Nautical KnowledgeRope, Wire and Chain 1

DEC, 2002
Contents
Section 1Cable Rope, Wire and Chain 3
Ropes 3
Natural fibre ropes 4
Synthetic fibre ropes 4
Steel-wire rope (SWR) 5
How ropes are made 7
How SWR is made 10
Care and maintenance Of fibre ropes and SWR 14
Inspection of natural and synthetic fibre ropes 15
Safety when using fibre rope 16
Care and maintenance of SWR 20
Inspection of SWR 21
Chain 23


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Section 1Cable Rope, Wire and
Chain
Ropes
Ropes can be made of natural (vegetable) fibres such as Hemp, Sisal,
Manilla, Coir, and Cotton, or manufactured (synthetic) fibres such as Nylon,
Terylene or Dacron, Polypropylene, Polyethylene, and Kevlar.
The smallest component of rope making is the fibre.
In the case of natural and polyethylene (silver) cordage the fibres are short in
length (staple) as compared to the majority of synthetic fibres, which are
continuous (monofilament).
The process of ropemaking consists of spinning fibres to form a yarn.
The yarns are twisted to form a strand and then laid up to form cordage.
To prevent the rope unlaying, the strands are laid up in the opposite
direction to the yarns. For example, if the strands are laid up right handed
during manufacture, then the yarns in the strands will be laid left handed,
and the fibres would be right handed.

Figure 1

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To identify whether a rope is left or right hand lay, lead the rope through
the palm of your right hand and look at the strands. If they are pointing up
towards your right thumb, it is a right hand lay. Figure 1 illustrates a right
hand laid line.
Ropes are made with their use in mind. Natural fibre ropes, synthetic ropes
and wire ropes are the most common types of ropes encountered in the
marine environment.
Natural fibre ropes most commonly used today are sisal and manila.
They are made from short fibres.
Synthetic ropes are made up of manufactured strands. The most common
types of synthetic ropes are polypropylene, polyester and nylon.
The term rope is used for both Fibre and Wire ropes. The term cordage is
used to denote fibre ropes only.
Natural fibre ropes
They all have different characteristics when it comes to strength, elasticity
and durability in the marine environment. Made of short fibres they are used
where safety is important. For example, because of its coarseness manila is
used for making rope ladders. On the other hand, because it absorbs water
and moisture, manila rope tends to swell, making it impractical for static
lines such as lashings.
Synthetic fibre ropes
They comprise mainly polypropylene, polyester, nylon and silver rope.
Other types also used are Kevlar and Spectra. Synthetic fibre ropes are
manufactured with specific uses in mind. The table below shows the
properties of various types of synthetic ropes commonly in use.

Name Appearance Properties Cost Comments
Polypropylene Glossy and
plasticky,
normally
manufactured in
bright colours
Floats
Stretches moderately
Vulnerable to the ultra-violet
(UV) light in sunlight
Fairly cheap
Silver rope White, hairy, three-
strand
Floats when new
Better UV resistance than
polypropylene
Cheap Probably the most
commonly used
rope on the
harbour for
general use.

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Nylon White, soft and
smooth
High elasticity (stretches,
and then goes back once
load is off)
Good UV resistance
Does not float at all
Ideal anchor rope
because it sinks
and stretches.
Polyester Very close in
appear-ance to
nylon (so close that
manufacturers put
in one coloured
flake to differentiate
it from nylon)
Low stretch
Good resistance to UV
Costs
slightly more
than nylon.

Kevlar and
spectra
Braided with very
bright-coloured
polyester cover
High strength
Little or no stretch
Costly Used mostly on
racing yachts


Practical Activity
See what types of ropes are used on your boat and list their properties. Are
the most appropriate ropes being used?
Steel-wire rope (SWR)
The two most commonly used steel-wire ropes on the market are galvanised
steel and stainless steel.
Galvanising is a zinc coating applied to the steel wire. The steel is
galvanised to protect it from corrosion. So if the wire is to be used in a
highly abrasive situation, you should not choose galvanised wire.
Stainless steel wire ropes are usually 304 or 316 grade. Ask your
trainer/mentor to show you some samples.

Figure 2

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Wire ropes are monofilament and are comprised mostly of six strands. The
wires are laid left-handed to form strands which are laid right handed around
a heart or core of either jute, hemp, polypropylene or sometimes another
steel wire strand. The heart allows for a better lubrication of the wire and the
natural fibre heart increases its flexibility.
Flexibility is further increased by an increasing number of wires making up
the strands. A wire core increases the wire ropes strength but reduces its
flexibility. That type of wire is used mainly in standing rigging.
So based on the above, flexibility in SWR can be introduced by building the
strands around a fibre heart, and the wire in each round a fibre core, or by
building the strands around a fibre heart and increasing the number of wires
in each strand while reducing their individual thickness.
Other types of rope
Ropemaking is essentially a series of twisting operations. These opposing
twists make the rope balanced.
Braided rope normally comes with a core and a cover. Most of the strength
of the rope is the core, while the cover is mostly to provide better friction
and protect the core from abrasion and weather.

Figure 3 (a): Braided rope with braided core and heart of parallel strands

Figure 3 (b): Braided rope with hollow braided core

Figure 3 (c): Braided rope with a multiplicity of three-strand rope core members

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Plaited rope is a rope for average use, cheaper than double-braid, yet easier
to handle than hawser-laid.

Figure 3 (d): Plaited rope
So we can have three-strand rope, plaited rope and double-braid rope made
of different materials. Not all combinations are available on the market.
How ropes are made
We have seen earlier the various types of natural and synthetic ropes used
in the marine industry. We are now going to look more closely at their
construction.
Types of construction (Lay)
Hawser laid

Figure 4: Hawser laid
This is the most common type, three strands laid up right handed, available
in sizes 3 mm diameter upwards.

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Shroud laid

Figure 5: Shroud Laid
This is less common nowadays, four strands laid up right handed over a
central heart. It is 11 per cent weaker than equivalent sizes in three strand.
Cable laid

Figure 6: Cable laid
This consists of three-by-three stranded right hand ropes laid up left handed.
Very elastic and may be used as a spring for towing.
Braided cords

Figure 7: Braided Cord

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Solid braided cords are constructed from either 12 or 18 strands, braided
together, normally over a central core. Available in sizes 3 mm to 12 mm
diameter.
Other forms of braided cordage include, plaited and double braided.
Square rope

Figure 8: Square rope
This is the plaiting of four left hand and four right hand strands, resulting
in a tough, kink resistant rope providing increased flexibility wet or dry.
Sizes 16 mm and upwards, towing and mooring lines.
Stiffness
Stiffness refers to the ease of working the rope. The levels are soft, medium
and hard lay.
A full description of rope includes the following:
size (diameter)
type of fibre
construction
lay
stiffness.

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How SWR is made
The chief component parts of a stranded wire rope are shown in the
illustration (see Figure 9 below).

Figure 9
Properties of Steel Wire Rope
Size
Construction
Type of Core
Lay
Flexibility.
Construction
This identifies the make up of a rope and shows the number of strands in the
wire, then the number of wires in the strand.

Figure 10
Figure 10 shows a 6/7 Flexible Steel Wire Rope (FSWR) (the 7 representing
6 over 1), ie, six strands of seven wires each.

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Size
Ropes are referred to by diameter. The way to measure is shown below in
Figure 11.

Figure 11
The core or heart
As previously stated the two types of core are natural or synthetic fibre or
wire with its purpose being to act as a lubrication sponge. It also provides
support for strands enabling the rope to keep its shape.
Fibre cores provide a resilient foundation for the strands and are used for
ropes not subject to heavy loading, and where flexibility is required.
They are inadequate where the SWR is subjected to heavy loading,
prolonged outdoor exposure, and crushing on small drums and sheaves.
Synthetic fibre cores differ to natural fibre cores in that they do not rot and
are more flexible than wire cores.

Figure 12

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Wire strand cores are used chiefly for standing ropes (guys or rigging).
They offer high tensile strength, and have a greater resistance to corrosion
failure due to larger wires in the core.

Figure 13
Steel wire ropes are conventionally produced with right hand lay unless
special circumstances require left hand. This is referred to as Right Hand
Ordinary Lay (RHOL) or Regular Lay. With RHOL the wires are laid left
handed and the strands laid right handed.
Another method of construction is Lang Lay where the strands are laid up
in the same direction as that in which their constituent wires are twisted,
ie both wires and strands Right Handed or both Left Handed.
Langs lay makes for a more flexible rope and wears well when used for
hoisting, due to wear being spread over a larger area of wire. It can only be
used when both ends are anchored and prevented from rotating, (eg crane
topping lifts), because it is liable to unlay when under stress if one end is
free to rotate. However it is not as easy to handle as ordinary lay.

Figure 14

Figure 15: Right Hand Langs Lay

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In non rotating wire rope the outer strands may look like Langs Lay, but all
the wires and strands are very much smaller in size. The inner strands are
arranged so that any tendency for the rope to rotate under load is reduced to
a minimum. It is very flexible and well suited to crane whips (runners).

Figure 16: Non Rotating Wire rope
Any of the above lays may be pre-formed or non pre-formed. During the
manufacture of pre-formed wire rope, the wires and strands are given the
exact spiral form they take up in the finished rope. They lie naturally in
position, free form internal stress, and will not spring out of place like
ordinary SWR, where the wires are held forcibly in position.
Naming protocol for wire rope
Wire rope is named by its size and construction. You start with the:
length of rope, then
diameter in mm, then
the number of strands, then
the number of wires in each of those strands.
For example, 2 m of 12 mm 7x19 stainless steel:
7x19 means seven strands each with 19 wires. Wire is laid in six strands,
so the seventh strand is the core (middle).
Seven-strand wire means that the core is steel also. However, with 6x24
we still have six strands and a core, but the core will be a natural or
synthetic fibre.
As stated the main reason for a fibre core is more flexibility, but it will also
often be greased or tarred to lubricate the steel and help prevent corrosion.
Of course, stainless steel rope does not require this.
Therefore:
a non-flexible wire would be 1x19 (1 strand with 19 wires)
a semi-flexible wire would be 7x7 strands with one steel core with
each carrying seven wires
flexible wire could range from 7x19 to 6x36.

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A full description includes the following details.
(a) Rope diameter (mm).
(b) Number of strands x the number of wires per strand.
(c) Direction of layR.H. or L.H.
(d) Type of layO.L/L.L/N.R.
(e) Pre-formed or non pre-formed.
(f) Type of core.
(g) Galvanised.
For example:
20 mm Diameter 6x24 Rope
Construction
(15/9/F)
Strand
Construction
R.H.O.L Direction
and Type
Pre-formed,
Galvanised
FSWR with
Fibre core


Practical Activity
Identify some of the ropes you have on board a vessel you crew on. See their
construction and make a note of their use together with their descriptions.
Care and maintenance Of fibre ropes
and SWR
Without proper care, fibre rope and SWR will weaken. Correct storage and
handling are essential to keep all ropes in a good state and ready for use.
Lets examine ways to avoid damage and breakdown.
Fibre rope should be kept dry in a well-ventilated space where it will not be
affected by varying temperatures. It should be coiled on gratings (which
allow for ventilation and drying out). Natural fibre line will rot if stored wet.
Synthetic-fibre ropes are resistant to rot so they can be stowed for long
periods without deterioration and may be stowed wet.
Chafing and uneven wear will damage the rope and thus should be avoided.
Fibre rope is most commonly damaged through bad leads over sharp edges,
and through chafing.
Ropes should always be whipped or spliced at their ends to prevent
unravelling. Before cutting a rope, whippings should be made on both sides
of the cut. Never use a wire rope stopper on a fibre rope.

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If a rope has been used in mud, sand or grit, it should be cleaned thoroughly
before being stored. To wash rope, hang it up in loose coils or flake it out on
the deck and hose with fresh water.
All fibre line must be protected from chemicals and excessive heat, which
will melt synthetic ropes and make natural ropes dry and brittle. Excessive
heat can be generated by friction on a winch drum or any rubbing against a
hard surface.
Inspection of natural and synthetic fibre
ropes
All rope is subject to deterioration and wear and tear. The user should be
able to differentiate between normal wear and tear and deterioration that
prevents the use of any rope.
As discussed the factors that cause deterioration are:
improper maintenance
improper stowage
ropes subjected to abnormal loads
friction and chafing
improper usage.
Ropes should be frequently inspected for damage. External examination of
the rope may reveal broken strands, distorted strands or unusual wear and
tear. These can be caused by excessive friction over drums, bollards and
fairleads.
The signs of external damage to natural fibre rope are:
abrasion
cuts
soft spots and general softness
discolouration
bleaching
parting of outer fibres
burns.
The signs of internal damage to natural fibre rope are:
dry rot and mildew
any change in colour of fibre strands

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broken fibres
flattened fibres
powdered fibres
broken central core.
Safety when using fibre rope
Dont overload: The load applied should never exceed the minimum
Breaking Force or in the case of lifting equipment the Safe Working
Load (SWL)see later section.
Avoid shock loads: Sudden strain can part ropes that would normally
be capable of supporting the same loads under steady pulling
conditions.
Avoid kinks: Never load a kinked rope or pull it through a block.
Avoid knotting: For the purpose of forming an eye this will reduce its
strength by 50 per cent. Eye splices are preferable.
Avoid sharp angles and bends: Chafe and wear account for most rope
failure. Never use a smaller sheave than is recommended for the size
of rope you are using.
Do not drag ropes: Do not drag over sharp, rough or dirty surfaces,
as abrasives can penetrate the rope and damage the fibres.
Listen to the rope: Natural fibre ropes tend to give a warning when
they are reaching breaking point by making a creaking sound.
Synthetic fibre ropes reduce dramatically in diameter and most do not
make a sound before breaking. Due to their elasticity they have whip
effect and it is essential that all personnel are working clear of the
rope.
Never stand in the bight of a rope: You should also avoid standing
inside a loop, on a line, or in line with a rope under load (you could
be cut in half when it recoils after snapping). See Figure 17 on the
next page.
End for end: Equalise wear over the entire length by reversing the
rope where possible or cutting off ends to move wear points.

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Figure 17: Unsafe practices

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Uncoiling new cordage
Below rope of 48 mm diameter the rope can be taken directly from inside
the coil. This will maintain its protective wrapping. With right handed rope
the coil should be stood on the end which will allow the rope to be taken off
left handed from the inside (see Figure18 below).

Figure 18: Uncoiling rope
Uncoiling the rope in the wrong direction will insert twist and increase the
danger of kinking.
The preferred method, particularly for larger diameter line is unreeling the
coil using a turntable whereby the reel rotates as the rope or wire is
uncoiled.
Coiling down
Always coil ropes in the direction of their lay. Right hand rope should be
coiled clockwise and left hand laid rope anti-clockwise.
When coiling down a rope the end should be kept free to allow the uncoiled
length to rotate thus working out any kinks.
One method of avoiding these turns should the end not be free, is to turn
the coil round while coiling down the rope, thus turning the coil into a reel.
Another method is to allow as long a length as possible between reel and
coil. This length will absorb any turn until the end is free from the reel.
Once coiled lines should not be allowed to line on the deck. Coiled lines that
have to be left on the deck, such as large mooring or throwing lines must be
raised off the deck during a deck wash. Failure to do this will result in debris
(such as small pieces of glass) and grit becoming imbedded in the rope.
This may cause injury to crew and will certainly damage the line.

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Figure 19: Hanging a large coil on a cleat
To avoid problems in paying out a rope, it should be FLAKED down.
This avoids it becoming tangled or kinked.

Figure 20
A fancy way to finish a rope is with a Flemish Coil. It should only be used
for tidiness and never when required to render quickly through a block
(see Figure 21). Line that has been Flemish Coiled may kink.


Figure 21
Whipping
Before cutting the desired length of rope, whippings should be applied close
to each side of the intended cut. Failure to observe this precaution can cause
excessive unlaying of the rope.

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The four main types of whipping used are: Common, American, West
Country and Sailmakers. Common is the quickest to apply while Sailmakers
is the most durable.

Figure 22: Common whipping
Care and maintenance of SWR
Wire ropes can be permanently damaged by kinks and nips. For this reason
wire ropes need to be cared for at all times. Removing the kinks and
avoiding sharp bends will help reduce that risk of damage.
Using a smaller sheave than what is required for the wire will cause the
wire rope to cripple. Wires also become crippled if bad leads are used.
Remember that any damage to the wire rope will greatly reduce its strength.
Crossing of wires on a winch drum will also cause damage such as crushing
and flattening.
Uncoiling a wire rope can also be a source of potential damage. This was
dealt with early.
Care should be taken when stowing a wire. It should be greased and kept
away from sources of moisture in a well-ventilated space. No chemicals
should be kept adjacent to the wire ropes.
The greasing of wire ropes is probably one of the most important tasks
when it comes to preserving the wire rope. There are several types of wire
lubricants on the market. Linseed oil and fish oil are also used to achieve
the same result.
The wire should first of all be cleaned with a wire brush to remove any dried
grease lodged between the strands. Then a fresh coat of grease or oil should
be applied to the wire.

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Do not use any chemical to remove the old grease. Use a cloth or gloves to
apply the fresh grease on a coiled wire. Do not attempt to use this same
method if greasing a moving wire being winched on a drum. Broken wires
can also cause injury.
The aim is to lubricate the wire rope both internally and externally without
any injury to anyone.
Inspection of SWR
Regular visual inspections will help detect any unusual wear and tear and
damages.
Inspecting around terminal ends, splices and thimbles cannot be stressed
too highly.
Marine Order 32 states that a wire rope must be replaced if more than
five per cent of the visible wires along a length equal to 10 times the
rope diameter are actually broken.
When checking wire ropes, look for:
Corrosion: Lack of lubricant is a frequent cause of corrosion.
The rope may have either not been lubricated enough or the lubricants
have been removed by exposing the wire to products such as strong
detergent or acids. Any sign of corrosion or rust indicates that a
thorough examination of the wire is necessary. Open up the strands
of wire to inspect the core. A dry powdery core is a sign that the
wire has not been properly maintained and lacks lubricant.
Distortion: Is mainly caused by bad handling or the wrong equipment.
Distortion affects the working load of wires and when it happens it
cannot be repaired. The rope should be replaced.
Breakage: The rope breaks if any of the small wires are broken. If you
think the breaks may have been caused by corrosion, you can expect
the rest of the wires to follow close behind these wires should have
been replaced earlier. In the case of a rig, which involves more than
one length of wire, if you suspect that all the other wires are the same
age, then all those wires should be replaced (particularly with the
stainless steel wires). If the breaks have occurred for any other
reasons, a safe general allowance is to replace the wire when the
amount of broken wire represents 10 per cent of all wires in the length
of eight times the diameter of the rope. Any broken wire below a
fitting is a sign of fatigue, and the fitting, at least, should be replaced.

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Figure 23: Wires broken near fittings


Figure 24: Reduction in diameter
Handling steel-wire rope
Any loop or turn can easily be pulled into a kink, which permanently
damages it. Because it is less flexible, wire rope requires more care in
handling than cordage. Bending it sharply and laying it over sharp edges will
seriously damage the wire by distorting its strands.
Chafing appears as a narrow band of heavy wear. Avoid unnecessary
chafing by either protecting the parts concerned or by changing the lead
of the rope.
Choose the right construction to match the flexibility needed and use the
right equipment (blocks, sheaves etc) designed for each size of wire.
The radius of the groove on a sheave should be between five and 10 per cent
greater than the radius of the wire. The diameter of the sheave should be at
least 20 times the diameter of the six-strand wire rope.

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Figure 25: Correct groove
Chain
Chains are suited for use as slings, lashings, preventers etc., as they
withstand corrosion and abrasion better than steel wire ropes.
Chains are made of mild or special steel and are either short link, long link
or stud link. Those used for chain blocks are calibrated ie the link sides are
made parallel.
Chain identification depends on material composition. Welded chains,
if tested and marked in compliance with ISO are graded three upwards to
nine (higher the number, better the grade).
The grade numbers are usually stamped on the chain approximately.
Some manufacturers may use letters. Unmarked chains should be treated
as Grade 3 (mild steel).

Figure 26: ISO Chain markings (Grade 3 or L)

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Care and maintenance
Faults in chain are not easily seen and should be examined frequently for
wastage due to rust, missing studs or distorted links.
The following is a list of DONTS when using chain.
Do not:
cross, twist, knot or kink a chain
drag from under a load
use around sharp corners, without protective padding
use bolts or bull-dogs for joining or shortening
use if over 10 per cent wear in links
use if links are elongated AT ALL
use any chain for slinging unless it has the approved SWL tags.
Make up a sling assembly from separate components, unless you are sure
which components are the correct ones.
Wrought iron chain needs annealing because it is subject to surface
embrittlement, which deepens with time. If not annealed regularly it
becomes dangerous.
Inspection of chain
Regularly is every six months up to 12 mm diameter and every 14 months
above 14 mm diameter.
Chains of mild steel should be checked for the flexing or bending of links.
Damage to links where a chain has been used around sharp edges, causing
cuts or nicks, is a good reason for condemning.
High tensile and alloy chain have great ability to stretch under shock loads
and revert to normal size. If elongation is apparent while not under load,
it has been seriously overloaded and should be discarded.


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Check your progress
1 List the three main types of ropes used in the marine environment.
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2 Natural fibres have some advantages over the other types of ropes. List these
advantages.
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3 What are the most popular types of synthetic fibres that are currently in use in the
marine environment?
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4 Compare these with the natural fibres mentioned in question 2.
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5 Explain how is a wire rope described.
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6 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using wire rope in the marine industry?
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7 Explain how you would cut a piece of fibre rope from a coil.
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8 How would you lubricate a wire rope?
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9 Explain how you would secure a rope that will have to be released when under tension.
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10 You have to prepare a space to store some ropes. Explain how you would go about it.
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11 Describe how you would inspect a rope for internal and external damage.
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12 List six things that you must not do when using chains.
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13 How would you detect damage to chains?
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14 What precautions would you take when making a stopper?
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15 What are the factors that may cause deterioration of a natural fibre rope?
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16 How would you recognize signs of deterioration in a natural fibre rope?
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17 What are the factors that cause deterioration of a steel wire rope?
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18 How would you prevent a steel rope from deteriorating?
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19 A badly maintained synthetic rope can cause accidents. How would you care for these
types of ropes?
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20 What are the signs of deterioration in synthetic ropes?
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21 List the safety precautions you would take when using fibre ropes.
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22 List the safety precautions you would take when using wire ropes.
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23 What measures would you take to prevent a rope being overloaded?
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Check your answers with those given at the end of this learning resource.