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Introduction to Composite Materials
Chapter Objectives
Define a composite, enumerate advantages and drawbacks of com-
posites over monolithic materials, and discuss factors that influence
mechanical properties of a composite.
Classify composites, introduce common types of fibers and matrices, and
manufacturing, mechanical properties, and applications of composites.
Discuss recycling of composites.
Introduce terminology used for studying mechanics of composites.
p
1. 1 Introduction
You are no longer to supply the people with straw for making bricks; let them
go and gather their own straw.
Exodus 5:7
Israelites using bricks made of clay and reinforced with straw are an early
eample of application of composites. !he individual constituents, clay and
straw, could not serve the function by themselves but did when put together.
"ome believe that the straw was used to keep the clay from cracking, but
others suggest that it blunted the sharp cracks in the dry clay.
#istorical eamples of composites are abundant in the literature. "ignifi-
cant eamples include the use of reinforcing mud walls in houses with
bamboo shoots, glued laminated wood by $gyptians %&'(( ).C.*, and lami-
nated metals in forging swords %+.D. &,((*. In the -(th century, modern
composites were used in the &./(s when glass fibers reinforced resins. )oats
- Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second $dition
and aircraft were built out of these glass composites, commonly calledfiber
glass. "ince the &.0(s, application of composites has widely increased d1
--
to
development of new fibers such as carbon, boron, and aramids,2 a
n
d #
e
ne
w
composite systems with matrices made of metals and ceramics.
!his chapter gives an overview of composite materials. !he
3ues.
tion4
answer style of the chapter is a suitable way to learn the fundarn aspects
of this vast sub5ect. In each section, the 3uestions progressively become
more speciali6ed and technical in nature.
What is a composite?
+ composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combin
e
d
constituents that are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in
each other. 7ne constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in
8hi
c
h it is embedded is called the matrix. !he reinforcing phase material
may be in the form of fibers, particles, or flakes. !he matri phase materials
are generally continuous. $amples of composite systems include concrete
reinforced with steel and epoy reinforced with graphite fibers, etc.
Give some exampes o! natura" !ound composites.
$amples include wood, where the lignin matri is reinforced with cellulose
fibers and bones in which the bone-salt plates made of calcium and phosphate
ions reinforce soft collagen.
What are advanced composites?
+dvanced composites are composite materials that are traditionally used
in the aerospace industries. !hese composites have high performance rein-
forcements of a thin diameter in a matri material such as epoy and alu-
minum. $amples are graphite9epoy, :evlar;t9epoy, and boron9
aluminum composites. !hese materials have now found applications in com-
mercial industries as well.
Combinin# t$o or more materias to#ether to ma%e a composite is more
$or% than just usin# traditiona monoithic metas such as stee and au&
minum. What are the advanta#es o! usin# composites over metas?
<onolithic metals and their alloys cannot always meet the demands of
today=s advanced technologies. 7nly by combining several materials can one
meet the performance re3uirements. >or eample, trusses and benches used in
satellites need to be dimensionally stable in space during temperature changes
between --'?@> %-&?(@C* and -((@> %././@C*. Aimitations on coefficient of
thermal epansions thus are low and may be of the order of B&
' (ramids are aromatic compounds o! carbon) h"dro#en) ox"#en) and nitro#en.
t *evar
+
is a re#istered trademar% o! E.I. du,ont de-emours and Compan") Inc.) Wiirnin#ton)
.E. Coe!!icient o! therma expansion is the chan#e in en#th per unit en#th o! a materia $hen
heated throu#h a unit temperature. /he units are in. 0in.012 and m0m01C. ( t"pica vaue !or stee is
3.5 x 14
&3
in.0in.12 511.7 x 14
&3
m0m1C6.
introduction to Composite Materials /
(
_
7 ir
9i
n
.9@> %B&., &(
C
m9m9@C*. <onolithic materials cannot meet these
3u
i
re
ments; this leaves composites, such as graphite9epoy, as the only
materials to satisfy them.
ma
ny cases, using composites is more efficient. >or eample, in the
h
o
l
ly
competitive airline market, one is continuously looking for ways to lower the
overall mass of the aircraft without decreasing the stiffness2 and
stre
ngtht of its
components. !his is possible by replacing conventional metal
alloys w
ith composite
materials. $ven if the composite material costs may
be
higher, the reduction in the
number of parts in an assembly and the savings in fuel costs make them more
profitable. Deducing one lbm %(.C'/ kg* of mass i
n
a
c
ommercial aircraft can
save up to /?( gal %&/?( &* of fuel per year;= fuel expenses are -'E of the total
operating costs of a commercial airline.
-
C
o
mposites offer several other
advantages over conventional materials. !hese may include improved strength,
stiffness, fatiguet and impact resistance,F thermal conductivity,tt corrosion
resistance,t etc.
7o$ is the mechanica advanta#e o! composite measured?
>or eample, the aial deflection, u, of a prismatic rod under an aial load,
P, is given by
PL
u = ,
A
where
L = length of the rod
= Young=s modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod
)ecause the mass, M, of the rod is given by
< G pAL , %&.-*
where p = density of the material of the rod, we have
="tiffness is defined as the resistance of a material to deflection.
t "trength is defined as the stress at which a material fails.
>atigue resistance is the resistance to the lowering of mechanical properties such as strength
and stiffness due to cyclic loading, such as due to take-off and landing of a plane, vibrating a
plate, etc.
FImpact resistance is the resistance to damage and to reduction in residual strength to impact
loads, such as a bird hitting an airplane or a hammer falling on a car body.
tt /herma conductivit" is the rate of heat flow across a unit area of a material in a unit time, when
the temperature gradient is unity in the direction perpendicular to the area.
HH Corrosion resistance is the resistance to corrosion, such as pitting, erosion, galvanic, etc.
4 Mechanics of Composite Materials,
Second Edition
A , PL
!
1
t r E/ p
.
%&./*
This implies that the lightest beam for specifed defection
under a specifed load is one with the highest (E/ p) value.
Thus, to measure the mechanical advantage, the (E/ p)
ratio is calculated and is called the specifc modulus (ratio
between the Young's modulus* (E) and the densitt (p! of
the material!. The other parameter is called the specifc
strength and is defned as the ratio between the strength
(a,
m
) and the densit of the material (p!, that is,
"pecifc modulus #

,
"pecifc strength #
a
"
ll
The two ratios are high in composite materials. $or e%ample, the
strength of a graphite&epo% unidirectiona composite! coud be the
same as stee) but the speci!ic stren#th is three times that o! stee. What does
this mean to a desi#ner? /a%e the simpe case o! a rod desi#ned to ta%e a
!ixed axia oad. /he rod cross section o! #raphite0epox" $oud be same as
that o! the stee) but the mass o! #raphite0epox" rod $oud be one third o!
the stee rod. /his reduction in mass transates to reduced materia and
ener#" costs. 2i#ure 1.1 sho$s ho$ composites and !ibers rate $ith other
traditiona materias in terms o! speci!ic stren#th.
8
-ote that the unit o!
speci!ic stren#th is inche9 in 2i#ure 1.1 because speci!ic stren#th and
speci!ic moduus are aso de!ined in some texts as
9peci!ic moduus :
E
,
Pg
9peci!ic stren#th : .
Pg
$here g is the acceeration due to #ravit" %/-.- ft9s
-
or ..,& m9s
-
*.
;oun#<s moduus o! an eastic materia is the initia sope o! the stress.&strain curve.
t .ensit" is the mass o! a substance per unit voume.
( unidirectiona composite is a composite amina or rod in $hich the !ibers rein!orcin# the
matrix are oriented in the same direction.
introduction to Composite Materials '
&C(( &'(( &?((
&0(( &,(( &.(( -(((
FIGURE 1.1
specific strength as a function of time of use of materials. %"ourceI $ager, !.8., 8hither advanced
materialsJ Ad". Mater. Processes, +"< International, Kune &..&, -'--..*
Lalues of specific modulus and strength are given in !able &.& for typical
composite fibers, unidirectional composites,2 cross-plyt and 3uasi-isotropict
laminated composites, and monolithic metals.
7n a first look, fibers such as graphite, aramid, and glass have a specific
modulus several times that of metals, such as steel and aluminum. !his gives
a false impression about the mechanical advantages of composites because
they are made not only of fibers, but also of fibers and matri combined;
matrices generally have lower modulus and strength than fibers. Is the
comparison of the specific modulus and specific strength parameters of
unidirectional composites to metals now fairJ !he answer is no for two
reasons. >irst, unidirectional composite structures are acceptable only for
carrying simple loads such as uniaial tension or pure bending. In structures
with comple re3uirements of loading and stiffness, composite structures
including angle plies will be necessary. "econd, the strengths and elastic
moduli of unidirectional composites given in !able &.& are those in the
direction of the fiber. !he strength and elastic moduli perpendicular to the
fibers are far less.
t + unidirectional laminate is a laminate in which all fibers are oriented in the same direction.
+ cross-ply laminate is a laminate in which the layers of unidirectional lamina are oriented at
right angles to each other.
I Muasi-isotropic laminate behaves similarly to an isotropic material; that is, the elastic properties
are the same in all directions.
? Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dition
/(=>E 1.1
"pecific <odulus and "pecific "trength of !ypical >ibers, Composites, and )ulk <etals
Young= s Nl t i mat e "peci f i c
<at eri al "peci fi c modul us st r engt h modul us
Nnits gravity= %<si* %ksi* %<si-in.
/
9&b*
S#stem of $nits% $SCS
Oraphite fiber
+ramid fiber
Olass fiber
Nnidirectional graphite9epoy
Nnidirectional glass9epoy
Cross-ply graphite9epoy
Cross-ply glass9epoy Muasi-
isotropic graphite9epoy
Muasi-isotropic glass9epoy
"teel
+luminum
&.,
&.C
-.'
&.?
&.,
&.?
&.,
&.?
&.,
0.,
-.?
//./'
&0..,
&-.//
-?.-'
'.'.,
&/..-
/.C-(
&(.&(
-.0'(
/(.((
&(.((
-...,
-((.(
--C.,
-&0.?
&'C.(
'C.&(
&-.,(
C(.&(
&(.?(
.C.((
C(.((
'&-..
/''.'
&/?.'
C'C.&
,?.(.
-C(.,
'-.'.
&0C.0
C-.-.
&(?.'
&(?.'
C?&(
/.'.
-C,.
/0?C
-/?,
./'..
&.?.,
?./.0
&?/.(
///.?
C-'.,
?ateria
@nits
9peci!ic
#ravit"
;oun#<s
moduus
Nltimate "pecific "pecific
strength modulus strength
%<Pa* %OPa-e9kg* %<Pa-m/9kg*
S#stem of $nits% SI
Oraphite fiber &., -/(.(( -(?0 (.&-0, &.&C,
+ramid fiber &.C &-C.(( &/0. (.(,,'0 (..,'(
Olass fiber -.' ,'.(( &''( (.(/C( (.?-((
Nnidirectional graphite9epoy &.? &,&.(( &'(( (.&&/& (../00
Nnidirectional glass9epoy &., /,.?( &(?- (.(-&CC (.'.((
Cross-ply graphite9epoy &.? .'.., /0/.( (.(?((( (.-//&
Cross-ply glass9epoy &., -/.', ,,.-' (.(&/&( (.(C.(
Muasi-isotropic graphite9epoy &.? ?..?C -0?.C, (.(C/'/ (.&0-,
Muasi-isotropic glass9epoy &., &,..? 0/.(, (.(&('/ (.(C(?
"teel 0., -(?.,C ?C,.& (.(-?'- (.(,/(.
+luminum
-.? ?,..' -0'., (.(-?'- (.&(?&
a
"pecific gravity of a material is the ratio bet&een its density and the density of water.
+ comparison is now made bet&een popular types of laminates such as
cross-ply and 3uasi-isotropic laminates. >igure &.- shows the specific
strength plotted as a function of specific modulus for various fibers, metals,
and composites.
(re speci!ic moduus and speci!ic stren#th the on" mechanica parameters
used !or measurin# the reative advanta#e o! composites over metalsJ
Qo, it depends on the application.
C
Consider compression of a column,
w
h
e
re it may fail due to buckling. !he $uler buckling formula gives the critical
load at which a long column buckles ass
"pecific
strength
Introduction
.s
,'(')
lao
V
a.
'(((
C(((
3000
-(((
1000
to
Composite Materials
4
Muasi-isotropic
graphite9epoy
(
+luminum
"teel
* I
@
Cross-ply
graphite9epoy
(
Oraphite fiber
(
Nnidirectional
graphite9epoy
&(( -(( /(( C(( '(( ?((
"pecific modulus %<si-in
/
9&b*
FIGURE 1.2
"pecific strength as a function of specific modulus for metals, fibers, and composites.
'
!
1
Pa
=
L
!
wh e r e
= critical buckling load %lb or Q*
= Young= s modulus of column %l b9 in. = or Q9 m
-
*
1= second moment of area %in.
C
or m
C
*
L = length of beam %in. or m*
If t he column has a ci rcul ar cross sect i on, the second moment of area is
d
(

' )
*(
% &. '*
and the mass of t he rod is
0
%&.C*
M =p ,
(
%&.?*
I
, Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dition
where
< G mass of the beam %lb or kg*
p G density of beam %&b9in.
/
or kg9m
/
*
d = diameter of beam %in. or m*
)ecause the length, A, and the load, P, are constant, we find the mass o!
the beam by substituting $3uation %&.'* and $3uation %&.?* in $3uation
%&.C* as
- A
-


> 1
M=
(
+
,c
cr
$
&9-
P
%&.0*
!his means that the lightest beam for specified stiffness is one with th
e
highest value of $l9
-
9p.
"imilarly, we can prove that, for achieving the minimum deflection in a
beam under a load along its length, the lightest beam is one with the
highest value of i 9
/
9p. !ypical values of these two parameters, $
&
9
-
9p and
$
&&/
9p for typical fibers, unidirectional composites, cross-ply and 3uasi-
isotropic laminates, steel, and aluminum are given in !able &.-. Comparing
these numbers with metals shows composites drawing a better advantage
for these two parameters. 7ther mechanical parameters for comparing the
performance of composites to metals include resistance to fracture, fatigue,
impact, and creep.
;es) composites have distinct advanta#es over metas. (re there an" dra$bac%s
or imitations in usin# them?
Yes, drawbacks and limitations in use of composites includeI
#igh cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue. >or eample, a
part made of graphite9epoy composite may cost up to &( to &' times
the material costs. + finished graphite9epoy composite part may cost
as much as H/(( to HC(( per pound %H?'( to H.(( per kilogram*.
Improvements in processing and manufacturing techni3ues will
lower these costs in the future. +lready, manufacturing techni3ues
such as "<C %sheet molding compound* and "DI< %structural
reinforcement in5ection molding* are lowering the cost and
production time in manufacturing automobile parts.
<echanical characteri6ation of a composite structure is more com-
ple than that of a metal structure. Nnlike metals, composite mate-
rials are not isotropic, that is, their properties are not the same in all
directions. !herefore, they re3uire more material parameters. >or
eample, a single layer of a graphite9epoy composite re3uires nine
Introduction to Composite Materials .
,A-L 1.!
specific <odulus Parameters . p,
l
.
!
.p, and $
l
9
3
9p for !ypical <aterials
?ateria
@nits
Specific
#ravit"
;oun#<s
moduus
E0p
5?si&in 80b6
lnIp
5psiv
A
&in.
8
01b6
"
/
Ip
5psi
u8
&in.
8
01b6
S#stem of $nits% $SCS
0raphite fiber
&., //./' '&-., ,,,,(? C,.'(
:evlar fer
&.C &0.., /''.' ,/,,/? ',&,(
Olass fiber
-.' &-.// &/?.' /,,,0, -,'',
Nnidirectional graphite9epoy
&.? -?.-' C'C.& ,,,?/? ',&C&
Nnidirectional glass9epoy
1.B '.?( ,?.(. /?,/,C -,0/(
Cross-ply graphite9epoy
&.? &/..- -C(., ?C,'C' C,&?-
Cross-ply glass9epoy &., /.C- '-.'. -,,C/, -,/&0
Muasi-isotropic graphite9epoy &.? &(.&( &0C.0 'C,.,( /,0C(
Muasi-isotropic glass9epoy &., -.0' C-.-. -','(& -,&'C
"teel 0., /(.(( &(?.' &.,C/0 &,&(/
+luminum
-.? &(.(( &(?.'
//,??? -,-.C
;oun#<s
?ateria 9peci!ic moduus lp u
!
lp
1
)
1/
1p
@nits #ravit" 5G,a6 5G,a&m
8
0%#6 5,a&m
8
0%#6 51
8
4
8
&m
8
0%# 6
S#stem of $nits% SI
Oraphite fiber &., -/(.(( (.&-0, -??.C /.C(C
:evlar fiber &.C &-C.(( (.(,,'0 -'&.' /.'?-
Olass fiber -.' ,'.(( (.(/C &&?.? &.0'.
Nnidirectional graphite9epoy &.? &,&.(( (.&&/& -?'.. /.'/'
Nnidirectional glass9epoy &., /,.?( (.(-&CC &(..& &.,0,
Cross-ply graphite9epoy &.? .'.., (.(?( &./.? -.,?-
Cross-ply glass9epoy &., -/.', (.(&/& ,'./& &.'./
Muasi-isotropic graphite9epoy &.? ?..?C (.(C/'/ &?C.. -.'0&
Muasi-isotropic glass9epoy &., &,..? (.(&('/ 0?.'( &.C,&
"teel 0., -(?.,C (.(-?'- ',./ (.0',-
+luminum
-.? ?,..' (.(-??- &(&.( &.'00
stiffness and strength constants for conducting mechanical analysis.
In the case of a monolithic material such as steel, one re3uires only
four stiffness and strength constants. "uch compleity makes struc-
tural analysis computationally and eperimentally more compli -
cated and intensive. In addition, evaluation and measurement
techni3ues of some composite properties, such as compressive
strengths, are still being debated.
Depair of composites is not a simple process compared to that for
metals. "ometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures
may go undetected.
I
*+ Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dition
r r r r t



t T I T
*
4 , , - a
il i l l
a
11111
FIGURE 1.3
+ uniformly loaded plate with a crack.
Composites do not have a hi#h combination o! stren#th and !racture
tou#hness' compared to metas. In 2i#ure 1.+) a pot is sho$n !or
!racture tou#hness vs. "ied stren#th !or a 1&in. 5A5&mm6 thic% mate&
ria.
3
?etas sho$ an exceent combination o! stren#th and !racture
tou#hness compared to&composites. 5-ote: /he transition areas in
2i#ure 1.+ $i chan#e $ith chan#e in the thic%ness o! the specimen.6
Composites do not necessari" #ive hi#her per!ormance in a the
properties used !or materia seection. In 2i#ure 1.5) six primar"
materia seection parameters C stren#th) tou#hness) !ormabiit")
2 In a material with a crack, the value of the stress intensity factor gives the measure of stresses in
the crack tip region. >or eample, for an infinite plate with a crack of length -a under a uniaial
load a %>igure &./*, the stress intensity factor is
1 = aQI!a
If the stress intensity factor at the crack tip is greater than the critical stress intensity factor of the
material, the crack will grow. !he greater the value of the critical stress intensity factor is, the
tougher the material is. !he critical stress intensity factor is called the fracture toughness of the
materia. !ypical values of fracture toughness are -/.?? ksi.stirt %-? <PaK* for aluminum and
-'.C, ksiti

n. 5AB ?ra+D6 for steel.


Introduction to Composite Materials &&
&(( -(( /(( C(( '((
Polymers Yield strength, &(
/
psi
FIGURE 1.4
>racture toughness as a function of yield strength for monolithic metals, ceramics, and
metal-ceramic composites. %"ourceI $ager, !.8., 8hither advanced materialsJ Ad".
Mater. Processes, +"< International, Kune &..&, -'--..*
Koinahility
FIGURE 1.5
Primary material selection
metal ceramic composites- parameters for a hypothetical situation for metals,
ceramics, and
%"ourceI $ager, !.8., 8hither advanced materialsJ Adv. Mater. Pro-
cesses, +"< International, Kune &..&, -'--..*
Composites
Ceramics
Plastic9general
yielding
:c9ay G -.' in.
&
9
-
$lastic-plastic9mied mode
: 9cr G 0.6 in
1/2
S
f
2
et
$lastic9plane strain
300
-((
&((
+luminum
Corrosion resistance
>ormability
+ffordability
Ceramic
ri <etal
Composite
FIbughness
"trength
&- Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second
c
b
t
.
t
9on
5oinability, corrosion resistance, and affordability 4 are plotted* if
the values at the circumference are considered as the normali6ed
re3uired property level for a particular application, the shaded a
reas
show values provided by ceramics, metals, and metal4ceramic
corn. posites. Clearly, composites show better strength than metals,
b
ut
lower values for other material selection parameters.
Wh" are !iber rein!orcements o! a thin diameter?
!he main reasons for using fibers of thin diameter are the following
;
+ctual strength of materials is several magnitudes lower than the
theoretical strength. !his difference is due to the inherent flaws in
the material. Demoving these flaws can increase the strength of the
material. +s the fibers become smaller in diameter, the chances of
an inherent flaw in the material are reduced. + steel plate may have
strength of &(( ksi %?,. <Pa*, while a wire made from this steel
plate can have strength of ?(( ksi %C&(( <Pa*. >igure &.? shows
how the strength of a carbon fiber increases with the decrease in its
diameter.
?
/
-.'
-
&.'
>
i
b
e
r

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

%
O
P
a
*
&' 0.' &(
>iber diameter %um*
2IG@EE 1.3
>iber strength as a function of fiber diameter for carbon fibers. %Deprinted from Aam tt $. De,
and Perry, +.K., 3ibre Sci. ,echnol., /, &'., &.0(. 8ith permission from $lsevier* @
&&' &'
introduction to Composite Materials
for
higher ductility2 and toughness, and better transfer of loads from
the matri to fiber, composites re3uire larger surface area of the
fiber-matri interface. >or the same volume fraction of fibers in a
composite, the area of the fiber-matri interface is inversely propor -
tional to the diameter of the fiber and is proved as follows.
+ssume a lamina consisting of 4 fibers of diameter 5. !he fiber-matri
interface area in this lamina is
A
I
=4it5L. %&.,*
If one replaces the fibers of diameter, 5, by fibers of diameter, d,
then the number of fibers, n, to keep the fiber volume the same
would be
!
n = 4 6 1
%&..*
!hen, the fiber-matri interface area in the resulting lamina would be
A
l l
=ni t dL.
4it5
!
L
d
C %Lolume of fibers*
d
%&.&(*
!his implies that, for a fied fiber volume in a given volume of
composite, the area of the fiber-matri interface is inversely pro-
portional to the diameter of the fiber.
>ibers able to bend without breaking are re3uired in manufacturing of
composite materials, especially for woven fabric composites. +bil -
ity to bend increases with a decrease in the fiber diameter and is
measured as fleibility. >leibility is defined as the inverse of bend-
ing stiffness and is proportional to the inverse of the product of the
elastic modulus of the fiber and the fourth power of its diameter; it
can be proved as follows.
)ending stiffness is the resistance to bending moments. +ccording to
the "trength of <aterials course, if a beam is sub5ected to a pure
bending moment, <,
Du c t i l i t y i s t h e a b i l i t y o f a ma t e r i a l t o d e f o r m wi t h o u t f r a c t u r i n g . I t i s
me a s u r e d b # e t e n d i n g a r o d u n t i l f r a c t u r e a n d me a s u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l
6 A , 7 a n d f i n a l ( A
1
) c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a . !h e n d u c t i l i t y , # d e f i n e d a s
D G & - % +K 9 +, * .
&/

1+ Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dition


d
!
" M
d x
!
l
where
" G deflection of the centroidal line %in. or m*
= Young=s modulus of the beam %psi or Pa*
I = second moment of area %in.
C
or m
C
*
x = coordinate along the length of beam %in. or m*
!he bending stiffness, then, is l and the fleibility is simply the
inverse of l. )ecause the second moment of area of a cylindrical
beam of diameter d is
?C
then
>leibility .
d(
. %&.&/*
>or a particular material, unlike strength, the Young=s modulus does
not change appreciably as a function of its diameter. !herefore,
the fleibility for a particular material is inversely proportional to
the fourth power of the diameter.
What !iber !actors contribute to the mechanica per!ormance o! a composite?
>our fiber factors contribute to the mechanical performance of a composite=I
Length% !he fibers can be long or short. Aong, continuous fibers are
easy to orient and process, but short fibers cannot be controlled fully
for proper orientation. Aong fibers provide many benefits over short
fibers. !hese include impact resistance, low shrinkage, improved
surface finish, and dimensional stability. #owever, short fibers pro-
vide low cost, are easy to work with, and have fast cycle time fab-
rication procedures. "hort fibers have fewer flaws and therefore have
higher strength.
8rientation% >ibers oriented in one direction give very high stiffness
and strength in that direction. If the fibers are oriented in more than
one direction, such as in a mat, there will be high stiffness and
strength in the directions of the fiber orientations. #owever, for the
same volume of fibers per unit volume of the composite, it cannot
match the stiffness and strength of unidirectional composites.
introduction to Composite Materials
Sh
a
pe% !he most common shape of fibers is circular because
handli
n
g and manufacturing them is easy. #eagon and s3uare-
s
haped fibers are possible, but their advantages of strength and
hi#h packing factors do not outweigh the difficulty in handling
a
nd
processing.
Material% !he material of the fiber directly influences the mechanical
performance of a composite. >ibers are generally epected to have
high elastic moduli and strengths. !his epectation and cost have
been key factors in the graphite, aramids, and glass dominating the
fiber market for composites.
&'
8hat are the matrix !actors that contribute to the mechanica
per!ormance o! composites?
Nse of fibers by themselves is limited, with the eceptions of ropes and
cables. !herefore, fibers are used as reinforcement to matrices. !he
matri functions include binding the fibers together, protecting fibers
from the environment, shielding from damage due to handling, and
distributing the load to fibers. +lthough matrices by themselves generally
have low mechanical properties compared to those of fibers, the matri
influences many mechanical properties of the composite. !hese
properties include transverse modulus and strength, shear modulus and
strength, compressive strength, interlaminar shear strength, thermal
epansion coefficient, thermal resistance, and fatigue strength.
Other than the !iber and the matrix) $hat other factors influence the
mechanica per!ormance o! a composite?
7ther factors include the fiber4matri interface. It determines how well
the matri transfers the load to the fibers. Chemical, mechanical, and
reaction bonding may form the interface. In most cases, more than one type
of bonding occurs.
Chemical bonding is formed between the fiber surface and the
matri. "ome fibers bond naturally to the matri and others do
not. Coupling agents2 are often added to form a chemical bond.
!he natural roughness or etching of the fiber surface causing inter-
locking may form a mechanical bond between the fiber and matri.
If the thermal epansion coefficient of the matri is higher than that of
the fiber, and the manufacturing temperatures are higher than the
operating temperatures, the matri will radially shrink more than the
fiber. !his causes the matri to compress around the fiber.
Coupling agents are compounds applied to fiber surfaces to improve the bond between the
fiber and matri. >or eample, silane finish is applied to glass fibers to increase adhesion with
epoy matri.
&? Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dition
Deaction bonding occurs when atoms or molecules of the fiber and the
matri diffuse into each other at the interface. !his interdiffusion
often creates a distinct interfacial layer, called the interphase, with
different properties from that of the fiber or the matri. +lthough this
thin interfacial layer helps to form a bond, it also forms <icro-cracks
in the fiber. !hese microcracks reduce the strength of the fiber and
thus that of the composite.
8eak or cracked interfaces can cause failure in composites and reduce th
e
properties influenced by the matri. !hey also allow environmental ha6ards
such as hot gases and moisture to attack the fibers.
+lthough a strong bond is a re3uirement in transferring loads from th
e
matri to the fiber, weak debonding of the fiber-matri interface is used
advantageously in ceramic matri composites. 8eak interfaces blunt matri
cracks and deflect them along the interface. !his is the main source of
improving toughness of such composites up to five times that of the mono-
lithic ceramics.
What is the $ord mar%et o! composites?
!he world market for composites is only &( &(
.
N" dollars as compared to
more than C'( &(
.
N" dollars for steel. !he annual growth of composites is at
a steady rate of &(E. Presently, composite shipments are about / &(
.
lb
annually. >igure &.0 gives the relative market share of N" composite shipments
and shows transportation clearly leading in their use. !able &./ shows the
market share of composites since &..(.
1. A C as s i ! i cat i on
#ow are composites cassi!ied?
Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement 4 partic-
ulate, flake, and fibers %>igure &.,* 4 or by the type of matri 4 polymer,
metal, ceramic, and carbon.
Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices such as
alloys and ceramics. !hey are usually isotropic because the particles are
added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages such as
improved strength, increased operating temperature, oidation
resistance, etc. !ypical eamples include use of aluminum particles in
rubber; silicon carbide particles in aluminum; and gravel, sand, and
cement to make concrete.
3la9e composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. !ypical
flake materials are glass, mica, aluminum, and silver. >lake compos-
&
Introduction to Composite Materials 17
!otal shipments in &..'I /-&0? %&(
.
*&b R&.CC& %&(
.
* kgs5
+ p p l i a n c e S b u s i n e s s e 3 u i p m e n t
<arine Construction
2IG@*E 1.7
+pproimate shipments of polymer-based composites in &..'. %"ourceI Data used in figure
published with permission of the "PI, Inc.; httpI99www.socplas.org.*
/(=>E 1.8
$.S. Composites "hipment in &(
?
&b, Including Deinforced !hermoset and
!hermoplastic Desin Composites, Deinforcements, and >illers
?ar%ets 1FF4 1FF1 1FFA 1FF8 1FF+ 1FF5
+ircraft9aerospace9military /. /,.0 /-/ -'.C -C.- -C.(
+ppliance9business e3uipment &'/ &/'.- &C/.- &C0.' &?(.0 &??.'
Construction C?, C-(.( C,/.( '/(.( '.?.. ?-?..
Consumer products &?' &C,.0 &?-.- &?'.0 &0C., &,/.?
Corrosion-resistant e3uipment
/'( /''.( //-./ /'-.( /0?./ /.C.?
$
lectrical9electronic
-C& -/&.& -?(.( -0C.. -.../ /&'.&
<arine
/0' -0'.( /(C.C /&../ /?/.' /0'.&
!ransportation 0(' ?,-.- 0'(.( ,--.& .C'.? .,C.(
7ther
0. 0/., ,/.C ,../ &(&., &(?.?
/O/(>
A575 A834
A551
A7A3 84+8.1
8173.+
Source% Published with permission of the "PI, Inc.
7t he r
Consumer
products
$lectrical
: electronics
Corrosion-resistant
e3uipment
1; Mechanics of Composite Materials, "econd tclition
Pat #i utak= ciimpo
,
dtt.
FIGURE 1.8
!ypes of composites based on reinforcement shape.
ites provide advantages such as high out-of-plane fleural modulus,2
higher strength, and low cost. #owever, flakes cannot be oriented
easily and only a limited number of materials are available for use.
3iber composites consist of matrices reinforced by short %discontin-
uous* or long %continuous* fibers. >ibers are generally anisotropict
and eamples include carbon and aramids. $amples of matrices ere
resins such as epoy, metals such as aluminum, and ceramics such
as calcium4alumino silicate. Continuous fiber composites are
emphasi6ed in this book and are further discussed in this chapter by
the types of matricesI polymer, metal, ceramic, and carbon. !he
fundamental units of continuous fiber matri composite are unidi-
rectional or woven fiber laminas. Aaminas are stacked on top of
each other at various angles to form a multidirectional laminate.
4anocomposites consist of materials that are of the scale of manometers
%&(
-.
m*. !he accepted range to be classified as a nanocomposite is
that one of the constituents is less than &(( nm. +t this scale, the
2 7ut of plane fleural stiffness is the resistance to deflection under bending that is out of
the plane, such as bending caused by a heavy stone placed on a simply supported plate.
t +nisotropic materials are the opposite of isotropic materials like steel and aluminum; they.
have different properties in different directions. >or eample, the Young=s modulus of a piece of
wood is higher %different* in the direction of the grain than in the direction perpendicular to the
grain. In comparison, a piece of steel has the same Young=s modulus in all directions.
&
>lake composites
>iber composites
mtroduction to Composite Materials
properties of materials are different from those of the bulk material.
Oenerally, advanced composite materials have constituents on the
microscale %&(
-?
m*. )y having materials at the nanometer scale, most
of
t
h
e
properties of the resulting composite material are better than the
on
es
at the microscale. Qot all properties of nanocomposites are better; in
some cases, toughness and impact strength can decrease.
+pplications of nanocomposites include packaging applications for
the military in which nanocomposite films show improvement i
n
properties such as elastic modulus, and transmission rates for water
vapor, heat distortion, and oygen.
,
)ody side molding of the -((C Chevrolet Impala is made of olefin-
based nanocomposites.
.
!his reduced the weight of the molding by 0E
and improved its surface 3uality. Oeneral <otors!< currently uses
'C(,((( lb of nanocomposite materials per year.
Dubber containing 5ust a few parts per million of metal conducts
electricity in harsh conditions 5ust like solid metal. Called <etal
Dubber
;
, it is fabricated molecule by molecule by a process called
electrostatic self-assembly. +waited applications of the <etal Dubber
include artificial muscles, smart clothes, fleible wires, and circuits for
portable electronics.
&
@
&.
1.A.1 ,o"mer ?atrix Composites
8hat are the most common advanced composites?
!he most common advanced composites are polymer matri composites
%P<Cs* consisting of a polymer %e.g., epoy, polyester, urethane* reinforced by
thin diameter fibers %e.g., graphite, aramids, boron*. >or eample, graphite9
epoy composites are approimately five times stronger than steel on a weight-
for-weight basis. !he reasons why they are the most common composites
include their low cost, high strength, and simple manufacturing principles.
What are the dra$bac%s o! po"mer matrix composites?
!he main drawbacks of P<Cs include low operating temperatures, high
coefficients of thermal and moisture epansion,2 and low elastic properties in
certain directions.
What are the t"pica mechanica properties o! some po"mer matrix com&
posites? Compare these properties $ith metas.
!able &.C gives typical mechanical properties of common polymer matri
composites.
F"ome materials, such as polymers, absorb or deabsorb moisture that results in dimensional
changes. !he coefficient of moisture epansion is the change in length per unit length per unit
mass of moisture absorbed per unit mass of the substance.
-( Mechanics of Composite
Materials,
Second diti
on
/(=>E 1.+
!ypical <echanical Properties of Polymer <atri Composites and
<onolithic <aterials
System of units: USCS
"peci fi c gravi t y Young= s
modulus Nl t i mat e t ensi l e
st rength Coeffi ci ent of
thermal epansi on
<si
ksi
&.? &., 0.,
-?.-' '.'., /(.(
-&0.? &'C.( .C.(
(.(&&&& C.00, ?.'
-.?
&(.(
C(.(
&-.,
System of units: SI
"peci fi c gravi t y Young= s
modulus Nl t i mat e t ensi l e
st rength Coeffi ci ent of
thermal epansi on
OPa
<Pa
grompC
&.?
&,&.(
&'(.(
(.(-
&., 0., -.?
/,.? -(?., ?,..'
&(?- ?C,.& -0'.,
,.? &&.0 -/
/(=>E 1.5
/"pica ?echanica Properties of >ibers Nsed in Polymer ?atrix Composites
,ropert" @nits Graphite (ramid Gass 9tee (uminum
System of units: USCS
"pecific gravity Young=s
modulus Nltimate
tensile strength +ial
coefficient of
thermal epansion
<si
ksi
&., &.C -.' 0., -.?
//./' &0.., &-.// /( &(.(
-..., -((.( --C., .C C(.(
-(.0-- --.00, -.00, ?.' &-.,
System of units: SI
"pecific gravity &., &.C -.' 0., -.?
Young=s modulus OPa -/( &-C ,' -(?., ?,..'
Nltimate tensile strength <Pa -(?0 &/0. &''( ?C,.& -0'.,
+ial coefficient of Plm9m9! -&./ -' ' &&.0 -/
thermal epansion
Give names o! various !ibers used in advanced po"mer composites.
!he most common fi bers used are glass, graphit e, and :evlar. !ypi cal
properties of these fibers compared with bulk steel and aluminum are given in !able &.'.
Give a description o! the #ass !iber.
Olass is the most common fiber used in polymer matri composites. Its
advantages include its high strength, low cost, high chemical resistance, and
good insulating properties. !he drawbacks include low elastic modulus,
1
Graphite0 Gass0
,ropert" @nits epox" epox" 9tee (uminum
Ifitroduction to Composite Materials -&
TABLE 1.6
Comparison of Properties of $-Olass and "-Olass
,ropert"
S#stem of units% $SCS
"pecific gravity
Young=s modulus
Nltimate tensile strength
@nits
<si
ksi
E&Gass
-.'C
&(.'
'((
9&Gass
-.C.
&-.C
??'
Coefficient of thermal epansion
gin.9in.9@>
-.,
/.&
S#stem of units% "I
"pecific gravity
-.'C -.C.
Young=s modulus
OPa 0-.C(
,'.'(
Nltimate tensile strength
<Pa /CC0 C','
Coefficient of thermal epansion
lim9m&@C
'.(C
'.',
TABLE 1.7
Chemical Composition of $-Olass and
"-Olass >ibers
<aterial
E 8eight
$-Olass "-Olass
"ilicon oide 'C ?C
+luminum oide &' -'
Calcium oide 1' (.(&
<agnesium oide C.' &(
)oron oide , (.(&
7thers &.' (.,
poor adhesion to polymers, high specific gravity, sensitivity to abrasion
%reduces tensile strength*, and low fatigue strength.
,#pes% !he main types are $-glass %also called FfiberglassF* and "-glass.
!he F$F in $-glass stands for electrical because it was designed for electrical
applications. #owever, it is used for many other purposes now, such as
decorations and structural applications. !he F"F in "-glass stands for higher
content of silica. It retains its strength at high temperatures compared to $-
glass and has higher fatigue strength. It is used mainly for aerospace appli-
cations. "ome property differences are given in !able &.?.
!he difference in the properties is due to the compositions of $-glass and "-
glass fibers. !he main elements in the two types of fibers are given in !able
&.0.
7ther types available commercially are C-glass %FCF stands for corrosion*
used in chemical environments, such as storage tanks; D-glass used in struc-
tural applications such as construction; ID-glass %dielectric* used for applica-
tions re3uiring low dielectric constants, such as radomes; and +-glass
%appearance* used to improve surface appearance. Combination types such
TTTIII
111
Mecha
nics of
Compo
site
Materi
als,
Second
diti
on
Gass !eedstoc%
AA
Eectrica" heated !urnace
,rotective siGin# operation:
$ater or sovent based
Gass !iaments
Gass strand $ound
onto a !ormin# tube
and oven dried to
remove $ater0sovent HIJ&&&.
2iaments coected to#ether to
!orm a strand
Eovin#
Woven
rovin#
@nt$isted
strand
Choppin# KKKKKKKKKK
operation
/$istin# o! strand
Weavin#
Chopped strand
(ppication o! resin
binder
Chopped strand
?at
FIGU
RE
1.9
9c
he
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tic
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Iraroduction to Composite Materials
solution before they are drawn. !he si6ing solution is a miture of binders,
lubricants, and coupling and antistatic agents; binders allow filaments to
c
ked in strands, lubricants prevent abrasion of filaments, and coupling be
Pa give better adhesion between the inorganic glass fiber and the
ee
nts
@.-ur
>
g
rb
e
i
r
c
s
nl
ar
a
e then drawn into strands and wound on a forming tube. "trands
are groups of more than -(C filaments. !he wound array of strands is then
removed
a
nd dried in an oven to remove any water or si6ing solutions. !he
g
l
as
s
strand can then be converted into several forms as shown in >igure &.. Different
forms of various fibers are shown in >igure &.&(.
Oive a description o! #raphite !ibers.
Oraphite fibers are very common in high-modulus and high-strength
applications such as aircraft components, etc. !he advantages of graphite
fibers
include high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient of thermal
fibersepansion, and high fatigue strength. !he drawbacks include high cost, low
impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity.
Manufacturing% Oraphite fibers have been available since the late &,((s.
#owever, only since the early &.?(s has the manufacturing of graphite fibers
taken off. Oraphite fibers are generally manufactured from three precursor
materialsI rayon, polyacrylonitrile %P+Q*, and pitch. P+Q is the most popular
precursor and the process to manufacture graphite fibers from it is given net
%>igure &.&&*.
P+Q fibers are first stretched five to ten times their length to improve their
mechanical properties and then passed through three heating processes. In
the first process, called stabili6ation, the fiber is passed through a furnace
between /.- and '0-@> %-(( and /((@C* to stabili6e its dimensions during
the subse3uent high-temperature processes. In the second process, called
carboni6ation, it is pyroli6ed2 in an inert atmosphere of nitrogen or argon
between &,/- and -0/-@> %&((( and &'((@C*. In the last process, called
graphiti6ation, it is heat treated above C'/-@> %-'((@C*. !he graphiti6ation
yields a microstructure that is more graphitic than that produced by carbon-
i6ation. !he fibers may also be sub5ected to tension in the last two heating
processes to develop fibers with a higher degree of orientation.
+t the end of this three-step heat treatment process, the fibers are surface
treated to develop fiber adhesion and increase laminar shear strength when they
are used in composite structures. !hey are then collected on a spool.
Properties% !able &., gives properties of graphite fibers obtained from two
different precursors.
(re carbon and #raphite the same?
Qo,
0
they are different. Carbon fibers have ./ to .'E carbon content, but
graphite has more than ..E carbon content. +lso, carbon fibers are produced
Pyrolysis is defined as the decomposition of a comple organic substance to one of a simpler
structure by means of heat.
-/

-C Mechanics of Composite
Materials,

Second Edi
tion
UNIDIRECTIONAL GRAPHITE
CHOPPED MAT
PLAIN EA!E E"GLA##
PLAIN EA!E N$LON
#ATIN EA!E E"GLA##
1
PLAIN EA!E GRAPHITE
FIGURE 1.10
http(&&www
mcgillcorp.c
%E!LAR& PLAIN EA!E
at -C((@> %&/&?@C*, andgraphite fibers are typically produced in ecess of
/C((@>
Give a description of the
aramid fber.
+n ara mid fiber is an aromatic organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen,
oygen, and nitrogen. Its advantages are low density, high tensile
Introduction to Composite Materials A5
FIGURE 1.11
"tages of manufacturing a carbon fiber from P+Q-based precursors.
/(=>E 1.B
<echanical Properties of !wo !ypical Oraphite >ibers
,ropert"
@nits ,I/C7 ,(-
S#stem of units% $SCS
"pecific gravity
4 &... &.0,
Young=s modulus <si '' /'
Nltimate tensile strength ksi -'( '((
+ial coefficient of thermal epansion uin9in9@> -(./ -(.0
S#stem of units% SI
"pecific gravity &... &.0,
Young=s modulus OPa /0..- -C&./
Nltimate tensile strength <Pa &0-/ /CC0
+ial coefficient of thermal epansion itm9m 9@C -(.'C -&.-?
strength, low cost, and high impact resistance. Its drawbacks include low
compressive properties and degradation in sunlight.
,#pes% !he two main types of aramid fibers are :evlar -.;2 and :evlar
C.
;
t. )oth types of :evlar fibers have similar specific strengths, but :evlar C.
has a higher specific stiffness. :evlar -. is mainly used in bulletproof
:evlar -. is a registered trademark of $.I. duPont deQemours and Company, Inc., 8ilmington,
D$.
t *evar +F is a re#istered trademar% o! $.I. duPont deQemours and Company, Inc., 8ilmington,
D$
"tabili6ation %-((-/((@C*
7ff-wind creel
Carboni6ation %&(((-&'((@C*
Oraphiti6ation %-'((@C*
8ind-up creel "urface treatment
"tretching
&
-? Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dttloh
/(=>E 1.F
Properties of :evlar >ibers
Property
Nnits :evlar -.
:evlar C.
S#stem of units% $SCS
"pecific gravity
&.CC
&,C,
Young=s modulus
<si .
&.
Nltimate tensile strength
ksi '-'
'-'
+ial coefficient of thermal epansion +in.9in.9@> -&.&&&
-&.&&&
S#stem of units% SI
"pecific gravity
4 &.CC
&.C,
Young=s modulus
OPa ?-.(' &/&.(
Nltimate tensile strength
<Pa /?-(
/?-(
+ial coefficient of thermal epansion
p.m9m9cC --
--
vests, ropes, and cables. #igh performance applications in the aircraft indus-
try use :evlar C.. !able &.. gives the relative properties of :evlar -. and
:evlar C..
Manufacturing% !he fiber is produced by making a solution of proprietary
polymers and strong acids such as sulfuric acid. !he solution is then
etruded into hot cylinders at /.-@> %-((@C*, washed, and dried on spools.
!he fiber is then stretched and drawn to increase its strength and stiffness.
Give names o! various po"mers used in advanced po"mer composites. !hese
polymers include epoy, phenolics, acrylic, urethane, and polyamide.
Wh" are there so man" resin s"stems in advanced po"mer composites?
$ach polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use
&-
I
PolyestersI !he advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below &0(@>
%00@C*, brittleness, and high shrinkage2 of as much as ,E during
curing.
PhenolicsI !he advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength;
drawbacks include high void content.
$poiesI !he advantages are high mechanical strength and good adherence
to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and difficulty in
processing.
2 "hrinkage in resins is found by measuring the density of the resin before and after cross-link-
ing. If p is the density before cross-linking and p= is the density after cross-linking. !he
percent shrinkage is defined as shrinkage G %p= - p*9p= &((.

Introduction to Composite Materials -0


FIGURE 1.12
Comparison of performance of several common matrices used in polymer matri composites.
%Oraphic courtesy of <.C. Oill Corporation, httpI 9 9www.mcgillcorp.com.*
+s can be seen, each of the resin systems has its advantages and drawbacks.
!he use of a particular system depends on the application. !hese consider-
ations include mechanical strength, cost, smoke emission, temperature
ecursions, etc. >igure &.&- shows the comparison of five common resins
based on smoke emission, strength, service temperature, and cost.
&-
Oive a description o! epox".
$poy resins are the most commonly used resins. !hey are low molecular
weight organic li3uids containing epoide groups. $poide has three members
in its ringI one oygen and two carbon atoms. !he reaction of epichlorohydrin
with phenols or aromatic amines makes most epoies. #ardeners,2
#ardeners are substances that are added to polymers for aiding in curing of composites.
Aeast
desirable
"moke
emission
<aimum
strength
"ervice
temperature
Cost
D Phenolic
D $poy
q Polyester
"ilicone
Polymide
<ost &(
desirable
,
?
C
-
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Secondti
ch
oit
/(=>E 1.14
Doom !emperature Properties of
a !ypical $poy
Property @nits Laue
S#stem of units% $SCS
"pecific gravity
Young=s modulus
Nltimate tensile strength
S#stem of units% SI
"pecific.gravity
Young=s modulus
Nltimate tensile strength
&.-,
<si (.''
ksi &-.(
&.-,
OPa /.0.-
<Pa ,-.0C
plastici6ers,2 and fillerst are also added to produce epoies with a 8id
e
range of properties of viscosity, impact, degradation, etc. !he room temper-
ature properties of a typical epoy are given in !able &.&(.
Epox" is the most common t"pe o! matrix materia. Wh"?
+lthough epoy is costlier than other polymer matrices, it is the most
popular P<C matri. <ore than two-thirds of the polymer matrices used in
aerospace applications are epoy based. !he main reasons why epoy is the
most used polymer matri material are
#igh strength
Aow viscosity and low flow rates, which allow good wetting of fibers
and prevent misalignment of fibers during processing
Aow volatility during cure
Aow shrink rates, which reduce the tendency of gaining large shear
stresses of the bond between epoy and its reinforcement
+vailable in more than -( grades to meet specific property and
processing re3uirements
,o"mers are cassi!ied as thermosets and thermopastics. 8hat is the
di!!erence between the t$o? Give some exampes o! both.
!hermoset polymers are insoluble and infusible after cure because the
chains are rigidly 5oined with strong covalent bonds; thermoplastics are
formable at high temperatures and pressure because the bonds are weak and
F Plastici6ers are lubricants that improve the toughness, fleibility, processibility, and
ductility of polymers. !his improvement is generally at the epense of lower strength.
t >illers are ingredients added to enhance properties such as strength, surface teture, and ultra-
violet absorption of a polymer, and to lower the cost of polymers. !ypical eamples
include chopped fabric and wood flour.

&&&&&TTF
--
introduction to Composite Materials
"an
der 8aals type. !ypical eamples of thermoset include epoies, of
U
esters,
phenolics, and polyamide; typical eamples of thermoplastics fog
ude
po
lyethylene,
polystyrene,
polyether4ether4ketone %P$$:*, and
lyp
h
e
rtylene sulfide %PP"*. !he differences between thermosets and ther-
P@(plastics are given in the following table.=
/
!hermoplastics
"often on heating and pressure, and thus easy to repair
#igh strains to failure
indefinite shelf life
Can be
reprocessed
Qot tacky and easy to handle
"hort cure cycles
#igher fabrication temperature and viscosities have
made it difficult to process
$cellent solvent resistance
!hermoset
Decompose on heating
Aow strains to failure
Definite shelf life
Cannot be reprocessed
!acky
Aong cure cycles
Aower fabrication temperature
>air solvent resistance
What are prepre#s?
Prepregs are a ready-made tape composed of fibers in a polymer matri
%>i
g
ure &.&/*. !hey are available in standard widths from / to '( in. %0? to
&-0( mm*. Depending on whether the polymer matri is thermoset or ther-
moplastic, the tape is stored in a refrigerator or at room temperature, respec-
tively. 7ne can lay these tapes manually or mechanically at various
orientations to make a composite structure. Lacuum bagging and curing
under high pressures and temperatures may follow.
>igure &.&C shows the schematic of how a prepreg is made.F + row of fibers
is passed through a resin bath. !he resin-impregnated fibers are then
-.
2IG@EE 1.18
)oron9epoy prepreg tape. %Photo courtesy of "pecialty <aterials, Inc.,
http:00$$$.specmaterias.com.6
/ (
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second<
rlitr
o
,
1
Controlled heating elements
I I
"
)ack up material
%release film*
Desin solution
FIGURE 1.14
"chematic of prepreg manufacturing. %Deprinted from <allick, P.:., !ier"#einforced
Co,mdes
P.
Materials, Manufacturing, and $esign, <arcel Dekker, Inc., Qew York,
Chap. -, &.,,,
Courtesy of CDC Press, )oca Daton, >A.* ?-
heated to advance the curing reaction from +-stage2 to the )-stage. + release
film is now wound over a take-up roll and backed with a release film. !h
e
release film keeps the prepregs from sticking to each other during storage.
Give exampes o! ho$ a po"mer matrix composite is manu!actured.
!echni3ues of manufacturing a polymer matri composite include filament
&inding %used generally for making pipes and tanks to, handle chemicals*,
autocla"e forming %used to make comple shapes and flat panels for structures
in which low void content and high 3uality are important*, and resin transfer
molding %used etensively in the automotive industry because short produc-
tion runs are necessary*.
3ilament &inding% >ibers are impregnated with a resin by drawing them
through an in-line resin bath %wet winding* %>igure &.&?* or prepregs %dry
winding* are wound over a mandrel. 8et winding is inepensive and lets one
control the properties of the composite. Dry winding is cleaner, but more
epensive and thus 3uite uncommon.
2!hermosetting resins have three curing stagesI +, &/, and C %>igure &.&'*.
Desins are manufactured in the +-stage, in which the resin may be solid or li3uid but is
ale to flow if heat is applied. !he +-stage is also called the completely uncured stage.
!he )-stage is the middle stage of the reaction of a thermosetting resin used %hen
prepregs are manufactured. !his stage allows easy processing and handling of composite
layers, such as
graphite9epoy.
!he C-stage is the final stage in the reaction of a thermosetting resin. !his stage is accom
-
>iber collimator
Lilo
up
roil
>iber package
<etering device
plished when a composite structure is made out of composite layers. #eat and pressure may be
applied at the )-stage to cure the resin completely. !his stage results in irreversible hardening
and insolubility.
introduction to Composite Materials
C 7 C 7
H(H 9/(GE >o$ moecuar $ei#ht inear
po"mer
C
O
7
C
O
7
H=H 9/(GE 7i#her
moecuar $ei#ht)
part" cross&in%ed
+
H! 8
HCH 9/(GE
2u" cross&
in%ed) cured
rIC@EE 1.15
Curin# sta#es o! phenoic resins.
81
Curin# sta#es o! phenoic resins
O7 O7
CCOCC
#7

C
CCO7
A
H!8
7OCC
O7
O7
CC O7
5Graphic courtes" o! ?.C. Gi
Corporation)
ht
tp:00$$$.mc#iIcorp.corn.6
/-
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second
r
li
tio,,
Desin-
impregnated
fibers
b !hreaded port Ainer #elical windings #oop windings
FIGURE 1.16
%a* >ilament winding process; %b* filament wound pressure vessel with liner. %>rom Chawl
a
,
:.:., Composite Materials + Science and ngineering, "pringer-Lerlag, &..,. Deprinted by
p
er
.. mission of "pringer-Lerlag.*
Depending on the desired properties of the product, winding patterns such
as hoop, helical, and polar can be developed. !he product is then cured with
or without heat and pressure. Depending on the application, mandrels are
made of wood, aluminum, steel, plaster, or salts. >or eample, steel mandrels
are chosen for manufacturing large 3uantities of open-ended cylinders, and
low-melting alloys or water-soluble salts are used for closed-ended cylinders
so that one can easily remove the mandrel.
Autocla"e forming% !his method of manufacturing is used with composites
available as prepregs. >irst, a peel ply made out of nylon or cellophane
coated with !eflon2 is placed on the mold.t !eflon is used for easy removal
of the part and the peel ply achieves a desired finish that is smooth and
wrinkle free. Deplacing !eflon by mold releasing powders and li3uids can
also accomplish removal of the part. Prepregs of the re3uired number are
laid up one ply at a time by automated means or by hand. $ach ply is pressed
to remove any entrapped air and wrinkles. !he lay-up is sealed at the edges
to form a vacuum seal.
2 !eflon is a registered trademark of $.I. duPont deQemours and Company, Inc., 8ilmington
,
D$.
t <oldI a structure around or in which the composite forms a desired shape. <olds are female
and male. If the composite part is in the mold, it is called a female mold; if it is made around the
mold, it is called a male mold. %"ee in >igure &.&0 the male mold that was used in making a
human-powered submarine.*
&&&&&P&. &&(F
!raversing
carriage
<andrel
a
FIGURE 1.1'
#uman-powered submarine and its mold. %Courtesy of Professor O.#. )esterfield and student
section of +"<$, Nniversity of "outh >lorida, !ampa.*
Qow one establishes the bleeder system to get rid of the volatiles and
ecess resin during the heating and vacuum process that follows later. !he
bleeder system consists of several bleeder sheets made of glass cloth. !hese
are placed on the edges and the top of the lay-up.
!hen, vacuum connections are placed over the bleeders and the lay-up is
bagged. + partial vacuum is developed to smooth the bag surface. !he whole
assembly is put in an autoclave %>igure &.&,*, where heat and pressure are
applied with an inert gas such as nitrogen. !he vacuum system is kept
functioning to remove volatiles during the cure cycle and to keep the part
conformed to the mold. !he cure cycle may last more than ' h.
=esin transfer molding 6=,M7 6also called li>uid molding7% + low viscosity
resin such as polyester or epoy resin is in5ected under low pressure into a
closed mold that contains the fiber preform. !he resin flow is stopped and the
part is allowed to cure. !he cure is done at room temperature or at elevated
temperatures. !he latter is done if the part is to be used for high-temperature
introduction to Composite Materials /
/C
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second
FIGURE 1.1(
+utoclave used for processing polymer matri composites. %Photo courtesy of +CP Comp
osites,

<Q, httpI99www.acpomposites.com.*
!he advantages of D!< are that it is less epensive th
an
h
and

lay-up, can be automated, and does not need refrigerated storage for prepregs.
<a5or drawbacks include the capital epense re3uired for havi
ng
two molds
instead of one.=
'
Give t"pica appications o! po"mer matrix composites.
+pplications of polymer matri composites range from tennis rac3uets to
the space shuttle. Dather than enumerating only the areas in which polymer-
based composites are used, a few eamples have been taken from each
industry. $mphasis has been placed on why a composite material is the
material of choice.
Aircraft% !he military aircraft industry has mainly led the use of polymer
composites. !he percentage of structural weight of composites thai was less
than -E in >-&'s in the &.0(s has increased to about /(E on the +L-,) in the
&..(s. In both cases, the weight reduction over metal parts was more than
-(E.
In commercial airlines, the use of composites has been conservative
because of safety concerns. Nse of composites is limited to secondary struc-
tures such as rudders and elevators made of graphite9epoy for the )oeing
0?0 and landing gear doors made of :evlar4graphite9epoy. Composites are
also used in panels and floorings of airplanes. "ome eamples of using
composites in the primary structure are the all-composite Aear >an -&((
plane and the tail fin of the +irbus +/&(-/((. In the latter case, the tail fin
consists of graphite9epoy and aramid honeycomb. It not only reduced the
$ei#ht of the tail fin by ??- lb %/(( kg* but also reduced the number of parts
from -((( to &((. "kins of aircraft engine cowls shown in >igure &.&. are
also made of polymer matri composites for reducing weight.
&?
8ith increasing competition in model airplane flying, the weight of com)
posite materials has been reduced. >igure &.-( shows a 8orld 8ar II model
airpane $ith !usea#e made o! #ass0epox") $in#s made o! basa&$ood
Introduction to Composite Materials /'
>IOND$ &.&.
+ircraft engine cowling. %Photo provided courtesy of +lliant !echsystems, Inc.*
FIGURE 1.20
<fodel )>&(. 88II Oerman fighter plane using glass9epoy-molded fuselage and wing spars g
ra
phite9epoy.
%Photo courtesy of Dussell +. Aepre, !ampa, >A.*
C&&&&&T(&&&&&<II<ill$<Ili
/? Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second cht
io(
FIGURE 1.21
!he )$AA!< L--- 7sprey in combat configuration. %Courtesy of )ell #elicopter !etron Inc.*
facings9"tyrofoam core sandwich construction, and wingspars made of
graphite9epoy.
&0
#elicopters and tiltrotors %>igure &.-&* use graphite9epoy and glass9 epoy
rotor blades that not only increase the life of blades by more than &((E over
metals but also increase the top speeds.
Space% !wo factors make composites the material of choice in space
applicationsI high specific modulus and strength, and dimensional stability
during large changes in temperature in space. $amples include the Oraphite9
epoy-honeycomb payload bay doors in the space shuttle %>igure &.--*.
8eight savings= over conventional metal alloys translate to higher payloads
that cost as much as H&(((9&b %H--(,9kg*. +lso, for the space shuttles, graph-
ite9epoy was chosen primarily for weight savings and for small mechanical
and thermal deflections concerning the remote manipulator arm, which
deploys and retrieves payloads.
>igure &.-/ shows a high-gain antenna for the space station that uses
sandwiches made of graphite9epoy facings with an aluminum honeycomb
core. +ntenna ribs and struts in satellite systems use graphite9epoy for their
high specific stiffness and its ability to meet the dimensional stability=
re3uirements due to large temperature ecursions in space.
In Kune -((C, Paul O. +llen and "caled Composites=s launched the !irsti
private" manned vehicle, called "paceship7ne, beyond the $arth=s atmo-
sphere %>igure &.-C*. !he spaceship reached a record-breaking altitude of
approimately ?- miles %&(( km*. "paceship7ne is constructed from graph-
ite-epoy composite materials; a tro&el)on ablative thermal protection layer
@
protects its hotter sections.
Sporting goods% Oraphite9epoy is replacing metals in golf club shafts
mainly to decrease the weight and use the saved weight in the head. !his
increase in the head $ei#ht has improved drivin# distances by more than A5
"ards 5A8 m6.
Introduction to Composite Materials
)
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Nse of composites in the space shuttle. %Oraphic courtesy of <.C. Oill Corporation, FIGURE
1.22
htt pI 9 www.mcgi l l corp. com . *
#igh-gain antenna for space
station. %Photo provided
courtesy of +lliant
!echsystems, Inc.* FIGURE
1.23
1
/, Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second chti
o(
FIGURE 1.24
>irst privately manned vehicle %"pace"hip7ne* to go beyond the $arth=s atmosphere. n
oto
provided courtesy of "caled Composites, httpI99www.scaled.com .*
)icycles use hybrid construction of graphite9epoy composites wound on
an aluminum tubing or chopped "-glass reinforced urethane foam. !h
e

graphite9epoy composite increases the specific modulus of the tube and
decreases the mass of the frame by -'E. Composites also allow frames to
consist of one piece, which improves fatigue life and avoids stress concen-
tration2 found in metallic frames at their 5oints. )icycle wheels made of
carbon-polymide composites offer low weight and better impact resistance
than aluminum.
!ennis and rac3uetball rackets with graphite9epoy frames are now com-
monplace. !he primary reasons for using composites are that they improve
the torsional rigidity of the rac3uet and reduce risk of elbow in5ury due to
vibration damping.t Ice hockey sticks are now manufactured out of hybrids
such as :evlar-glass9epoy. :evlar is added for durability and stiffness. "ki
poles made of glass9polyester composites have higher strength, fleibility,
and lower weight than conventional ski poles. !his reduces stress and impact
on upper body 5oints as the skier plants his poles.
Medical de"ices% +pplications here include the use of glass-:evlar9epoy
lightweight face masks for epileptic patients. +rtificial portable lungs are
made of graphite-glass9epoy so that a patient can be mobile. V-ray tables
made of graphite9epoy facing sandwiches are used for their high stiffness,
light weight, and transparency to radiation. !he latter feature allows the
2 If a loaded machine element has a discontinuity, the stresses are different at the discontinuity.
!he ratio between the stresses at the discontinuity and the nominal stress is defined as the stress
lib
concentration factor. >or eample, in a plate with a small hole, the stress
concentration factor is three at the edge of the hole. t Libration damping is the abilit y of
a material to dissipate energy during vibration. Damping of composites is higher than
that of conventional metals such as steel and aluminum. Damping of composites depends
on fiber volume fraction, orientation constituent properties, and stack ing se3uence.
Damping in composites is measured by calculating the ratio of energy dissipated to the
energy stored. = F
I nt r oduc t i on t o Compos i t e Mat e r i al s
C & & & & & & & & & F
&.
2IG@EE &.-'
Dear fiberglass monosprings for Corvettes. %Photo courtesy of Lette )rakes and Products, "t.
Petersburg, >A, httpI99www.vbandp.com.*
patient to stay on one bed for an operation as well as -rays and be sub5ected to a
lower dosage of radiation.
Marine% !he application of fiberglass in boats is well known. #ybrids of :evlar-
glass9epoy are now replacing fiberglass for improved weight savings, vibration
damping, and impact resistance. :evlar-epoy by itself would have poor
compression properties.
#ousings made of metals such as titanium to protect epensive oceanographic
research instruments during eplorations of sea wrecks are cost prohibitive. !hese
housings are now made out of glass9epoy and sustain pressures as high as &( ksi
%?. <Pa* and etremely corrosive conditions. )ridges made of polymer
composite materials are gaining wide acceptance due to their low weight,
corrosion resistance, longer life cycle, and limited earth3uake damage. +lthough
bridge components made of composites may cost H' 9lb as opposed to
components made of steel, reinforced concrete may only cost H(./( to H&.(( per
pound; the former weighs ,(E less than the latter. +lso, by lifetime costs, fewer
composite bridges need to be built than traditional bridges.
-&
Automoti"e% !he fiberglass body of the
Corvette;
comes to mind when considering
automotive applications of polymer matri composites. In addition, the Corvette has
glass9epoy composite leaf springs %>igure &.-'* with a fatigue life of more than
five times that of steel. Composite leaf springs also give a smoother ride than steel
leaf springs and give more rapid response to stresses caused by road shock.
<oreover, composite leaf springs offer less chance of catastrophic failure, and
ecellent corrosion resistance.
--
)y weight, about ,E of today=s automobile parts are
made of composites, including bumpers, body panels, and doors. #owever,
since &.,&, the average engine horsepower has increased by ,CE, while
average vehicle weight has increased by more than -(E. !o overcome the
increasing weight but also maintain the safety of modern vehicles, some
estimate that carbon composite
bodies will reduce the weight by '(E.
-/
Commercial% >iber-reinforced polymers have many other commercial appli-
cations too. $amples include mops with pultruded fiberglass handles %>ig-
3
C( Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second -CC&ti
o
FIGURE 1.26
>iberglass mop handle. %Photo courtesy of D!P Company, <Q.*
ure &.-?*. "ome brooms used in pharmaceutical factories have handles that
have no 5oints or seams; the surfaces are smooth and sealed. !his keeps the
bacteria from staying and growing. !o have a handle that also is strong, rigid,
and chemically and heat resistant, the material of choice is glass-fiber-
reinforced polypropylene.
-C
7ther applications include pressure vessels for
applications such as chemical plants. Oarden tools %>igure &.-0*
-'
can be made
lighter than traditional metal tools and thus are suitable for children and
people with physically challenged hands. >igure &.-0 shows the Powergear
;
>iskars; anvil lopper. !he handles of the lopper are made of Qyglass
;
composite, making it etremely lightweight and durable.
..M
&.-.- <etal <atri Composites
8hat are metal matri compositesJ
<etal matri composites %<<Cs*, as the name implies, have a metal
matri. $amples of matrices in such composites include aluminum, mag-
nesium, and titanium. !ypical fibers include carbon and silicon carbide.
<etals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease their properties to suit
&?& the needs of design. >or eample, the elastic stiffness and strength of metals can be
increased, and large coefficients of thermal epansion and thermal
Introduction to Composite Materials +1
FIGURE 1.27
9tron#) e!!icient) and i#ht$ei#ht 2is%ars ,o$er#ear anvi opper. 5,hoto courtes" o! 2is%ars
=rands) Inc.6
and eectric conductivities o! metas can be reduced) b" the addition o! !ibers
such as siicon carbide.
What are the advanta#es o! meta matrix composites?
?eta matrix composites are main" used to provide advanta#es over
monoithic metas such as stee and auminum. /hese advanta#es incude
hi#her speci!ic stren#th and moduus b" rein!orcin# o$&densit" metas) such
as auminum and titaniumD o$er coe!!icients o! therma expansion b"
rein!orcin# $ith !ibers $ith o$ coe!!icients o! therma expansion) such as
#raphiteD and maintainin# properties such as stren#th at hi#h temperatures.
??Cs have severa advanta#es over po"mer matrix composites. /hese
incude hi#her eastic propertiesD hi#her service temperatureD insensitivit"
to moistureD hi#her eectric and therma conductivitiesD and better $ear)
!ati#ue) and !a$ resistances. /he dra$bac%s o! ??Cs over ,?Cs incude
hi#her processin# temperatures and hi#her densities.
.o an" properties de#rade $hen metas are rein!orced $ith !ibers?
;es) rein!orcin# metas $ith !ibers ma" reduce ductiit" and !racture tou#h&
ness.
A3
.uctiit" o! auminum is +BN and it can decrease to beo$ 14N $ith
C- Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second I,
?1@
(,,
/(=>E 1.11
!ypical <echanical Properties of <etal <atri Composites
9iC0 Graphite0
,ropert" @nits auminum auminum
9tee
+l Nmi n u i n
S#stem of units% $SCS
"pecific gravity
Young=s modulus Nltimate tensile strength Coefficient of thermal epansion
S#stem of units% SI
"pecific gravity Young=s modulus Nltimate tensile strength Coefficient of thermal epansion
simple reinforcements of silicon
carbide whiskers. !he fracture
toughness of aluminum alloys is &,.-
to /?.C ksi->n. %-( to C( <ra,>ri * and it reduce
s
by '(E or more when reinforced with
silicon fibers.
What are the t"pica mechanica
properties o! some meta matrix
composites? Compare the properties
$ith metas.
!ypical mechanical properties of
<<Cs are given in !able &.&&. 9ho$ one process o! ho$ meta matrix
composites are manu!actured.
>abrication methods for <<Cs are varied. 7ne method of manufacturing them is
diffusion bonding
-?
%>igure &.-,*, which is used in manufacturing boron9aluminum
composite parts %>igure &.-.*. + fiber mat of boron is placed between two thin aluminum
foils about (.((- in. %(.(' mm* thick. + polymer binder or an acrylic adhesive holds the
fibers together in the mat. Aayers of these metal foils are stacked at angles as re3uired by
the design. !he laminate is first heated in a vacuum bag to remove the binder. !he
laminate is then hot pressed with a temperature of about ./-@> %'((@C* and pressure of
about ' ksi %/' <Pa* in a die to form the re3uired machine element.
What are some o! the appications o! meta matrix composites? <etal matri
composites applications are
Space% !he space shuttle uses boron9aluminum tubes to support its fuselage
frame. In addition to decreasing the mass of the space shuttle by more than
/-( lb %&C' kg*, boron9aluminum also reduced the thermal insulation
re3uirements because of its low thermal con)
<si
ksi
min.9in.9
@
>
A.3 A.A 7.B
17 1B /(
&0' ?' .C
?.. &( ?.'
A?
&(
/C
&-.,
OPa
<Pa
pnvrarC
-.?
&&0.-
&-(?
&-.C
-.- 0.,
&-C.& -(?.,
CC,.- ?C,.&
&,
-.?
? , .
-/C.C(
-/
Introduction to Composite Materials +8
9econdar" 2abrication
FIGURE 1.28
9chematic o! di!!usion bondin# !or meta matrix composites. 5Eeproduced $ith permission !rom
?atthe$s) 2.>. and Ea$in#s) E...) Composite Materials% ngineering and Science, Chapman &
7a) >ondon) 1FF+) 2i#ure 8.1) p. B1. Cop"ri#ht CEC ,ress) =oca Eaton) 2>.6
ductivit". /he mast o! the 7ubbe /eescope uses carbon&
rein!orced auminum.
Military: ,recision components o! missie #uidance s"stems demand
dimensiona stabiit" C that is) the #eometries o! the components
cannot chan#e durin# use.
A7
?eta matrix composites such as 9iC0
auminum composites satis!" this reOuirement because the" have
1 I
Foil
Fiber
mat
___________________ Foil
(a)o
I Consolidate
% c *
5 b6
_1
IN55111MISIENIE1
____________4
1 ) 1 1 * 1 1 1 + I L I ,
7eat and pressure
( d)
%e*
I
++ Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second di
tion
FIGURE 1.29
)oron9aluminum component made from diffusion bonding. %Photo courtesy of "peci alt y
<aterials, Inc., httpI99www.specmateria
ls.com .*
#igh
strength, low weight and the ability to
perform at high temperatures make metal
matri composites the material of choice for
gas turbine engine components.
2IG@EE 1.84
Oas turbine engine components made of metal matri composites. %Photo courtesy of "pecialty
<aterials, Inc., httpI99www.specmaterials.com.*
high microyield strength.2 In addition, the volume fraction of "iC can be
varied to have a coefficient of thermal epansion compatible with other
parts of the system assembly.
,ransportation% <etal matri composites are finding use now in auto-
motive engines that are lighter than their metal counterparts. +lso,
because of their high strength and low weight, metal matri composites
are the material of choice for gas turbine engines %>igure &./(*.
2 <icroyield strength is a ma5or design parameter for elements that are re3uired to be dimen
-
sionally stable. It is defined as the stress re3uired to create a plastic %residual* strain of & &(
-?
or I
um.
introduction to Composite Materials C'
TA-LE 1.12
!ypical >racture !oughness of <onolithic <aterials and
Ceramic <atri Composites
>racture toughness >racture toughness
<aterial %<Pa Qrin * %ksi in. *
$poy
/
-.0/
+luminum alloys
/'
/&.,'
"ilicon carbide / -.0/
"iC9+I,(/
-0
-C.?
"iC9"iC
/(
-0./
1.A.8 Ceramic ?atrix Composites
What are ceramic matrix composites?
Ceramic matri composites %C<Cs* have a ceramic matri such as alumina
calcium alumino silicate reinforced by fibers such as carbon or silicon carbide.
What are the advanta#es o! ceramic matrix composites?
+dvantages of C<Cs include high strength, hardness, high service tem-
perature limits2 for ceramics, chemical inertness, and low density. #owever,
ceramics by themselves have low fracture toughness. Nnder tensile or impact
loading, they fail catastrophically. Deinforcing ceramics with fibers, such as
silicon carbide or carbon, increases their fracture toughness %!able &.&-*
because it causes gradual failure of the composite. !his combination of a fiber
and ceramic matri makes C<Cs more attractive for applications in which
high mechanical properties and etreme service temperatures are desired.
What are the t"pica mechanica properties o! some ceramic matrix com&
posites? Compare them $ith metas.
!ypical mechanical properties of ceramic matri composites are given in !able
&.&/.
9ho$ one process o! ho$ ceramic matrix composites are manu!actured.
7ne of the most common methods to manufacture ceramic matri com-
posites is called the hot pressing method.
-,
Olass fibers in continuous tow are
passed through slurry consisting of powdered matri material, solvent such as
alcohol, and an organic binder %>igure &./&*. !he tow is then wound on a
drum and dried to form prepreg tapes. /he prepreg tapes can now be stacked
to make a re3uired laminate. #eating at about ./-@> %'((@C* burns out the
binder. #ot pressing at high temperatures in ecess of &,/-@> %&(((@C* and
Current service temperatures limits are 0'(@> %C((@C* for polymers, &,((@> %&(((=
&
C* for metals
and their alloys, and -0((@> %&'((@C* for ceramics.
pressures of & to - ksi %0 to &C <Pa* follows this.
+3
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second dition 1A
/(=>E 1.18
!ypical <echanical Properties of "ome Ceramic <atri Composites
,r ope r t " @ni t s 9i C0 >(9 9i C0 C(9 9t e e ( umi num
S#stem of units% $SCS
9peci!ic #ravit" ;oun#<s
moduus @timate
tensie stren#th
Coe!!icient o! therma
expansion
A.1 A.5 7.B A.3
?si 18 17.55 84.4 14.4
%si 7A 5B.4 F+.4 8+.4
Itindin.0/ A A.5 3.5 1A.B
S#stem of units% SI
9peci!ic #ravit" A.1 A.5 7.B A.3
;oun#<s moduus G,a BF.38 1A1 A43.B 3B.F5
@timate tensie stren#th ?,a +F3.+ +44 3+B.1 A8+.+
Coe!!icient o! therma pm0m01C 8.3 +8 11.7 A8
expansion
What are the appications o! ceramic matrix composites?
Ceramic matri composites are finding increased application in high-tem-
perature areas in which metal and polymer matri composites cannot be used.
!his is not to say that C<Cs are not attractive otherwise, especially considering
their high strength and modulus, and low density. !ypical applications include
cutting tool inserts in oidi6ing and high-temperature environments. !etron
"ystems Corporation
;
has developed fiber-reinforced ceramics with "C"!<
monofilaments for future aircraft engines %>igure &./-*.
1. A. + Carbon-Carbon Composites
What are carbon-carbon composites?
Carbon-carbon composites use carbon fibers in a carbon matri. !hese
composites are used in very high-temperature environments of up to ?(((@>
%//&'@C*, and are -( times stronger and /(E lighter than graphite fibers.
-.
What are the advantages o! carbon&carbon composites?
Carbon is brittle and flaw sensitive like ceramics. Deinforcement of a
carbon matri allows the composite to fail gradually and also gives advan-
tages such as ability to withstand high temperatures, low creep at high
temperatures, low density, good tensile and compressive strengths, high
fatigue resistance, high thermal conductivity, and high coefficient of friction.
Drawbacks include high cost, low shear strength, and susceptibility to oi -
dations at high temperatures. !ypical properties of carbon-carbon composites
are given in !able &.&C.
intr#iuction to Composite Materials C0
Olass slurry tank
FIGURE 1.31
"chematic of slurry infiltration process for ceramic matri composites. %>rom Chawla,
Science and Business Media front Ceramics Matrix Composites, :luwer +cademic
Publishers, Aondon, &../, >igure C.&, p. &-,. Deproduced with permission of "pringer-
Lerlag.*
Give a t"pica method o! processin# a carbon&carbon composite.
( t"pica method !or manu!acturin# carbon&carbon composites is caed
o$&pressure carboniGation
AF
and is sho$n in 2i#ure 1.88. ( #raphite coth is
ta%en) impre#nated b" resin 5such as phenoic) pitch) and !ur!ur" ester6)
and aid up in a"ers. It is aid in a mod) cured) and trimmed. /he part is
then p"roiGed) convertin# the phenoic resin to #raphite. /he composite is
then impre#nated b" !ur!ur" acoho. /he process drives o!! the resin and
an" voaties. /he process is repeated three or !our times unti the eve o!
porosit" is reduced to an acceptabe eve. Each time) this process increases
Olass impregnated
fiber tape
>ibers
#ot pressing
,((-.-'@C
>iber9glass composite
M
.Mi
L
j
M AIlli
ar
i
'11 I
I
"tack of glass impregnated
fiber tapes
1 EMI
l/inder burnout
'((@C
IG@EE 1.8A
Ceramic matri composites for high temperature and oidation resistant application. %Ph
courtesy of "pecialty <aterials, Inc., httpI99www.specmaterials.com
.*
7to
/(=>E 1.1+
!ypical <echanical Properties of Carbon4Carbon <atri Composites
Property @nits CCC 9tee (uminum
its moduus and stren#th. =ecause carbon&carbon composites oxidiGe at
temperatures as o$ as B+A12 5+541C6) an outer a"er o! siicon carbide ma" be deposited.
3

What are the appications o! carbon&carbon composites?


/he main uses o! carbon&carbon composites are the !oo$in#:
ditio
h
Mechanics of Composite Materials
,
Second
T
S#stem of units% $SCS
S#stem of smuts% SI
Specific gra"it#
&.?, '.; -.?
Young=s modulus OPa &/.' -(?., ?,..'
Nltimate strength
<Pa /'.0 ?C,.& -/C.C
Coefficient of thermal epansion
+m 9m9@C -.( &&.0
-/
Specific gravity 4 &.?, 0., -.?
Young=s modulus <si &..' /( &(
Nltimate tensile strength ksi '.&,( .C C(
Coefficient of thermal epansion +in.9in.9@> &.&& ?.' &-.,
it!!duction to Composite Materials
Processing carbon9carbon composites
"tep &
"tep -
"tandard Aay-up
Or9phenolic
prepreg
4W and
cure
--OP
Pyrolysis
D
es
in
impre
gnatio
n
"t e
p /
FIGURE 1.33
"chematic of processing carbon-carbon
composites. %Deprinted with permission
from :lein, +.K., Ad". Mater. Processes, ?C-
?,, Qovember &.,?, +"< International*
Space shuttle nose cones%
+s the shuttle enters
$arth=s atmosphere,
temperatures as high as
/(.-@> %&0((@C* are
eperienced. Carbon4
carbon composite is a
material of choice for the
nose cone because it has
the lowest overall weight
of all ablative2 materials;
high thermal conductivity
to prevent surface
cracking; high specific
heatX to absorb large heat
flu; and high thermal
shock resistance to low
temperatures in space of
4-/,@> %-&'(@C* to
/(.-@> %&0((@C* due to
re-entry. +lso, the carbon
C.
"tep C
"tep '
" ealingY
Coating
+fter / impregnations
1
+blative materials absorb heat through pyrolysis at or near the eposed surfaces. t "pecific
heat is the amount of heat re3uired to heat a unit mass of a substance through a unit
temperature.
4carbon nose remains
undamaged and can be
reused many times.
Aircraft bra9es% !he carbon
4carbon brakes shown in
>igure &./C cost HCC(9lb
%H.0(9kg*, which is
several times more than
their metallic counterpart;
however, the high
durability %two to four
times that of steel*, high
specific heat %-.' times
that of steel*, low braking
distances and braking
times %three-3uarters that
of berylium*, and large
weight savings of up to
..( lb %C'( kg* on a
commercial aircraft such
as +irbus +/((-)-: and
+/((-)C are attractive.
-.
+s mentioned earlier, & lb
%(.C'/ kg* weight savings
on a full-service
commercial aircraft can
translate to fuel savings of
about /?( gal9year %&/?(
A9 year*. 7ther advantages
include reduced inventory
due to longer
endurance of carbon
brakes.
Mechanical fasteners%
>asteners needed for high
temperature applications
are made of carbon4
carbon composites
because they lose little
strength at high
temperatures.
FIGURE 1.34
"ectioned carbon-carbon brake from +irbus +/-(. %>rom "avage, O., Science and -usiness Medta
from Carbon)Carbon Composites, 1lu&er +cademic Publishers, Aondon, &../, >igure ..-, p. //.
Deproduced with kind permission of "pringer-Lerlag.*
1. 8 Eec"c i n# 2i ber&Eei n!orced Composi tes
8hat types of processes are used !or rec"cin# o! composites?
!he two main processes are called chemical and mechanical processes. 8hy is
rec#cling of composites compleJ
!his is because of the many variables in material types 4 thermoset vs.
thermoplastics, long vs. short fibers, glass vs. carbon, etc.
Bhat are the various steps in mechanica rec"cin# o! short !iber&rein!orced
composites?
!hese are shredding, separation, washing, grinding, drying, and etrusion. 8here are
mechanica" rec"ced short&!iber composites used?
!he recycled material is available in powder or fiber form. Powder form is reused as
paste for sheet-molding compounds, and the fiber form is used for reinforcement in
bulk- molding compounds. 7ne cannot use too much of these as replacements
because the impact resistance and electrical properties degrade after about -(E
content. Products from recycled plastics are limited
to fences and benches.
ri
'( Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second d.
Introduction to Composite Materials
Why
is chemical recycling not as popular as
mechanical recycling?
.hemical processing is ver costl. /rocesses such as
prolsis (decom
pos
i
n
g materials in an o%gen,free
atmosphere! produce man gases, and hdrogenation
gives high fller content. 0owever, 1eneral 2otors has
adapted prolsis to reccle composite automobile parts.
1ases and oils are
reco
vered, and the residues are used as
fllers in concrete and roof shingles.
3ne o
ther problem is the chlorine content. The scrap
needs to be dehalogenated after separation, especiall if
carbon fbers were used as reinforcement. 1lass fbers in
reccled composites also pose the problem of low
compressive strength of the new material.
What can one do if the diferent types of composites
cannot be separated?
4ncineration or use as fuel ma be the onl solution
because metals, thermosets, and thermoplastics ma be
mi%ed, and the ma be soiled with to%ic materials. The
fuel value* of polmer matri% composites is around 5+++
6T7&lb (**,8-- 9:&9g!. This is about half the value for
coal.
Which chemical process shows the most promise?
4ncineration o;ers the most promise. 4ts advantages
include minimal cost, high,volume reduction, and no
residual material. It is also feasible for low scrap volume.
1. !echanics "erminology
#ow is a composite structure analy$ed mechanically?
< composite material consists of two or more
constituents' thus, the analsis and design of such
materials is di;erent from that for conventional materials
such as metals. The approach to anal=e the mechanical
behavior of composite structures is as follows ($igure
*.>5!.
4. $ind the average properties of a composite pl from
the individual properties of the constituents.
5*
/roperties include sti;ness, strength, thermal, and
moisture e%pansion coe;icients. ?ote that average
properties are derived b considering the pl to be
homogeneous. <t this level, one can optimi=e for
the sti;ness and strength re@uirements of a lamina.
This is called the micromechanics of a lamina.
*$uel value is the heat transferred when the products of complete
combustion of a fuel are
cooled to the initial temperature of air and fuel. 7nits of fuel value are
6tu&lbm and &9g. Tpical
fuel value for lignite coal is A+++ 6tu&lbm.
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second diti
on
>i ber
<at r i
<icromechanics of a
lamina %chapter /*
<a c r o me c h a n i c s o f a l a mi n a % c h a p t e r
- * i
<a c r o me c h a n i c s o f a l a mi n a t e % c h a p t e r
C * &
FIGURE 1.35
"chematic of analysis of laminated composites.
A. .eveop the stressCstrain reationships !or a
unidirectiona0bidirectiona amina. >oads ma" be
appied aon# the principa directions o! s"mmetr" o!
the amina or o!!&axis. (so) one deveops reationships
!or sti!!ness) therma and moisture expansion
coe!!icients) and stren#ths o! an#e pies. 2aiure
theories o! a amina are based on stresses in the amina
and stren#th properties o! a amina. /his is caed the
macromechanics o! a amina.
( structure made o! composite materias is #enera" a
aminate structure made o! various aminas stac%ed on each
other. *no$in# the macromechanics o! a sin#e amina) one
5A
+nalysis and design of laminated
structures %chapter '*
"tructural element
deveops the macromechanics o! a aminate. 9ti!!ness)
stren#ths) and therma and moisture expansion coe!!icients can
be
Introduction to Composite Materials
found for the whole laminate. Aaminate failure is based on stresses and
application of failure theories to each ply. !his knowledge of analysis of
a
o
F
mposites can then eventually form the basis for the mechanical design of
structures made of composites.
several terms are defined to develop the fundamentals of the mechanical
behavior of composites. !hese include the following.
What is an isotropic bod"?
+n isotropic material has properties that are the same in all directions. >or
ea
mple, the Young=s modulus of steel is the same in all directions.
What is a homo#eneous bod"?
+ homogeneous body has properties that are the same at all points in the
body. + steel rod is an eample of a homogeneous body. #owever, if one
heats this rod at one end, the temperature at various points on the rod would
be different. )ecause Young=s modulus of steel varies with temperature, one
no longer has a homogeneous body. !he body is still isotropic because the
properties at a particular point are still identical in all directions.
(re composite materias isotropic and0or homo#eneous?
<ost composite materials are neither isotropic nor homogeneous. >or
eample, consider epoy reinforced with long glass fibers. If one chooses a
location on the glass fiber, the properties are different from a location on
the epoy matri. !his makes the composite material nonhomogeneous %not
homogeneous*. +lso, the stiffness in the direction parallel to the fibers is
higher than in the direction perpendicular to the fibers and thus the prop-
erties are not independent of the direction. !his makes the composite mate-
rial anisotropic %not isotropic*.
What is an anisotropic materia?
+t a point in an anisotropic material, material properties are different in all
directions.
What is a nonhomo#eneous bod"?
+ nonhomogeneous or inhomogeneous body has material properties that are a
function of the position on the body.
What is a amina?
+ lamina %also called a ply or layer* is a single flat layer of unidirectional
fibers or woven fibers arranged in a matri.
What is a aminate?
.+ laminate is a stack of plies of composites. $ach layer can be laid at various
orientations and can be made up of different material systems.
'/
'C Mechanics of Composite Materials, Second ditioh
What is a h"brid aminate?
#ybrid composites contain more than one fiber or one matri system i
n a

laminate. !he main four types of hybrid laminates follow.
Interpl# h#brid laminates contain plies made of t&o or more different
composite systems. $amples include car bumpers made of glass9
epoy layers to provide torsional rigidity and graphite9epoy to give
stiffness. !he combinations also lo&er the cost of the bumper.
Intrapl# h#brid composites consist of two or more different fibers used in
the same ply. $amples include golf clubs that use graphite and aramid
fibers. Oraphite fibers pro"ide the torsional rigidity and the aramid
fibers pro"ide tensile strength and toughness.
+n interpl#)intrapl# h#brid consists of plies that ha"e two or more
different fibers in the same ply and distinct composite systems in
more than one pl#.
=esin h#brid laminates combine two or more resins instead of com)
bining two or more fibers in a laminate. 0enerall#, one resin is
fleible and the other one is rigid. !ests have pro"en that these resin
hybrid laminates can increase shear and work of fracture properties
b# more than '(E o"er those of all-fleible or all-rigid resins.
/&
1. 5 9ummar"
!his chapter introduced ad"anced composite materials and enumerated the
advantages and drawbacks of composite materials over monolithic materi -
als. 3iber and matri factors &ere discussed to understand their influence
on mechanical properties of the composites. !he classification of the com-
posites based on the matri materials 4 pol#mer, metal, and ceramics was
discussed. In addition, carbon-carbon composites &ere also eamined. !he
manufacturing and mechanical properties and application of composites
&ere described. Discussion also co"ered the rec#cling of composite
materials as well as the terminology used in studying the mechanics of
composite materials.
*e" /erms
Composite
+dvanced composite materials
"pecific modulus
"pecific strength

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