonance and chromaticism"
2ider or higher register" use of sequence and fragmentation" a less unified te$ture" and a tonally open ending on the home
dominant that is resol%ed by the return of the 6 section.
(++
7rregular" changing or conflicting meters can also ser%e to
heighten the instability and dissonance of a middle section. 7n the form chart of Hes<s =.oundabout? (Example 14a" the
middle section" shaded in dark gray" features a measureGpreser%ing direct grouping dissonance bet2een the drums and
guitars" in 4/4 and //4 respecti%ely.
(+4
9ecause the bar lengths are preser%ed" this could also be interpreted as a rhythmic
dissonance rather than a metric conflict. 5his section is te$turally and rhythmically as 2ell as metrically climactic. 5he
follo2ing section recapitulates the opening material" in a familiar 696 paradigm. .adiohead<s =Paranoid 6ndroid?
(Example 14b" 2hich began as + different songs" has a dissonant middle section that features changing and asymmetrical
meters" in contrast to the %erse and refrain of the 6 section and the passacaglia of the A section" both of 2hich are in a
regular 4/4. 5he 9 section also becomes increasingly dissonant" both harmonically and timbrally. 1ince it returns as the coda"
the 9 section acts as both a climactic midpoint and a climactic ending.
(+>
Example 14c offers additional e$amples of
metrically dissonant middle sections.
[K.1)] 7n a metrically dissonant framing structure" unstable outer 6 sections or an introduction and coda surround a more
stable central section or sections. 5his central section often includes or consists of an impro%ised solo" 2hich may be the
source of the preference for a regular and consonant meter. 5he decreased metric interest in such middle sections is often
compensated for by heightening in other musical parameters such as harmony" te$ture" or rhythmic density. .ush<s =HH;?
(Example 1a has an introduction that is both metrically irregular" in >/4 or 1)/," and tonally unstable" in the !ocrian
mode 2ith a tritone ostinato in the bass and a A locrian melody featuring and abo%e it. 5he body of the song is in 4/4"
comprising se%eral sections in %arious keys" all more consonant than the opening material. 5he ending of the song recasts the
tritone ostinato as a dominant 2ith flatted >th and resol%es it in 9 minor (2hich is not one of the keys established in the
body of the song" although it has a long section alternating 9 maOor and A maOor chords" suggesting 9 Phrygian maOor. !ike
=Paranoid 6ndroid"? !ed ;eppelin<s =8ashmir? (Example 1b ends 2ith a partial reprise of the bridge" but in this case the
bridge is consonant and pro%ides a stable contrast to the %erses" 2hich are characterized by direct grouping dissonance
bet2een the drums in 4/4 and the guitar in //," creating a comple$ hemiola (Aohn ())1.
(+/
5he guitar and mellotron parts
feature a rhythmic moti%e that establishes a grouping of three ,th notes. 6fter the initial descending fourth" these moti%es are
grouped into pairs by their repeated pitches" forming units of si$ ,th notes that cross the notated barlines. 7n contrast" the
drum part is grouped into t2o" four and eight ,th notes. 5he %ocal line floats abo%e the instrumental parts in a disconnected
rhythm. 5he conflict of these metric layers te$tGpaints the lyrics of the first %erse (=a tra%eler of both time and space?" and"
more generally" the dissociati%e state and likely drug use (=7<%e been flying? of the narrator.
(+K
Ether e$amples of dissonant
frames are 5he 9yrds< ='ight 0iles 3igh? (2hich also describes a drugGaltered state" 2ith outer and middle sections that can
be notated in 4/4 but that sound metrically ambiguous in contrast to the stable middle section" and Pink 4loyd<s =0oney"?
2hich has outer sections in K/4 and a middle section (originally a different song" 2ith an audible tape splice on the 1*K+
studio %ersion in 4/4.
[K.11] 5he smallGscale types of metric dissonances listed in '$ample * and demonstrated abo%e#initiating dissonances"
cadential hemiolas" and fragmentary links bet2een sections#are familiar concepts from 2estern art music" but as 7 ha%e
demonstrated" they are pre%alent in rock music as 2ell. 6mong the largeGscale types of metric dissonance" dissonant middle
sections are most clearly analogous to classical models" but the interplay bet2een tightGknit and looseGknit structures more
generally is common to both art music and rock music" although the sections may be differently deployed. Ihile metric
dissonance is the focus of this study" the functions described here are also e$pressed at the rhythmic le%el and in other
domains such as pitch" te$ture" and timbre.
,orpus -tudies
7 of 19
[,.1] 7n the last section of this paper" 7 pro%ide a more empirically oriented sur%ey of the 2ays in 2hich these types of
dissonance play out in the repertoire" through a series of corpus studies. 7 ha%e analyzed the metric structures of large
collections of songs by 5he 9eatles" 5he .olling 1tones" :imi 3endri$" !ed ;eppelin" .adiohead" 5ool" and a multiGartist
corpus of ()) songs e$tracted by CeAlerq and 5emperley (()11 from Rolling Stone magazine<s list of =5he >)) Nreatest
1ongs of 6ll 5ime.? 5he 9eatles are arguably the greatest and most important rock band of all time" 2hile 5he .olling
1tones 2ere their contemporaneous ri%als and the t2o groups are still frequently compared (see" for e$ample" Ce.ogatis and
8ot ()1)J 0c0illian ()1+. 5he 9eatles 2ere more compositionally in%enti%e and dre2 from a 2ider range of stylistic
influences" 2hereas the 1tones 2ere more firmly rooted in blues and rock. 3endri$ and !ed ;eppelin" like the 9eatles" 2ere
seminal inno%ators" influential on the later de%elopment of both rock and metal. Ef the t2o more recent bands" 5ool is a
progressi%e metal band participating in and e$tending many of the same stylistic elements as !ed ;eppelin" 2hile .adiohead
is perhaps best classified as e$perimental alternati%e rock. 5he Rolling Stone corpus functions as a control" a%eraging the
metric profile of a 2ide %ariety of artists and styles. 4or the analyses" 7 tabulated instances of each separate type of metric
dissonance 2ithin a song" not counting repeats.
(+,
Snmetered songs 2ere e$cluded from the study. &umerous songs use
more than one type of dissonance" 2hich is 2hy the numbers in the graphs add up to more than the song totals in some
cases. 4or each corpus" a typological bar graph sho2s the relati%e proportions of metric consonance and the different types
of metric dissonance" and a chronological bar graph sho2s the proportions of consonance and smallG and largeGscale metric
dissonances by year. 5hese statistics can be used as a comparati%e tool to e$amine the metric profile of each band<s oeu%re.
5he data sho2 a general trend of increasing metric dissonance o%er time 2ithin the 2ork of each band" as 2ell as a generally
increasing trend throughout the latter half of the t2entieth century.
(+*
[,.(] 5he 9eatles corpus consists of the original songs from their studio albums" lease lease Me (1*/+" !ith the Beatles
(1*/+" A "ard #ay$s %ight (1*/4" Beatles &or Sale (1*/4" "elp' (1*/>" R(bber So(l (1*/>" )esterday and Today (1*//" Revolver
(1*//" Sgt* epper$s +onely "earts Cl(b Band (1*/K" Magical Mystery To(r (1*/K" The Beatles,The !hite Alb(m (1*/," )ello-
S(bmarine (1*/*" Abbey Road (1*/*" +et .t Be (1*K)" and the original singles released during the same time period. 5he
typological and chronological distributions of metric dissonance in their music are sho2n in Examples 1%a and 1%b. 6bout
t2oGthirds of their songs are in consonant 4/4 meterJ their most common type of metric dissonance is the partialGbar link.
5he 9eatles< use of metric dissonance becomes significant beginning 2ith Sgt* epper" 2hich is generally considered to be the
peak of their e$perimental middle period ('erola 1**," and continues throughout their late period. 5he spike in 1*/,
represents the !hite Alb(m" a double album that contains many partialGbar linksJ apart from this" both types of metric
dissonance increase until 1*K)" the release of +et .t Be/ 2hich contains no smallGscale dissonances.
[,.+] 5he .olling 1tones corpus comprises the original songs from their first thirteen studio albums" up to 01ile on Main Street
(1*K(" along 2ith the singles released during the same periodJ the data are sho2n in Examples 1&a and 1&b. 7 ha%e chosen
this endpoint for a number of reasonsF their =golden age? is generally considered to comprise the four albums from Beggar$s
Ban2(et (1*/, to 01ile on Main StreetJ critical reception of later albums 2as more negati%eJ the follo2ing album" 3oat$s "ead
So(p (1*K+" represented a significant style shift to2ard soul and funkJ and later albums used a different producer and more
importantly" a different guitarist" 0ick 5aylor" follo2ing the departure and subsequent death of 9rian :ones. 5he music of the
.olling 1tones is far more metrically consonant than that of the 9eatles" 2hich is unsurprising in light of their strong
bluesGrock influence and comparati%ely mild stylistic and compositional e$perimentation.
[,.4] 5he 3endri$ corpus is comparati%ely small" comprising Are )o( 01perienced (1*/K" A1is: Bold as +ove (1*/K" 0lectric
+adyland (1*/," and Band o4 3ypsys (1*K)" plus the t2o singles =1tone 4ree? (1*// and =1tepping 1tone? (1*K). 6lthough
3endri$<s bands 2ere trios rather than quartets and thus ha%e a simpler basic te$ture" his corpus (Examples 1'a and 1'b. is
more dissonant o%erall than the pre%ious t2o" 2ith t2oGthirds of the songs incorporating some form of metric dissonance.
.hythmic" metric" harmonic and timbral dissonance are all characteristic features of his style. 3is use of rhythmic and metric
dissonance may also be related to the lack of a separate rhythm guitarist in the bandJ like other rockGtrio guitarists such as
'ric Alapton in Aream and 6le$ !ifeson of .ush" 3endri$<s playing combined the typical roles of lead and rhythm guitar.
5he data sho2 a mild increase of dissonance until the 1*K) release of Band o4 3ypsys" 2hich featured a different drummer and
bass player from the earlier albums (9uddy 0iles and 9illy Ao$ rather than 0itch 0itchell and &oel .edding. 5he o%erall
style on this album has strong funk and OazzGfusion influences" but 0iles<s drumming style is more straightGahead rock than
0itchell<s freer and more %ariegated drumming" 2hich may be a reason for the decrease in largeGscale metric dissonance.
[,.>] .hythmic and metric playfulness is a noted style feature of !ed ;eppelin<s musicJ see" for e$ample" 4ast ())1 and
9rackett ()),. 6nn Iilson of 3eart has commentedF =Ihen you do a !ed ;eppelin song" you<re really taking on a lot in
terms of meter? (9ream ()1)" 1,(. 5heir corpus (Examples 1*a and 1*b. consists of the canonical albums +ed 5eppelin .
through .6 (1*/*" 1*/*" 1*K)" 1*K1" "o(ses o4 the "oly (1*K+" and hysical 3ra44iti (1*K>. !ed ;eppelin<s metric profile is
fairly similar to 3endri$<s" 2ith slightly higher proportions of consonance but also of largeGscale metric dissonance. +ed
5eppelin .6" released in 1*K1" represented a shift a2ay from blues borro2ings and a greater proportion of original
compositionsJ the decreased metric dissonance on this album may reflect the mo%e a2ay from the metric freedom typical of
the Celta blues that 2as their strongest early influence.
[,./] 6ll of .adiohead<s studio albums but the most recent (7ing o4 +imbs" ()11 2ere analyzedF ablo "oney (1**+" The Bends
8 of 19
(1**>/ 87 Comp(ter (1**K/ 7id A (()))" Amnesiac (())1" "ail to the Thie4 (())+" and .n Rainbo-s (())K. 5heir corpus"
sho2n in Examples 2+a and 2+b" has a surprisingly consonant o%erall profile" largely because the band uses rhythmic
dissonance much more per%asi%ely than metric dissonance. 5heir 1**> album The Bends is especially consonant" 2hich may
reflect its strong grunge influence" the band<s preoccupation 2ith 2orld touring Oust before the album 2as recorded" or
simply the faster rate of composition required for a second album" 2hen 2ithin the space of a year or t2o a band is
pressured to equal or surpass a successful first album that represented the compositional culmination of their li%es up to that
point.
[,.K] 5he 5ool oeu%re analyzed consists of their four studio albums" 9nderto- (1**+" Aenima (1**/" +ateral(s (())1" and
10/000 #ays (())/. 5he data are presented in Examples 21a and 21b. Snsurprisingly" it is the most metrically dissonant
corpus" since the band<s style is the most progressi%e among those considered here" and they are 2ell kno2n for their use of
asymmetrical and changing meters. 7n some cases their metric and syllabic patterns are organized according to mathematical
patterns such as the 4ibonacci sequence" most famously in the title track to =!ateralus? (CiAarlo ())1" although the album
as a 2hole is more metrically consonant that the rest of their oeu%re. 5he band<s focus on metric dissonance is reflected by
the comparati%e preponderance of tight %erse/loose chorus formsJ uniquely among these corpora" in 5ool<s oeu%re it is more
common for the chorus to be less consonant than the %erse" rather than %ice %ersa.
[,.,] 5he most consonant corpus o%erall" also unsurprisingly" is the .olling 1tone ()) corpus used in CeAlercq and
5emperley<s study of rock harmony (()11. 5his set of songs 2as distilled from Rolling Stone<s list of the =>)) Nreatest 1ongs
of 6ll 5ime? (T*/+" Cec. *" ())4 by taking the top () songs from each decade from the 1*>)s through the 1**)s" plus the
ne$t 1)1 topGranked songs not already in the list (among the first 1)) songs" Public 'nemy<s =9ring Ca &oise? 2as
determined not to contain any harmony" and 2as replaced 2ith an additional song. 0ost of the songs 2ere released bet2een
1*/+ and 1*/*" 2ith others from the late 1*>)s and mid 1*K)sJ there are %ery fe2 songs from the 1*,)s and 1**)s. Ene
interesting aspect of the corpus" graphed in Examples 22a and 22b" is that it includes songs from genres outside of rock"
such as country" gospel" disco" and rap" in addition to rockGrelated genres such as rhythm L blues" funk" and hea%y metal. 7
ha%e not done a largeGscale study of genre correlations and metric dissonance" but on the basis of these data 7 can make a
fe2 generalizationsF country music is %ery metrically regular" as is 1*>)s pop music and any other songs that use tambourine.
7n genres such as funk" rap" and dance music" 2hich incorporate a lot of displacement dissonance" it seems to be in%ersely
correlated 2ith grouping dissonance" 2hich is significantly less common in these genres. Eutside of these genres"
displacement dissonance tends to be more often rhythmic rather than metric" and in either case is usually confined to the
main melody layer (guitar or %oice" perhaps in order to a%oid challenging the do2nbeat. Nrouping dissonances also occur in
the melody layer alone" but unlike displacement dissonances they are more often e$pressed by multiple layers of the te$ture"
perhaps because they do not challenge the do2nbeat in the same 2ay" but rather periodically realign. 5he most per%asi%e use
of grouping dissonance is found in progressi%e rock" a genre in 2hich metric play is a stylistic hallmark.
(4)
4inally" in terms
of recording techniques" often 2hen metric dissonance occurs in a song the metrically consonant bass and drums are
adOusted to be more prominent in the mi$.
[,.*] 7n summary" in this paper 7 ha%e offered a model of structural temporal le%els of rhythmic" metric" and hypermetric
dissonance" proposed an interpreti%e model for the backbeat" demonstrated the common functions of smallGscale metric
dissonances in rock to begin and end phrases and sections" demonstrated the common functions of largeGscale metric
dissonances in rock to enhance contrast bet2een sections and create a largeGscale interplay bet2een tension and stability" and
sur%eyed the pre%alence of these types in rockGcompositional practice through a series of selected corpus studies. 7 hope this
2ork can ser%e as a useful basis for future research" as the interactions of rhythm" meter" form" and te$ture in rock music are
rich and %aried" offering fertile ground for future theoretical and analytical 2ork in this domain. 7 hope" also" to ha%e
suggested some 2ays of understanding the 2ays in 2hich 2e hear" perform" and engage bodily 2ith rock music.
/icole !iamonte
Mc0ill 1ni2ersity
Department o) Music Research3 Music Theory #rea
rue -herbroo"e 4.
Montreal3 5, H3# 1E3
,anada
nicole.biamonte6mc7ill.ca
8or"s ,ited
6dam" &athan. ()11. =Aoding 87 Comp(ter. Aategorization and Aharacterization of Cisrupti%e 3armonic and .hythmic
'%ents in .ock 0usic.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of 0ichigan.
6ttas" .obin. ()11. =0eter as Process in Nroo%eG9ased Popular 0usics.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of 9ritish Aolumbia.
9 of 19
9anfield" 1tephen. 1**+. Sondheim:s Broad-ay M(sicals. Sni%ersity of 0ichigan Press.
9aur" 1tephen. ()1(. =9ackbeat.? 3rove #ictionary o4 American M(sic" (nd ed. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
5he 9eatles. 1**+. Complete Scores: &(ll Transcriptions 4rom the 8riginal Recordings* 3al !eonard.
9enadon" 4ernando" and 5ed Nioia. ())*. =3o2 3ooker 4ound 3is 9oogieF 6 .hythmic 6nalysis of a Alassic Nroo%e.?
op(lar M(sic (, no. 1F 1*-+(.
9enOamin" Iilliam. ()11. =3ypermetric Cissonance in the !ater Iorks of .obert 1chumann.? 7n Rethin;ing Sch(mann" ed.
.oeG0in 8ok and !aura 5unbridge" ()/-+4. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
9erry" Iallace. 1*K/. Str(ct(ral &(nctions in M(sic. PrenticeG3all.
9ourque" 0atthe2. ())4. =6pproaching the 'dgeF Hes<s 5echniques that !ead to UAlose to the 'dge.<? 06 thesis" 6rizona
1tate Sni%ersity.
9rackett" :ohn. ()),. ='$amining .hythmic and 0etric Practices in !ed ;eppelin<s 0usical 1tyle.? op(lar M(sic (K" no. 1F
>+-K/.
9ream" :on. ()1). !hole +otta +ed 5eppelin: The .ll(strated "istory o4 the "eaviest Band o4 All Time* @oyageur Press.
9re2er" .oy. 1***. =5he Sse of 3abanera .hythm in .ockabilly 0usic.? American M(sic 1K" no. +F +))-+1K.
9ro2er" Aandace. 1**+. =0emory and the Perception of .hythm.? M(sic Theory Spectr(m 1>" no. 1F 1*-+>.
9utler" 0ark :. ())1. =5urning the 9eat 6roundF .einterpretation" 0etrical Cissonance" and 6symmetry in 'lectronic Cance
0usic.? M(sic Theory 8nline K" no. /.
#####. ())/. 9nloc;ing the 3roove: Rhythm/ Meter/ and M(sical #esign in 0lectronic #ance M(sic* 7ndiana Sni%ersity Press.
9utterfield" 0atthe2. ())/. =5he Po2er of 6nacrusisF 'ngendered 4eeling in Nroo%eG9ased 0usics.? M(sic Theory 8nline 1("
no. 4.
Aaplin" Iilliam. 1**,. Classical &orm* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
Ahor" 7%es. ()1)a. =Aogniti%e 4rame2orks for the Production of 0usical .hythm.? Ph.C. diss." &orth2estern Sni%ersity.
#####. ()1)b. =0icrotiming and .hythmic 1tructure in Ala%eG9ased 0usicF 6 Ruantitati%e 1tudy.? 7n M(sical Rhythm
in the Age o4 #igital Reprod(ction" ed. 6nne Canielsen" +K->). 6shgate Publishing.
Alarke" 'ric. 1*,K. =!e%els of 1tructure in the Erganization of 0usical 5ime.? Contemporary M(sic Revie- (" no. 1F (11-+,.
Aohn" .ichard. 1**(a. =5he Cramatization of 3ypermetric Aonflicts in the 1cherzo of 9eetho%enVs &inth 1ymphony.?
1<th=Cent(ry M(sic 1>" no. +F 1,,-()/.
#####. 1**(b. =0etric and 3ypermetric Cissonance in the Men(etto of 0ozart<s 1ymphony in N minor" 8. >>).?
.nt>gral /F 1-++.
#####. ())1. =Aomple$ 3emiolas" 1kiG3ill Nraphs and 0etric 1paces.? M(sic Analysis ()" no. +F (*>-+(/.
Ao%ach" :ohn. 1**K. =Progressi%e .ock" UAlose to the 'dge"< and the 9oundaries of 1tyle.? 7n 9nderstanding Roc;" ed. :ohn
Ao%ach and Nraeme 0. 9oone" +-+1. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
Canielsen" 6nne. ())/. resence and leas(re: The &(n; 3rooves o4 ?ames Bro-n and arliament* Iesleyan Sni%ersity Press.
Ce Alercq" 5re%or and Ca%id 5emperley. ()11. =6 Aorpus 6nalysis of .ock 3armony.? op(lar M(sic +)" no. 1F 4K-K).
Ce Alercq" 5re%or. ()1(. =1ections and 1uccessions in 1uccessful 1ongsF 6 Prototype 6pproch to 4orm in .ock 0usic.?
PhC diss." Sni%ersity of .ochester.
Ce.ogatis" :im" and Nreg 8ot. ()1). The Beatles vs* The Rolling Stones: So(nd 8pinions on the 3reat Roc;$n$Roll Rivalry* @oyageur.
CiAarlo" Ahristopher. ())1. =7nter%ie2 2ith 0aynard :ames 8eenan.? httpF//222.cdicarlo.com/paperW)4maynard.htm
Co2ns" Ali%e. ()))/1. =0etric Cisplacement in the 7mpro%isation of Aharlie Ahristian.? Ann(al Revie- o4 ?a@@ St(dies 11F
+*-/,.
'erola" 5uomas. 1**,. =5he .ise and 4all of the '$perimental 1tyle of the 9eatles.? Beatlest(dies 1F ++-/). .eprinted in
10 of 19
So(ndscapes + (()))" httpF//222.icce.rug.nl/Xsoundscapes/@E!S0')+/.iseWandWfall).shtml
'ggertson" 8ristine. ())+. =UIhere is the 0eterY< 6n 7n%estigation of .hythmic Process in 9Oork<s 0usic.? PhC diss."
Sni%ersity of 1askatche2an.
'%erett" Ialter. 1**>. =5he 9eatles as AomposersF 5he Nenesis of Abbey Road" 1ide 52o.? 7n Concert M(sic/ Roc; and ?a@@ since
1<4A" ed. 'lizabeth 0ar%in and .ichard 3ermann" 1K(-((K. Sni%ersity of .ochester Press.
#####. 1***. The Beatles as M(sicians: Revolver thro(gh the Anthology* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
#####. ())1. The Beatles as M(sicians: The B(arry Men thro(gh R(bber So(l* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
#####. ())*a. The &o(ndations o4 Roc;: 4rom CBl(e S(ede ShoesD to CS(ite: ?(dy Bl(e 0yes*D E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
#####. ())*b. =6ny 5ime at 6llF 5he 9eatles< 4ree Phrase .hythms.? 7n Cambridge Companion to the Beatles/ ed. 8enneth
Iomack" 1,+-**. Aambridge Sni%ersity Press.
4ast" 1usan. ())1. .n the "o(ses o4 the "oly: +ed 5eppelin and the o-er o4 Roc; M(sic* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
4itch" I. 5ecumseh. ()1+. =.hythmic Aognition in 3umans and 6nimalsF Cistinguishing 0eter and Pulse Perception.?
&rontiers in Systems %e(roscience K. httpF//222.ncbi.nlm.nih.go%/pmc/articles/P0A+,1+,*4/
4leet" Paul" and :onathon Iinter. ()14. =7n%estigating the Erigins of Aontemporary 9asics on the Crum 8itF 6n
'$ploration of the .ole of the 3iGhat in 6ngloG6merican Popular 0usics from 1*/) until 1*K4.? op(lar M(sic ++" no. (F
(*+-+14.
4olio" Aynthia. 1**>. =6n 6nalysis of Polyrhythm in 1elected 7mpro%ised :azz 1olos.<< 7n Concert M(sic/ Roc;/ and ?a@@ Since
1<4A: 0ssays and Analytical St(dies" ed. 'lizabeth Iest 0ar%in and .ichard 3ermann" 1)+-+4. Sni%ersity of .ochester
Press.
4risch" Ialter. 1**). =5he 1hifting 9ar !ineF 0etrical Cisplacement in 9rahms.? 7n Brahms St(dies: Analytical and "istorical
St(dies" ed. Neorge 1. 9ozarth" 1+*-/+. Alarendon Press.
Nracyk" 5heodor. 1**/. Rhythm and %oise: An Aesthetics o4 Roc;. Cuke Sni%ersity Press.
Nraham" :ames C. ()),. =.hythms in .ock 0usic.? op(lar M(sic and Society 1" no. 1F ++-4+.
3andel" 1tephen. 1**,. =5he 7nterplay bet2een 0etric and 4igural Erganization.? ?o(rnal o4 01perimental sychology: "(man
erception and er4ormance (4" no. >F 1>4/-/1.
3asty"Ahristopher. 1**K. Meter as Rhythm* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
3atten" .obert. ())(. .e%ie2 of &antasy ieces: Metrical #issonance in the M(sic o4 Robert Sch(mann by 3arald 8rebs. M(sic Theory
Spectr(m (4" no. (F (K+-,(.
3ein" 'than. ()1+. Snpublished paper" =4riends Con<t !et 4riends Alap on Ene and 5hreeF 6 1tudy of Alapping on the
9ackbeat.?
3ernandez" 3oracio. ())). Conversations in Clave* 6lfred 0usic Publishing.
3esselink" &athan. ()14. =.hythmic Play" Aompositional 7ntent and Aommunication in .ock 0usic.? op(lar M(sic ++" no. 1F
/*-*).
3offman" 6lan. 1*,+. =En the &ature of .ock and .ollF 6n 'nquiry into the 6esthetic of a 0usical @ernacular.? PhC diss."
Hale Sni%ersity.
3olmG3udson" 8e%in. ()1+. rogressive Roc; Reconsidered" (nd. ed. .outledge.
3oning" 3enkOan. ()1(. =Iithout 7t &o 0usicF 9eat 7nduction as a 4undamental 0usical 5rait.? Annals o4 the %e- )or;
Academy o4 Sciences 1(>(F ,>-*1.
3orlacher" Nretchen. 1**(. =5he .hythms of .eiterationF 4ormal Ce%elopment in 1tra%inskyVs Estinati.? M(sic Theory
Spectr(m 14" no. (F 1K1-,K.
3ughes" 5imothy. ())+. =Nroo%e and 4lo2F 1i$ 6nalytical 'ssays on the 0usic of 1te%ie Ionder.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of
Iashington.
3uron" Ca%id. ())/. S-eet Anticipation: M(sic and the sychology o4 01pectation* 075 Press.
11 of 19
3uron" Ca%id" and 6nn Emmen. ())/. =6n 'mpirical 1tudy of 1yncopation in 6merican Popular 0usic" 1,*)-1*+*.? M(sic
Theory Spectr(m (," no. (F (11-+(.
7yer" @iOay. 1**,. =0icrostructures of 4eel" 0acrostructures of 1oundF 'mbodied Aognition in Iest 6frican and 6fricanG
6merican 0usics.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of Aalifornia at 9erkeley.
#####. ())(. ='mbodied 0ind" 1ituated Aognition" and '$pressi%e 0icrotiming in 6fricanG6merican 0usic.? M(sic
erception 1*" no. +F +,K-414.
:osephson" &ors. 1**(. =9ach 0eets !isztF 5raditional 4ormal 1tructures and Performance Practices in Progressi%e .ock.?
M(sical B(arterly K/" no. 1F /K-*(.
8aminsky" Peter. 1*,*. =6spects of 3armony" .hythm and 4orm in 1chumannVs apillons/ Carnaval and #avidsbEndlertan@e*?
Ph.C. diss." Sni%ersity of .ochester.
8eller" Peter" and Cenis 9urnham. ())>. =0usical 0eter in 6ttention to 0ultipart .hythm.? M(sic erception (( no. 4F
/(*-/1.
8rebs" 3arald. 1*,K. =1ome '$tensions of the Aoncept of 0etrical Aonsonance and Cissonance.? ?o(rnal o4 M(sic Theory +1"
no. 1F **-1().
#####. 1***. &antasy ieces: Metrical #issonance in the M(sic o4 Robert Sch(mann* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
#####. ())>. =3ypermeter and 3ypermetric 7rregularity in the 1ongs of :osephine !ang.? 7n 0ngaging M(sic: 0ssays in
M(sic Analysis" ed. Ceborah 1tein" 1+-(*. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
#####. ())*. =5he '$pressi%e .ole of .hythm and 0eter in 1chumann<s !ate !ieder.? 3am(t ( no. 1F (/K-*,.
#####. ()11. =0eter and '$pression in .obert 1chumann<s Ep. *).? 7n Rethin;ing Sch(mann" ed. .oeG0in 8ok and
!aura 5unbridge" 1,+-()>. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
!adinig" Eli%ia" 3enkOan 3oning" NZbor 3Zden and 7st%Zn Iinkler. ())*. =Probing 6ttenti%e and Preattenti%e 'mergent
0eter in 6dult !isteners 2ithout '$tensi%e 0usic 5raining.? M(sic erception (/" no. 4F +KK-,/.
!eong" Caphne. ())K. =3umperdinck and IagnerF 0etric 1tates" 1ymmetries and 1ystems.? ?o(rnal o4 M(sic Theory >1 no. (F
(11-4+.
!erdahl" 4red" and .ay :ackendoff. 1*,+. A 3enerative Theory o4 Tonal M(sic. 075 Press.
!ester" :oel. 1*,/. The Rhythms o4 Tonal M(sic* 1outhern 7llinois Sni%ersity Press.
!e2in" Ca%id. 1*,1. =En 3armony and 0eter in 9rahms<s Epus K/ T,.? 1<th=Cent(ry M(sic 4" no. +F (/1-/>.
#####. 1*,K. 3enerali@ed M(sical .ntervals and Trans4ormations* Hale Sni%ersity Press.
!ondon" :ustin. ())(. =1ome &onG7somorphisms 9et2een Pitch and 5ime.? ?o(rnal o4 M(sic Theory 4/" no. 1-(F 1(K->1.
#####. ())/. =0etric 4ake Euts.? '$cel spreadsheet posted at httpF//people.carleton.edu/XOlondon/.
#####. ()1(. "earing in Time: sychological Aspects o4 M(sical Meter* (nd ed. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
!o%e" 1tefan. ()1+. =1ubliminal Cissonance or UAonsonance<Y 52o @ie2s of :azz 0eter.? M(sic Theory Spectr(m +>" no. 1F
4,-/1.
0alin" Honatan. ())/. =0etric Cisplacement Cissonance and .omantic !onging in the Nerman !ied.? M(sic Analysis (>" no.
+F (>1-(,,.
#####. ()1). Songs in Motion: Rhythm and Meter in the 3erman +ied* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
0auch" 0atthias" and 1imon Ci$on. ()1(. =6 AorpusG9ased 1tudy of .hythm Patterns.? 1Fth .nternational Society 4or M(sic
.n4ormation Retrieval Con4erence G.SM.RH[ 1/+-/,.
0aule\n" .ebecca. 1**+. Salsa 3(ideboo;* 1her 0usic.
0cAandless" Nregory. ()1). =.hythm and 0eter in the 0usic of Cream 5heater.? PhC diss." 4lorida 1tate Sni%ersity.
#####. ()1+. =0etal as a Nradual ProcessF 6dditi%e .hythmic 1tructures in the 0usic of Cream 5heater.? M(sic
Theory 8nline 1* no. (.
12 of 19
0c0illian" :ohn. ()1+. Beatles vs* Stones* 1imon L 1chuster.
0ehldau" 9rad. ()1(. =.ock 3emiolas.? 7n Arcana 6.: M(sicians on M(sic" ed. :ohn ;orn. 6%ailable at
httpF//222.bradmehldau.com/rockGhemiolas/.
0irka" Canuta. ())*. Metric Manip(lations in "aydn and Mo@art: Chamber M(sic 4or Strings/ 1IJIK1I<1* E$ford Sni%ersity Press.
0oore" 6llan 4. ())1. Roc;: The rimary Te1t" (nd ed. 6shgate Publishing.
#####. ()1(. Song Means: Analysing and .nterpreting Recorded op(lar Song* 6shgate Publishing.
0urphy" 1cott. ())*. =0etric Aubes in 1ome 0usic of 9rahms.? ?o(rnal o4 M(sic Theory >+" no. 1F 1->/.
&eal" :ocelyn. 1**,. =5he 0etric 0akings of a Aountry 3it.? 7n Reading Co(ntry M(sic: Steel 3(itars/ 8pry Stars/ and
"on;y=Ton; Bars/ ed. Aecelia 5ichi" +((-+K. Cuke Sni%ersity Press.
&g" 1amuel. ())>. =6 3r(ndgestalt 7nterpretation of 0etric Cissonance in the 0usic of :ohannes 9rahms.? PhC diss."
Sni%ersity of .ochester.
Esborn" 9rad. ()1). =9eats that AommuteF 6lgebraic and 8inesthetic 0odels for 0athG.ock Nroo%es.? 3am(t +" no. 1F
4+-/,.
#####. ()1+. =1ub%erting the @erseGAhorus ParadigmF 5erminally Alimactic 4orms in .ecent .ock 0usic.? M(sic
Theory Spectr(m +>" no. 1F (+-4K.
#####. ()14. =8id 6lgebraF .adiohead<s 'uclidian and 0a$imally '%en .hythms.? erspectives o4 %e- M(sic >(F 1-(>.
PhillipsG1il%er" :essica" A. 6thena 6ktipis" and Nregory 9ryant. ()1). =5he 'cology of 'ntrainmentF 4oundations of
Aoordinated .hythmic 0o%ement.? M(sic erception (," no. 1F +-14.
Pieslak" :onathan. ())K. =.eGcasting 0etalF .hythm and 0eter in the 0usic of 0eshuggah.? M(sic Theory Spectr(m (*" no. (F
(1*-4>.
Pressing" :eff. ())(. =9lack 6tlantic .hythmF 7ts Aomputational and 5ranscultural 4oundations.? M(sic erception 1*" no. +F
(,>-+1).
Pr]gler" :oseph. 1**>. =1earching for 12ingF Participatory Ciscrepancies in the .hythm 1ection.? 0thnom(sicology +* no. 1F
(1->4.
.ahn" :ohn. 1**/. =5urning the 6nalysis 6roundF 6fricaGCeri%ed .hythms and 'uropeGCeri%ed 0usic 5heory.? Blac; M(sic
Research ?o(rnal 1/" no. 1F K1-,*.
.ock2ell" :oti. ())*. =9anOo 5ransformations in 9luegrass .hythm.? ?o(rnal o4 M(sic Theory >+" no. 1F 1+K-/(.
.ohr" Ceborah. 1**K. =9rahms<s 0etrical CramasF .hythm" 5e$t '$pression" and 4orm in the 1olo !ieder.? PhC diss."
Sni%ersity of .ochester.
.osenberg" &ancy. ()1). =Popular 0usic in the Aollege 0usic 5heory AlassF .hythm and 0eter.? 7n op=C(lt(re edagogy in
the M(sic Classroom" ed. &icole 9iamonte" 4K-K1. 1carecro2 Press.
.othstein" Iilliam. 1*,*. hrase Rhythm in Tonal M(sic* 1chirmer 9ooks.
#####. 1**>. =9eetho%en Iith and Iithout L7(nstgeprMng$ F 0etrical 6mbiguity .econsidered.? Beethoven &or(m 4F
1/>-*+.
.usch" .en^. ()1+. =Arossing E%er 2ith 9rad 0ehldau<s Ao%er of .adiohead<s UParanoid 6ndroid<F 5he .ole of :azz
7mpro%isation in the 5ransformation of an 7nterte$t.? M(sic Theory 8nline 1*.4.
1amarotto" 4rank. 1***. =1trange CimensionsF .egularity and 7rregularity in Ceep !e%els of .hythmic .eduction.? 7n
Schen;er St(dies 2" ed. Aarl 1chachter and 3edi 1iegel" (((-+,. Aambridge Sni%ersity Press.
#####. ())>. =0ultiple @oices and 0etrical Cramas in 9eetho%en<s NoetheG1ongs" Ep. ,+.? Beethoven &or(m 1(" no. (F
1>1-K>.
1a%age" 1te%e. 1*,*. The Billboard Boo; o4 Rhythm. 9illboard 9ooks.
1chachter" Aarl. 1*,K. =.hythm and !inear 6nalysisF 6spects of 0eter.? M(sic &or(m /F 1->*.
1chlueter" 9rad. ())>. =3o2 to 1ur%i%e a 5rain IreckF 6nalysis of the 5rickiest Crum 7ntros on .ecord.? #R9M' Maga@ine"
13 of 19
Cecember ())>. httpF//222.drummagazine.com/lessons/post/analysisGofGtheGtrickiestGdrumGintrosGonGrecord/
1heinbaum" :ohn. ()1+. =Progressi%e .ock and the 7n%ersion of 0usical @alues.? 7n rogressive Roc; Reconsidered" (nd ed." ed.
8e%in 3olmG3udson" +)->(. .outledge.
1mith" Peter. ())1. =9rahms and the 1hifting 9arlineF 0etric Cisplacement and 4ormal Process in the 5rios 2ith Iind
7nstruments.? 7n Brahms St(dies" ed. Ca%id 9rodbeck" 1*1-((*. Sni%ersity of &ebraska Press.
1tephens" 9etsey (9et;e1+. ()1+. =Edd 5ime Ebsessed.? Iebsite at httpF//222.oddtimeobsessed.com/.
1te2art" 6le$ander. ())). =U4unky Crummer<F &e2 Erleans" :ames 9ro2n and the .hythmic 5ransformation of 6merican
Popular 0usic.? op(lar M(sic 1*" no. +F (*+-+1,.
1te2art" 0ichael. 1*,K. =5he 4eel 4actorF 0usic 2ith 1oul.? 0lectronic M(sician/ Ectober 1*,KF >K-/>.
1to%er" Ahristopher. ())*. =6 5heory of 4le$ible .hythmic 1paces for Ciasporic 6frican 0usic.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of
Iashington.
1ykes" Aharles. 1**(. =6 Aonceptual 0odel for 6nalyzing .hythmic 1tructure in 6fricanG6merican Popular 0usic.?
C.0us.'d diss." 7ndiana Sni%ersity.
5amlyn" Narry. 1**,. =5he 9ig 9eatF Erigins and Ce%elopment of 1nare 9ackbeat and other 6ccompanimental .hythms in
.ock<n<.oll.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of !i%erpool.
5emperley" Ca%id. 1***. =1yncopation in .ockF 6 Perceptual Perspecti%e.? op(lar M(sic 1," no. 1F 1*-4).
#####. ())K. =5he 0elodicG3armonic UCi%orce< in .ock.? op(lar M(sic (/" no. (F +(+-4(.
5oi%iainen" Petri" Neoff !uck" and 0arc .. 5hompson. ()1). ='mbodied 0eterF 3ierarchical 'igenmodes in 0usicG7nduced
0o%ement.? M(sic erception (," no. 1F >*-K).
5oussaint" Nodfried. ()1+. The 3eometry o4 M(sical Rhythm: !hat Ma;es a C3oodD Rhythm 3oodN A.A Press.
5raut" Con. ())>. =U1imply 7rresistible<F .ecurring 6ccent Patterns as 3ooks in 0ainstream 1*,)s 0usic.? op(lar M(sic (4"
no. 1F >K-KK.
5rucks" 6manda. 1**(. =5he 0etric Aomple$ in :ohannes 9rahms<s 7lavierstEc;e" Ep. K/.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of .ochester.
@urka_" 0ehmet. ()1(. =6 ArossGAultural Nrammar for 5emporal 3armony in 6froG!atin 0usicsF Ala%e" PartidoG6lto and
Ether 5imelines.? C(rrent M(sicology *4F K-+>.
Iashburne" Ahristopher. 1**K. =5he Ala%e of :azzF 6 Aaribbean Aontribution to the .hythmic 4oundation of an 6fricanG
6merican 0usic.? Blac; M(sic Research ?o(rnal 1K" no. 1F >*-,).
Iaters" 8eith. 1**/. =9lurring the 9arlineF 0etric Cisplacement in the Piano 1olos of 3erbie 3ancock.? Ann(al Revie- o4
?a@@ St(dies ,F 1*-+K.
Iillner" Ahannan. 1**1. =5he 52oG!ength 9ar .e%isitedF 3andel and the 3emiola.? 3Ottinger "Mndel=BeitrMge 4F (),-+1.
#####. 1**/. =0ore on 3andel and the 3emiolaF E%erlapping 3emiolas.? M(sic Theory 8nline (" no. +.
#####. ()1+. =0etrical Cisplacement and 0etrically Cissonant 3emiolas.? ?o(rnal o4 M(sic Theory >K" no. 1F ,K-11,.
Iilson" 6ndre2. ()14. =0etrical &ormati%ity in the 1arabandeF 6 Aall for Aonte$tual 6nalysis.? Paper presented at 0usic
5heory 0id2est" 6ppleton" I7.
Iitek" 0aria" 'ric Alarke" 0ikkel Iallentin" 0orten 8ringelbach" and Peter @uust. ()14. =1yncopation" 9odyG0o%ement
and Pleasure in Nroo%e 0usic.? P!o1 (Public !ibrary of 1cience Ene *" no. 4F 1-1(.
Heston" 0aury. 1*K/. The Strati4ication o4 M(sical Rhythm* Hale Sni%ersity Press.
;biko2ski" !a2rence. ())4. =0odelling the Nroo%eF Aonceptual 1tructure and Popular 0usic.? ?o(rnal o4 the Royal M(sical
Association 1(*" no. (F (K(-*K.
;einerG3enriksen" 3ans. ()1). =5he UPoum5chak< PatternF Aorrespondences 9et2een .hythm" 1ound" and 0o%ement in
'lectronic Cance 0usic.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of Eslo.
Transcription -ources
14 of 19
'$. +a. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith 8erry !i%gren" =Aarry En Iay2ard 1on? in The Best o4 7ansas"
Nuitar .ecorded @ersions" transcribed by :esse Nress and 9ill !a4leur (3al !eonard" 1***.
'$. +b. 5ranscription adapted from 6nthony 7ommi" :ohn Esbourne" Iilliam Iard and 5erence 9utler" =Paranoid? in Blac;
Sabbath: aranoid" Nuitar .ecorded @ersions (3al !eonard" 1**K.
'$. +c. 5ranscription adapted from 6ngus Houng" 0alcolm Houng" and 9rian :ohnson" =4or 5hose 6bout to .ock (Ie
1alute Hou? in AC,#C Anthology/ Nuitar 5ablature 'dition (601AE" 1**(.
'$. +d. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith 'd2ard @an 3alen" 6le$ @an 3alen" 0ichael 6nthony and Ca%id
!ee .oth" =:ump? in 6an "alen: 1<J4" Nuitar 6uthorized 'dition" transcribed by 9rad 0cPhail (Aherry 3ill 0usic" 1**1.
'$. 4a. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith 1te%ie Ionder" =5ell 0e 1omething Nood? (:obete 0usic" 1*K4.
'$. 4b. 5ranscription by the author.
'$. 4c. 5ranscription adapted from Neddy !ee" 6le$ !ifeson" and &eil Peart" =4ree Iill? in R(sh: Complete" %ol. ( (6lfred
Publishing" 1*,+.
'$. >a. Ahord chart by the author" in consultation 2ith :ohn !ennon and Paul 0cAartney" =7 Iant to 3old Hour 3and? in
The Beatles: Complete Scores (3al !eonard" 1**+.
'$. >b. Ahord chart by the author" in consultation 2ith :ohn !ennon and Paul 0cAartney" =7 6m the Ialrus? in The Beatles:
Complete Scores (3al !eonard" 1**+.
'$. /. 5ranscription adapted from Iikipedia" =Crum beat.?
'$. Ka. 5ranscription by the author.
'$. Kb. 5ranscription adapted from :imi 3endri$" =4o$y !ady? in The ?imi "endri1 01perience: Are )o( 01perienced" Nuitar
.ecorded @ersions (9ella Nodi%a 0usic" 1*,*.
'$. 1)a. 5ranscription adapted from :ohn !ennon and Paul 0cAartney" =0artha 0y Cear? in The Beatles: Complete Scores (3al
!eonard" 1**+.
'$. 1)b. 5ranscription adapted from .ic Ecasek" =:ust Ihat 7 &eeded? (6lfred Publishing" 1*,+.
'$. 11a. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith Ca%id 9o2ie" =Ahanges"? in The Songs o4 #avid Bo-ie (0usic 1ales
!td" 1*K+.
'$. 11b. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith :immy Page" .obert Plant" :ohn Paul :ones" and :ohn 9onham"
=.ock and .oll? in +ed 5eppelin: 4th Alb(m" Eff the .ecord (7nternational 0usic Publications" 1**,.
'$. 11c. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith :ohn !ennon and Paul 0cAartney" =5he 'nd? in The Beatles:
Complete Scores (3al !eonard" 1**+ and Ialter '%erett" =5he 9eatles as AomposersF 5he Nenesis of Abbey Road" 1ide 52o?
in Concert M(sic/ Roc; and ?a@@ since 1<4A" ed. 'lizabeth 0ar%in and .ichard 3ermann" ((/ (Sni%ersity of .ochester Press"
1**>.
'$. 1(a. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith Prince" =Purple .ain? in Prince and the .e%olution" (rple Rain"
Eff the .ecord (.ittor 0usic" 1**1
'$. 1(b. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith 'ric Alapton and :im Nordon" =!ayla? (5hroat 0usic !td." 1*K1.
'$. 14a. 5ranscription from 1te%e 3o2e and :on 6nderson" =.oundabout? (5opographic 0usic" 1*K(.
'$. 14b. 5ranscription from 5homas Horke" :onathan Nreen2ood" Philip 1el2ay" Aolin Nreen2ood and 'd2ard E<9rien"
=Paranoid 6ndroid? in Radiohead: 87 Comp(ter" Nuitar 5ablature (Iarner/Ahappell" 1**K
'$. 1>a. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith Neddy !ee" 6le$ !ifeson" and &eil Peart" =HH;? in R(sh: Complete"
%ol. ( (6lfred Publishing" 1*,+.
'$. 1>b. 5ranscription from :immy Page" .obert Plant" and :ohn 9onham" =8ashmir"? arr. 5erry Ca%ison (@ulcan" ()1).
(ootnotes
D 5hanks to Honatan 0alin and the anonymous readers for helpful comments on this article.
15 of 19
.eturn to te$t
1. 1ee" for e$ample" 'ggertson ())+" +J Nraham ())," +>J and Pressing ())(" (*1.
.eturn to te$t
(. 5he concept of metric dissonance as analogous to pitch dissonance has been e$plored in Heston 1*K/" !e2in 1*,1 and
1*,K" !ester 1*,/" 8aminsky 1*,*" 8rebs 1*,K and 1***" Aohn 1**(b and ())1" 0urphy ())*" 0alin ()1)" and other
sourcesJ many of these note the common coincidence of dissonance in both domains in compositional practice (for an
argument against the %ie2 of metric space and pitch space as isomorphic" see !ondon ())(. 4or analyses of metric
dissonances in electronic dance music" see 9utler ())1 and ())/J in funk" see 3ughes ())+ and Canielsen ())/J in
mathGrock" see Esborn ()1)J in country" see &eal 1**," and in bluegrass" see .ock2ell ())*.
.eturn to te$t
+. 1ee" for e$ample" Alarke 1*,KJ 9ro2er 1**+J 7yer 1**," K(-K+J and 0alin ()1)" 4>-4/.
.eturn to te$t
4. 1ee 1te2art ())) and 9enadon and Nioia ())* for discussions of the shift from s2ung to straight subdi%isions in
6merican popular music from the later t2entieth century.
.eturn to te$t
>. 5he role of metric dissonance in articulating form is considered in .othstein 1*,*" 4risch 1**)" 3orlacher 1**(" 5rucks
1**(" 8rebs 1***" 1mith ())1" &g ())>" and others. 5he e$pressi%e roles of rhythmic and metric dissonance in !ieder are
e$plored in .ohr 1**KJ 8rebs 1***" ())*" and ()11J 1amarotto ())>J and 0alin ())/ and ()1).
.eturn to te$t
/. 1ee" for e$ample" Alarke 1*,K" 3andel 1**," 7yer 1**," and 8eller and 9urnham ())>. 5he model of rhythm and meter as
separate" although interrelated" domains stands in contrast to those presented in 8rebs (1***" Aohn (())1" !eong (())K
and 0urphy (())*" 2hich include different durational le%els under the rubric of meter" or 3asty (1**K" in 2hich meter is a
form of rhythm.
.eturn to te$t
K. 3ypermetric displacement is analyzed in the music of 9eetho%en in Aohn 1**(a and .othstein 1*,* and 1**>J 3erbie
3ancock in Iaters 1**/J :osephine !ang in 8rebs ())>J and 1chumann in 9enOamin ()11 and 8rebs ()11.
.eturn to te$t
,. 1ee Ce Alercq ()1(" +K-+, for a discussion of potential problems in determining the bar in rock music.
.eturn to te$t
*. 5hese categories are called 5ype 9 and 5ype 6 respecti%ely in 8rebs 1*,K and 4olio 1**>.
.eturn to te$t
1). 1ee .ahn (1**/ for a discussion of diatonic rhythms" and 5oussaint (()1+" chs. 1* and (1 for a discussion of ma$imally
e%en and nearGma$imally e%en rhythms in popular musics throughout the 2orld.
.eturn to te$t
11. Esborn prefers the term UoddGcardinality meter< to Uasymmetric meter< on the grounds that =an odd number of pulses is
e%ery bit as symmetrical as an e%en number#perhaps more so" as the symmetrical di%ision of an odd number of pulses falls
on a beat instead of bet2een t2o beats? (()1)" 4+J ho2e%er" the unequal groupings of beats 2ithin these meters are likely to
be percei%ed by listeners as asymmetric.
.eturn to te$t
1(. !ondon identifies the property of ma$imal e%enness as a required criterion for metric 2ellGformedness" noting that it
ensures that different groupings occupy the same appro$imate temporal range and also allo2s listeners to optimize their
allocations of attentional energy (()1(" 1(>-(*.
.eturn to te$t
1+. 1ources for the transcriptions in this e$ample and those that follo2 are gi%en at the end of the article" after the Iorks
Aited.
.eturn to te$t
14. 5he notation U>< in the chord chart refers to a po2er chord 2ith no third.
.eturn to te$t
1>. 5hanks to 6ndre2 Iilson for pointing out the pattern in this e$ample.
.eturn to te$t
16 of 19
1/. 1ee '%erett (())1" 1*K-()4 for a detailed discussion of this songJ he refers to the elision as a phraseGle%el metric
reinterpretation.
.eturn to te$t
1K. 5he notation is reproduced from Iikipedia" =Crum beat? (7 ha%e added the instrument labels. 5he audio file is =9asic
.ock 9eat? from 1tudio .ock Crum !oops" 9eats L Crum Patterns" =** Crum !oops for Areating 1ongs? at
httpF//222.cdbaby.com/cd/**rockloops/from/greatindiemusic. 5he spectrogram 2as created from this audio file using the
audioGediting program 6udacity.
.eturn to te$t
1,. 1a%age 1*,* obser%es that =contemporary drum beats reflect a 2ide di%ersity of influences in Iestern popular music.
9ut 2hat ties all these different threads together is the o%erriding force of the e%erGpresent backbeat? (1))J quoted in 5amlyn
1**," 1>. 7yer ())( describes the backbeat as =indigenous to the modern drum kit? (4)>. 9aur ()1( identifies it as =one of
the most common and distincti%e features of postG1*>)s popular music.? 5amlyn estimates that an hour of rock or related
music comprises three thousand snare backbeats (1**," 1. 5hese assertions are supported by the pre%alence of
backbeatGbased rhythms demonstrated in 0auch and Ci$on ()1(J see also 4leet and Iinter ()14.
5he pattern sho2n in '$ample / is often described as the =standard? or =basic? rock beat or groo%eF see" for e$ample"
3offman 1*,+" 1K)J 9utterfield ())/" `4)J 6ttas ()11" 4/->/J 0oore ())1" 4(J and 0oore ()1(" >1->(. 1ee 5amlyn 1**,
for a historical and analytical study of the backbeat and other accompanimental rhythms in early rock and roll and other
genres.
.eturn to te$t
1*. 9erry (1*K/ categorizes the directionality of rhythmic e%ents as anticipati%e" initiati%e" reacti%e" and conclusi%e" 2hich are
similar to 3asty<s (1**K categories of anacrusis" beginning" and continuation" although 3asty has no concluding impulse.
9oth of these models align" albeit at a much more local le%el" 2ith Aaplin<s (1**, formal functions of introductory or
beforeGtheGbeginning (anticipati%e/anacrustic" initiating or beginning" medial (reacti%e/continuational" and concluding.
.eturn to te$t
(). 9utterfield<s main point is that microtiming %ariations in the placement of the backbeat snare can render it more
anacrustic or more continuational. 'arly backbeats are percei%ed as more anacrustic" e%en though they are further a2ay from
the goal attack" because the early attack (being =on top of the beat? creates additional for2ard dri%e and ner%ous energy.
!ate backbeats (=behind the beat? are percei%ed as more rela$ed and thus more continuational by comparison. 1ee
9utterfield ())/" `41-4(. 1te2art offers a =feel spectrum? of early and late microtiming de%iations from the beat at a tempo
of 1+) bpm (1te2art 1*,K" /4" reproduced in Pr]gler 1**>" (+-(4. 7yer ())( asserts that the late backbeat is the norm"
2hich supports a continuational interpretation.
.eturn to te$t
(1. '$amples include Ahopin<s &octurnes op. 4, no. 1" 6 section" and op. >> no. 1. 9ecause they are t2oGsteps" most of
:oplin<s rags are in (/4 2ith the bass on the beats and chords on the offGbeats" but =0agnetic .ag? more closely resembles
the standard backbeat in 4/4" 2ith bass notes on beats 1 and + and chords on ( and 4. 5he tripleGmeter %ersion of this
pattern is e$tremely common as a 2altz accompaniment.
.eturn to te$t
((. 1ee" for e$ample" ;einerG3enriksen ()1)" PhillipsG1il%er et al. ()1)" and 5oi%iainen et al. ()1) for studies on the
relationship bet2een backbeats and dance" and Iitek et al. ()14 on syncopation and dance. (6lthough 5oi%iainen et al. ()1)
does not describe the rhythmic features of the musical e$cerpt used as the basis of the study" 5oi%iainen 2as kind enough to
send me the audio file" 2hich features a prominent backbeat in 4/4.
.eturn to te$t
(+. Ala%eGbased patterns are sur%eyed in 0aule\n 1**+ in salsa" Iashburne 1**K in Oazz" 9re2er 1*** in rockabilly"
3ernandez ())) in 6froGAuban music" 5raut ())> in rock music from the 1*,)s" Ahor ()1)a in 6fricanG6merican and
6froGAuban musics" and 1to%er ())* and @urka_ ()1( in 6froG!atin musics.
.eturn to te$t
(4. 1ee Ce Alercq ()1( for a detailed consideration of %arious typical characteristics of formal sections in rock music.
.eturn to te$t
(>. 1ee !ondon ())/ and also 1chlueter ())>.
.eturn to te$t
(/. 3emiolas in art music are discussed in 0urphy ())*J 0irka ())*" chapter 4J 0alin ()1)" chapter (J and Iillner 1**1"
1**/" and ()1+. 3emiolas in rock music are discussed in 0ehldau ()1(.
.eturn to te$t
17 of 19
(K. 6 temporary shift from duple to triple groupings has been described as =re%erse hemiola? by 9anfield (1**+" ((*" .ohr
(1**K" 1K," 0alin (()1)" >>" and others.
.eturn to te$t
(,. 1ee 9rackett ()), for a discussion of other rhythmic and metric dissonances in the music of !ed ;eppelin.
.eturn to te$t
(*. 5his kind of moti%ic displacement is the basis of numerous Oazz standards" such as Nersh2in<s =4ascinating .hythm"?
3orace 1il%er<s =Coodlin"< ? and 5helonious 0onk<s ='pistrophy.? Iaters 1**/ discusses it in the music of 3erbie 3ancock"
and Co2ns ())) in the music of Aharlie Ahristian.
.eturn to te$t
+). =5he 'nd"? along 2ith the rest of 6bbey .oad side t2o" is analyzed in more depth in '%erett 1**> and also discussed in
'%erett 1***" (/,-K1.
.eturn to te$t
+1. 5he metric instability of the %erse in !@5A forms usually in%ol%es a grouping dissonance.
.eturn to te$t
+(. Aaplin (1**," ,> identifies grouping asymmetry as typical of looseGknit organization.
.eturn to te$t
++. 1ee Ce Alercq ()1( for a more detailed discussion of typical characteristics of bridges and other rock song sections.
.eturn to te$t
+4. =.oundabout? is analyzed in 1heinbaum ()1+ and 9ourque ())4" 1>-4/J see also Ao%ach 1**K on =Alose to the 'dge.?
.eturn to te$t
+>. 1ee Esborn ()1+ for a discussion of =terminally climactic? song structures" and Esborn ()14 for a consideration of
ma$imally e%en rhythms in the music of .adiohead. =Paranoid 6ndroid? is analyzed in 6dam ()11" +>->1" +>->1" and .usch
()1+.
.eturn to te$t
+/. 5his e$ample is discussed in 9rackett ()), and 0ehldau ()1(.
.eturn to te$t
+K. 7n a similar %ein" 9utler obser%es that the comple$ layering of electronic dance music allo2s for interpreti%e multiplicity
and =di%erse e$periences of time? (())/" 1//.
.eturn to te$t
+,. 4or the purposes of this study" t2o song pairs ha%e been treated as single songs because they ha%e the substantially the
same content and the same metric profileF =1gt. Pepper<s !onely 3earts Alub 9and? and its reprise (both from Sgt* epper$s
+onely "earts Cl(b Band" and =.e%olution? (1*/, single" 9Gside of =3ey :ude? and =.e%olution 1? (The Beatles,The !hite
Alb(m.
.eturn to te$t
+*. 3uron and Emmen (())/ ha%e documented a similar historical tendency" of increasing rhythmic syncopations in early
6merican popular song.
.eturn to te$t
4). En progressi%e rock" see :osephson 1**( and 3olmG3udson ()1+J on rhythm and meter in progressi%e metal" see Pieslak
())K and 0cAandless ()1) and ()1+.
.eturn to te$t
,opyri7ht -tatement
,opyri7ht 9 2+14 by the -ociety )or Music Theory. #ll ri7hts reser2ed.
[1] Aopyrights for indi%idual items published in M(sic Theory 8nline (MT8 are held by their authors. 7tems appearing in MT8
may be sa%ed and stored in electronic or paper form" and may be shared among indi%iduals for purposes of scholarly
research or discussion" but may not be republished in any form" electronic or print" 2ithout prior" 2ritten permission from
the author(s" and ad%ance notification of the editors of MT8*
[(] 6ny redistributed form of items published in MT8 must include the follo2ing information in a form appropriate to the
18 of 19
medium in 2hich the items are to appearF
5his item appeared in M(sic Theory 8nline in [@E!S0' T" 711S' T] on [C6H/0E&53/H'6.]. 7t 2as
authored by [4S!! &60'" '067! 6CC.'11]" 2ith 2hose 2ritten permission it is reprinted here.
[+] !ibraries may archi%e issues of MT8 in electronic or paper form for public access so long as each issue is stored in its
entirety" and no access fee is charged. '$ceptions to these requirements must be appro%ed in 2riting by the editors of MT8/
2ho 2ill act in accordance 2ith the decisions of the 1ociety for 0usic 5heory.
5his document and all portions thereof are protected by S.1. and international copyright la2s. 0aterial contained herein may
be copied and/or distributed for research purposes only.
repared by Michael McClimon/ 0ditorial assistant
19 of 19