1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistics.

The problem of stylistic

research
Units of language on different levels are studied by traditional
branches of linguistics as phonetics (that deals with speech sounds
and intonation), lexicology (treats the words, their meaning and
vocabulary structure), grammar (analysis forms of words), syntax
(analysis the function of words in a sentence).
These areas of study are more or less clear-cut. Some scholars
claim that stylistic is a comparatively new branch of linguistics, The
term stylistics really came into existence not too long ago.
Problems of stylistic research:
. the ob!ect and the matter under study" #ot only may each of
these linguistic units (sounds, words and clauses) be charged with a
certain stylistic meaning but the interaction of these elements, as well
as the structure and the composition of the whole text are stylistically
pertinent ($%&'()*+, ,-./-.012+).
3. The definition of style" 4ifferent scholars have defined style
differently at different times. 5n 677 the 8cademician 9.9.
9inogradov defined style as :socially determined and functionally
conditioned internally united totality of the ways of using, selecting
and combining the means of lingual intercourse in the sphere of one
national language or another;. 5n 6< =rof. 5.>. ?alperin offered his
definition of style as :is a system of co-ordinated, interrelated and
inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific
function of communication and aiming at a definite effect;.
8ccording to =rof. Screbnev :style is what differentiates a group of
homogeneous texts from all other groups@ Style can be roughly
defined as the peculiarity, the set of specific features of text type or
of a specific text;.
A. the number of functional styles" The authors of handbooBs on
different languages propose systems of styles based on a broad
subdivision of all styles into 3 classes C literary and colloDuial and
their varieties. These generally include from three to five functional
styles.
?alperinEs system of stylesF . Gelles-lettres style (poetry, emotive
prose, drama)" . =ublicist (oratory and speeches, essay, article)" A.
#ewspaper (brief news items, headlines, ads, editorial)" H. scientific
prose" 7. official documents.
8rnoldEs system of stylesF . =oetic" 3. Scientific" A. #ewspaper" H.
IolloDuial.
ScrebnevEs system of stylesF #umber of styles is infinite.
Stylistics is that branch of linguistics, which studies the principles,
and effect of choice and usage of different language elements in
rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of
communication. Therefore it is concerned with such issues asF
. The aesthetic function of language" 3. expressive means in
language (aim to effect the reader or listener)" A. synonymous ways
of rendering one and the same idea (with the change of wording a
change in meaning taBes place inevitably)" H. emotional colouring in
language" 7. a system of special devices called stylistic devices" J.
the splitting of the literary language into separate systems called
style" <. the interrelation between language and thought" K. the
individual manner of an author in maBing use of the language.
5tEs essential that we looB at the ob!ect of stylistic study in its
totality concerning all the above- mentioned problems.
2. Types of stylistic research (together with branches of
Stylistics)
Literary and linguistic stylistics
8ccording to the type of stylistic research we can distinguish
literary stylistics Lnd linguL-st$listi's. Mh&$ hLv& some meeting
points or linBs in that they have common ob!ects of research.
IonseDuently they have certain areas of 'ross-r&f&r&n'&. Goth study
the common ground ofF
. the literary language from the point of view of its variability"
3. the idiolect (individual speech) of L writer"
A. poetic speech that has its own specific laws.
The points of difference proceed from the different points of
analysis. Nhile lingua-stylistics studiesF
. Ounctional styles (in their development and current state).
3. The linguistic nature of the expressive means of the language,
their systematic character and their functions .
Piterary stylistics is focused -nF
. The composition of L worB of art"
3. 9arious literary genres"
A. Mh& writerQs outlooB.
Types of stylistic research:
. literary stylistics" 3. linguistic st." A. Iomparative st." H.
4ecoding st." 7. Ounctional st." J. Stylistic lexicology" <. Stylistic
grammar.
omparati!e stylistics
Iomparative st$listics is connected with the contrastive study of
more than one language. 5t analyses the stylistic resources not
inherent in L separate language but at the crossroads of two
languages, or two literLtur&s and is obviously linBed to the theory of
translation.
"ecoding stylistics
8 comparatively new branch of stylistics is the decoding stylistics,
which can be traced bacB to the worBs of P. 9. Shcherba, R. S. Parin,
T, >iffaterre, >. UacBobson and other scholars of the =rague
linguistic circle. S serious contribution into this branch of stylistic
study was also made b$ =rof. 5.V. 8rnold. Wach act of speech has the
performer, or sender of speech and the recipient. Mh& former does the
act of &n'-ding and the latter the act of decoding the information.
5f we analyse the text from the authorQs (encoding) point of view
we should consider the epoch, the historical situation, the personal
political, social and aesthetic views of the author.
Gut if we try to treat the same text from the readerQs angle of view
we shall have to disregard this, bacBground Bnowledge and get the
maximum information from the text itself (its vocabuary,
'-mX-sition, s&nt&n'& arrangement, &t'.) The first approach
manifests the prevalence of the literary analysis. Mh& second is based
almost exclusively -n the linguistic analysis. 4ecoding stylistics is an
attempt to harmoniously '-mbine the two meth-ds of stylistic
research and &nLb& the scholar to interpret L worB of art with L
minimum loss of its purport and message.
#unctional styllstics
Special mention, should b& made of functional stylistics which is L
branch of lingua-stylistics that investigates functional styles, that is
specia sublanguLg&s or varieties -f of the national language such as
scientific, colloDuial, business, publicist and so on.
Yowever mLn$ types of stylistics mL$ exist -r spring into
existence they will Lll consider the same source material for stylistic
analysis sounds, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts.
ThatQs why any Bind of stylistic research, will b& based -n the level-
forming branches that includeF
Stylistic le$icology
Stytystic Pexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and
the interrelation (or interplay) of the connotative and denotative
meanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic
connotations -f the word and the context.
Stylistic Phonetics (or Phonostylistics) is engaged in the study of
style-f-rming phonetic features of the text. 5t describes the Xros-dic
f&Ltures of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in different
types of speech (colloDuial or oratory or recital (.&Z[L%2X-\L)2&).
Stylistic grammar
Stylistic ]orphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of
specific grammatical, forms Lnd categories, such as the number of
the noun, or the peculiar use of tense forms of the verb, etc.
Stylistic Syntax is -n& of the oldest branches of stylistic studies
that grew -ut -f classical rhetoric. The mLterial in Du&sti-n lends
itself readily to analysis and description. Stylistic syntax has to do
with the expressive order of words, types of syntactic linBs
( asyndeton, polysyndeton), figures of speech (antithesis, chiasmus,
etc.). 5t also deals with bigger units from paragraph onwards.
%. &nterrelation of Stylistics with other linguistic branches
Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines
8s is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic
studies this science is very closely linBed to the linguistic disciplines
philology students are familiar withF phonetics, lexicology and
grammar due to the '-mm-n study source.
Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology.
This is L branch of linguistics whose area of study is L most
complicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. term
semantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbal
meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of
signs in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.
]eaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for that
matter to -n& level at all but correlLt&s with all of them - morphemes,
words, phrases -r texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of
r&s&Lr'h since prL'ti'ally all stylistic effects are based -n the
interplay between different Binds of m&Lning -n different levels.
Suffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meanings
attached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical,ogical,
denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
'nomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing
with the choice of words when naming or assessing some ob!ect or
Xh&n-m&n-n. 5n stylistic analysis we often have to do with L transfer
of nominal meaning in L text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy,
etc.)
The theory of fun'tionLl styles investigates the structure of the
national linguistic space - what constitutes the literary language, the
sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than -n'& already.
Piterary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary
studies su'h as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of
composition, etc.
4ecoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the
broad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trends
and even information theory.
(. Stylistic neutrality and stylistic coloring. "enotation and
connotation. &nherent and adherent connotation
Stylistic neutrality and stylistic colouring
SpeaBing of the notion of style and stylistic colouring we cannot
avoid the Xr-bl&m of the n-rm and neutrality and stylistic colouring
in contrast to it.
]ost scholars abroad and in this country giving definitions of
style '-m& to the conclusion that style mL$ b& defined as deviation
from from the lingual norm. 5t m&ans that what is stylistically
conspicuous, stylistically relevant or stylistically c-l-ur&d is L
departure from the norm of L given national language. (?. Peech, T.
>iffLt&rr&, ]. Yalliday, >. Uacobson and others)F
There are authors who ob!ect to the use of the word ^norm_ for
various reasons. Mhus V.T. SBrebnev argues that since we
acBnowledge the existence of L vLri&t$ of sublanguages within L
national language we should also acBnowledge that &L'h of them has
L norm of its own.
So, SBrebnev claims there are as mLn$ norms as there are
sublanguages. Wach language is sub!ect to its -wn norm. M- re!ect
this would mean admitting abnormality of everything that is not
neutral. `nly 8RI-booBs, and texts for foreigners would b&
considered ^normal_. Wverything that has style, eyerything that
demonstrates peculiarities of whatever Bind would b& considered
Lbn-rmLl, including worBs b$ 4icBens, Twain, `QYenry, ?alsworthy
and so -n.
Oor all its challenging and defiant character this argument seems to
contain L grain of truth and it does stand to reason that what we often
'Lll ^the norm_ in terms of stylistics would b& more appropriate to
call ^neutrality_.
Since style is the specificity of L sublanguage it is self-evident that
n-n-specific units of it do not participate in the formation of its style"
units belonging to all the sublanguages Lr& st$listicLll$ n&utral. Thus
we observe an -XX-sition of stylistically coloured specific elements
to stylistically neutral non-specific elements.
The styllstic colouring is nothing but the Bnowledge where, in
what particular type of communication, the unit in Duestion is
current.
=rofessor Yoward T. ]ims of Ileveland State Univ&rsit$ did an
accurate study of grammatical deviations found in 8merican Wnglish
that he terms vernacular (non-standard) variants. a& made a list of 3b
grammatical forms which he calls relatively '-mm-n and some of
them are so freDuent in every-day speech that $-u hardly register
them as deviations from the norm.
The ma!ority of the words are neutral. Stylistically coloured words
- booBish, solemn, poetic, official -r colloDuial, rustic, dialectal,
vulgar - have each L Bind of label on them showing where the unit
was :manufactured;, where it g&n&rally belongs.
Nithin the stylistically coloured words there 7 another opposition
b&twe&n f-rmal vocabulary and informal vocabulary.
These terms have mLn$ synonyms offered b$ different authors.
>-mLn Uacobson described this opposition as casual and non-casual,
other terminologies name them as booBish and colloDuial or formal
and informal, correct and '-mm-n.
5n surveying the units commonly called neutral 'Ln we assert that
they only denote without connotingc That is not completely true.
5f we taBe stylistically neutral words separately, we mL$ call them
neutral without doubt. Gut occasionally in L certain context, in L
sX&cific distribution one of many implicit meanings of L word we
normally consider neutral may prevail. Specific distribution may also
create unexpected additional colouring of L generally neutral word
such stylistic connotation is called occasional.
Stylistic connotations mL$ b& inherent or adherent. Stylistically
coloured words possess inherent stylistic connotations. Stylistically
neutral words will have -nl$ adherent (occasional) stylistic
connotations acDuired in L certain context.
Stylistic function notion
PiBe other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical,
grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language.
Yowever there is L distinctive difference between stylistics and the
other linguistic sub!ects. Stylistics does not study or describe separate
linguistic units liBe phonemes or words or clauses as such. 5t studies
their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive
potential -f these units and their interaction in L text.
Stylistics focuses -n the expressive properties of linguistic units,
their functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in
a '&rtLin text or communicative '-nt&xt.
Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the conte$tual
meaning of ) word and its denotati!e m*)nings.
8ccordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of
connotative meanings.
5n brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of L word roughly
consists of its grammatical meaning (n-un, verb, ad!ective) and its
l&xical meaning. P&xical meaning 'Ln further -n b& subdivided into
denotative (linBed to the logical or n-minLtive meaning) and
connotative meanings. Ionnotative meaning is only connected with
extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication
and the participants of communication. d-nn-tLtive meaning consists
of four componentsF
. emotive"
3. evaluative"
A. expressive"
H. stylistic.
Stylistics of Language and stylistics of Speech
Panguage C system of signs, that actually exists only in our minds,
abstract.
Speech C external use of the language for communication,
physical.
The stylistics of language analyses permanent or inherent
stylistic properties of language elements while the stylistics of
speech studies stylistic properties, which appear in a context, and
they are called adherent.
+. onnotati!e meaning types , components
Stylistic function notion
PiBe other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical,
grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language.
Yowever there is L distinctive difference between stylistics and the
other linguistic sub!ects. Stylistics does not study or describe separate
linguistic units liBe phonemes or words or clauses as such. 5t studies
their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive
potential -f these units and their interaction in L text.
Stylistics focuses -n the expressive properties of linguistic units,
their functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in
a '&rtLin text or communicative '-nt&xt.
Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextual
meaning of L word and its denotative m&Lnings.
8ccordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of
connotative meanings.
5n brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of L word roughly
consists of its grammatical meaning (n-un, verb, ad!ective) and its
l&xical meaning. P&xical meaning 'Ln further -n b& subdivided into
denotative (linBed to the logical or n-minLtive meaning) and
connotative meanings. Ionnotative meaning is only connected with
extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication
and the participants of communication. -.nn.t)ti!e meaning
consists of four components:
. emotive" 3. evaluative" A. expressive" H. stylistic.
S word is always characterised b$ its denotative m&Lning but not
necessarily b$ connotation. Mh& four components mL$ b& Lll present
at -nce, or in different combinations or they mL$ not b& found in the
word at Ll.
1. /moti!e connotations express various feelings -r emotions.
em-tions differ from feelings. Wmotions liBe !oy, disappointment,
pleasure, anger, worry, surprise are m-r& short-lived. Oeelings imply
L more stable state, or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride,
dignity, etc. The emotive component of meaning mL$ b& occasional
-( usual (i.&. inherent and adherent).
5t is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations
from words, describing or naming emotions and feelings liBe anger
-r f&Lr, because the latter Lr& L special vocabulary subgroup whose
denotative meanings Lr& emotions. They do not connote the speaBerQs
state of mind -r his emotional attitude to the sub!ect of speech.
2. The e!aluati!e component charges the word with negative,
positive, ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaBerQs
attitude in relation to the ob!ect of speech. 9ery often this component
is L part of the denotative m&Lning, which comes to the f-r& in L
specific context.
The verb to sneaB means ^to m-v& silently and secretly, usu. for a
bad purpose_. This dictionary definition maBes the evaluative
component bad Duit& e/Xlicit. Two derivatives a sneaB and sneaBy
have both preserved L d&r-gLtory evaluLtiv& connotation. Gut the
negative component disappears though in still another derivative
sneaBers (shoes with a soft sole). 5t shows that &v&n words of the
same root mL$ either have or lacB Ln &vLluative component in their
inner form.
%. /$pressi!e connotation either increases or decreases the
expressiveness of the message. Tan$ scholars hold that emotive and
expressive components cannot b& distinguished but =rof. 5.S 8rnold
maintLins that emotive connotation always entails expressiveness but
not vice versa. M- prove her point she comments -n the example b$
S. a-rnb$ and >. Oowler with the word ^thing_ applied to L girl.
Nhen the word is used with Ln emotive ad!ective liBe ^sweet_ it
becomes &m-tive itselfF ^She was L sweet little thing_. Gut in other
sentences liBe ^She was L small thin delicate thing with spectacles_,
she argues, this is not true and the word ^thing_ is definitely
expressive but not emotive. 8nother group of words that help create
this expressive effect are the so-called 0intensifiers12 words liBe
^absolutely, frightfully, really, Duite_, etc.
(. #inally there is stylistic connotation. S word possesses
stylistic connotation if it belongs to L certain functi-nLl style or L
specific layer -f vocabulary (such as archaisms, barbarisms, slang,
!argon, etc). Stylistic connotation is usually immediately
recognifLbl&.
?alperin operates three types of lexical meaning that are
stylistically relevant - logical, emotive and nominal. a& describes the
stylistic colouring of words in terms of the interaction of these types
of lexical meaning. SBrebnev maintains that connotations only show
to what part of the national language L word belongs - one of the sub-
languages (functional styles) or the neutral bulB. a& ony speaBs
about the stylistic component of the connotative meaning.
3. Standard structure of fictional narrati!e communication.
4o!ert5 and 4o!ert5 narrators. The problem of narrator5s
relationship to the story. 6enette5s narrati!e types. Lanser5s rule
Standart structure of fictional narrati!e communication
- the level of non-fictional communication (author and reader) C
extratextual level
- the level of fictional mediation and discourse (narrator and
addressee(s)) C intertextual level
- the level of action (characters) C intertextual level
7arrator types
8n 9'!ert: narrator is one who refers to himgher in the first
person (5, we), one who directly or indirectly addressees the narrator,
one who offers readers friendly exposition whenever it is needed, one
who exhibits a discoursal stand towards characters and events,
especially in hisgher use of rhetorical figures, imagery.
8 9o!ert: narrator C hegshe is one who neither refers to him or
herself nor addressees any narrates, one who has a moregless
:neutral; (non-distinctive) voice and style, one who is sexually
indeterminate, one who does not provide exposition even when it is
urgently needed. `ne who doesnEt interfere, one who lets the story
events unfold in their natural seDuence and tempo, one whose
discourse fulfils no obvious phatic, appellative or expressive
functions.
6enette5s narrati!e types
?enetteEs two basic types of narratives areF
1. ;omodiegetic narrati!e.
5n a homodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (homodiegetic)
narrator who is presented as a character in the story (a text is
homodiegetic if among its story-related-action sentences there are
some that contain first-person pronouns (5 did this. 5 saw this. etc),
indicating that the narrator was at least a witness to the events
depicted).
2. ;eterodiegetic narrati!e
5n a heterodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (heterodiegetic)
narrator who is not present as a character in the story (a text is
heterodiegetic if all of its story-related-action sentences are third-
person sentences (She did it, this was what happened to him, etc.)).
Lanser5s rule
5n the absence of any text-internal clues as to the narratorEs sex,
use the pronoun appropriate to the authorEs sex" i.e. assume that the
narrator is male if the author is male, and that the narrator is female if
the author is female respectively.
<. 4=oice >ar?ers5 that pro@ect a narrati!e !oice. StanAel5s
(protoB)typical narrati!e situation. >ain aspects of firstBperson
narration. Casic features of authorial narrati!e
9=oice mar?ers: that pro@ect a narrati!e !oice
1. ontent matter C appropriate voices for sad and happy, comic
and tragic sub!ects (though precise type of intonation never follows
automatically)"
2. Sub@ecti!e e$pressions C expressions (or :expressivity
marBers;) that indicate the narratorsE education, hisgher beliefs,
convictions, interests, values, political and ideological orientation,
attitude towards people, events and things.
%. Pragmatic signals C expressions that signal the narratorEs
awareness of an audience and the degree of hisgher orientation
towards it.
StanAel5s (protoB)typical narrati!e situations
1. 8 firstBperson narrati!e is told by a narrator who is present as a
character in hisgher story" it is a story of events sheghe has
experienced himgherself, a story of personal experience,
The individual who acts as a narrator (narrating 5) is also a
character (experiencing 5) on the level of action.
2. 8n authorial narrati!e (heterodiegetic o!ert) is fold by a
narrator who is absent from the story, i.e. does not appear as a
character in the story. The authorial narrator tells a story involving
other people. 8n authorial narrator sees the story from an outsiderEs
position, iften a position of absolute authority that allows herghim to
Bnow everything about the storyEs world and its characters.
%. 8 figural narrati!e (heterodiegetic co!ert plus internal
focaliAation) C the specific configuration of a heterodiegetic covert
narrative which bacBgrounds the narrator and foregrounds internal
focalifation.
The techniDue of presenting something from the point of view of a
story by an internal character is called internal focaliAation.
The character through whose eyes the action is presented is called
an internal focaliAer.
Oigural narrative is a narrative which presents the story events as
seen through the eyes of a third-person internal focalifer.
The narrator of a figural narrative is a covert heterodiegetic
narrator hiding behind the presentation of the internal focaliferEs
consciousness, especially hisgher perceptions and thoughts.
Gecause the narratorEs discourse closely mimics the focaliferEs
voice its own vocal Duality is largely indistinct. `ne of the main
effects of internal focalifation is to attract attention to the mind of the
reflector-character and away from the narrator and the processes of
narratorial mediation.
The full extent of figural techniDues was first explored in the
novels and short stories of 3b
th
century authors such as Yenry Uames,
Oranf hafBa, 4orothy >ichardson, hatherine ]ansfield, 9irginia
Noolf, Uames Uoyce and many others.
D. Scene and summary as narrati!e modes. "escription and
commentary as narrati!e modes
7arrati!e >odes
- Showing. 5n a showing mode of presentation, there is little or no
narratorial mediation, overtness (-i&\2.)-'(j) or presence. The
reader is basically cast in the role of a witness to the events.
- Telling. 5n a telling mode of presentation, the narrator is in overt
control (especially durational control) of action presentation,
characterifation and point-of-view arrangement.
- Scene,scenic presentation. 8 showing mode which presents a
continuous stream of detailed action events. 4urational aspectF
isochrony (story time and discourse time are mapping (-(-kXLlL(j)).
- Summary. 8 telling mode in which the narrator condenses a
seDuence of action events into a thematically focused and orderly
account. 4urational aspectF speed-up.
Supporti!e 7arrati!e >odes
- "escription. 8 telling mode in which the narrator introduces a
character or describes the setting. 4urational aspectF pause.
- omment,commentary. 8 telling mode in which the narrator
comments on characters, the development of the action, the
circumstances of the act of narrating, etc. 4urational aspectF pause.
E. Semantics2 semasiology2 onomasiology2 their lin?s to stylistics
Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines
8s is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic
studies this science is very closely linBed to the linguistic disciplines
philology students are familiar withF phonetics, lexicology and
grammar due to the '-mm-n study source.
Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology.
This is L branch of linguistics whose area of study is L most
complicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. term
semantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbal
meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of
signs in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.
]eaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for that
matter to -n& level at all but correlLt&s with all of them - morphemes,
words, phrases -r texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of
r&s&Lr'h since prL'ti'ally all stylistic effects are based -n the
interplay between different Binds of m&Lning -n different levels.
Suffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meanings
attached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical,ogical,
denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
'nomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing
with the choice of words when naming or assessing some ob!ect or
Xh&n-m&n-n. 5n stylistic analysis we often have to do with L transfer
of nominal meaning in L text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy,
etc.)
The theory of fun'tionLl styles investigates the structure of the
national linguistic space - what constitutes the literary language, the
sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than -n'& already.
Piterary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary
studies su'h as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of
composition, etc.
4ecoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the
broad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trends
and even information theory.
1F. Tropes (brief outline: definition2 classification). #igures
of Guantity
Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on
words, i.e. using a word in a way other than what is considered its
literal or normal form. Tropes comes from the ?reeB word :tropos;
which means a :turn;. Ne can imagine a trope as a way of turning a
word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something
else.
Tropes includeF epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron,
periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.
/pithet is an ad!. or an ad!ective phrase appropriately Dualifying a
sub!ect (noun) by naming a Bey or important characteristic of the
sub!ect.
Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. 5.ScrebnevF .
metaphorical epithet (lafy road, ragged noise, $)*[L0 ,-XL), 3.
]etonymical (brainy fellow), A. 5ronic.
Structural characteristics of epithetsF . =reposition, one-word
epithet (a nice way)" 3. =ostposition, one-word or hyperbation (the
eyes watchful)" A. Two-step (immensely great)" H. =hrase (a go-to-
hell looB)" 7. 5nverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).
>etaphor is a transference of names based on the associated
liBeness between two ob!ects, on the similarity of one feature
common to two different entities, on possessing one common
characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common
component in their semantic structures. e.g. ;pancaBe; for the :sun;
(round, hot, yellow)" e.g. ;silver dust; and :seDuins; for :stars;
>etonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity
(nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the
phenomena (ob!ects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of
existence in reality but different semantic (9.8.hucharenBo). e.g.
;cup; and :tea; in :Nill you have another cupc;"
'$ymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory
notions, that help to emphasise contradictory Dualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity
(9.8.hucharenBo). e.g. ;low sByscraper;, :sweet sorrow;, :nice
rascal;, :pleasantly ugly face;.
Periphrasis is a device which, according to NebsterEs dictionary,
denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and
plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly
failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. mno lit the
street lampsmp (4icBens)
Personification is a metaphor that involves liBeness between
inanimate and animate ob!ects (9.8.hucharenBo). e.g. ;the face of
Pondon;, :the pain of ocean;"
Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unliBe ob!ects
belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of
some Duality (9.8. hucharenBo).e.g. She is liBe a rose.
#igures of Heplacement (Tropes) are divided into two classesF
#igures of Guantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e.
exaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weaBening.
#igures of Guality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.
#igures of Guantity
;yperbole is a stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved
through deliberate exaggeration (9.8. hucharenBo). Yyperbole is a
deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unliBe
periphrasis) to the ob!ect or phenomenon (5.>. ?alperin). 5t does not
signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter
through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the
speaBer. e.g. ]y vegetable love should grow faster than empires. (8.
]arvell)" e.g. 5 was scared to death when he entered the room.
(U.4.Salinger)
>eiosis deliberately expresses the idea, there less important than
the action is. ]eiosis is dealt with when the sife, shape, dimensions,
characteristic features of the ob!ect are intentionally underrated. 5t
does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the
latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of
the speaBer. e.g. ;The wind is rather strong; instead of :ThereEs a
gale blowing outside;" e.g. She wore a pinB hat, the sife of a button.
(U.>eed)
11. Tropes. #igure of Guality
Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on
words, i.e. using a word in a way other than what is considered its
literal or normal form. Tropes comes from the ?reeB word :tropos;
which means a :turn;. Ne can imagine a trope as a way of turning a
word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something
else.
Tropes includeF epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron,
periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.
/pithet is an ad!. or an ad!ective phrase appropriately Dualifying a
sub!ect (noun) by naming a Bey or important characteristic of the
sub!ect.
Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. 5.ScrebnevF .
metaphorical epithet (lafy road, ragged noise, $)*[L0 ,-XL), 3.
]etonymical (brainy fellow), A. 5ronic.
Structural characteristics of epithetsF . =reposition, one-word
epithet (a nice way)" 3. =ostposition, one-word or hyperbation (the
eyes watchful)" A. Two-step (immensely great)" H. =hrase (a go-to-
hell looB)" 7. 5nverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).
'$ymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory
notions, that help to emphasise contradictory Dualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity
(9.8.hucharenBo). e.g. ;low sByscraper;, :sweet sorrow;, :nice
rascal;, :pleasantly ugly face;.
Periphrasis is a device which, according to NebsterEs dictionary,
denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and
plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly
failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. mno lit the
street lampsmp (4icBens)
Personification is a metaphor that involves liBeness between
inanimate and animate ob!ects (9.8.hucharenBo). e.g. ;the face of
Pondon;, :the pain of ocean;"
Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unliBe ob!ects
belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of
some Duality (9.8. hucharenBo).e.g. She is liBe a rose.
#igures of Heplacement (Tropes) are divided into two classesF
#igures of Guantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e.
exaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weaBening.
#igures of Guality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.
#igures of Guality
>etaphor is a transference of names based on the associated
liBeness between two ob!ects, on the similarity of one feature
common to two different entities, on possessing one common
characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common
component in their semantic structures. e.g. ;pancaBe; for the :sun;
(round, hot, yellow)" e.g. ;silver dust; and :seDuins; for :stars;
>etonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity
(nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the
phenomena (ob!ects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of
existence in reality but different semantic (9.8.hucharenBo). e.g.
;cup; and :tea; in :Nill you have another cupc;"
&rony is a stylistic device in which the contextual evaluative
meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning. The
context is arranged so that the Dualifying word in irony reverses the
direction of the evaluation, and the word positively charged is
understood as a negative Dualification and (much-much rarer) vice
versa. The context varies from the minimal C a word combination to
the context of a whole booB. e.g. 5t must be delightful to find oneself
in a foreign country without a penny in oneEs pocBet.
5rony can be of three BindsF !erbal irony is a type of irony when it
is possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaning
diametrically opposes its dictionary meaning, in whose meaning we
can trace the contradiction between the said and implied (e.g. She
turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. (U.SteinbecB) (9.8.
hucharenBo)" "ramati? irony happens when a reader or viewer
Bnows more information that a character in booB or in a movie"
Situational irony is a Bind of !oBe that is against you or situation.
12. The structure of metaphor. Types of metaphor
>etaphor is a transference of names based on the associated
liBeness between two ob!ects, on the similarity of one feature
common to two different entities, on possessing one common
characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common
component in their semantic structures. e.g. ;pancaBe; for the :sun;
(round, hot, yellow)
The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous
presence of images of both ob!ects C the one which is actually named
and the one which supplies its own :legal; name, while each one
enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.
The wider is the gap between the associated ob!ects the more
striBing and unexpected C the more expressive C is the metaphor.
e.g. Yis voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S. Pewis)" e.g.
They walBed alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable
to communicate. (N.S.?ilbert).
]etaphors, liBe all S4s can be classified according to their degree
of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected,
i.e. are Duite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those
which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes
even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite
metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is
apparent and they are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the
language (5.>. ?alperin)" prolonged metaphor is a group (cluster) of
metaphors, each supplying another feature of the described
phenomenon to present an elaborated image (9.8.hucharenBo).
The constant use of a metaphor, i.e. a word in which two meanings
are blended, gradually leads to the breaBing up of the primary
meaning. The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect the
dictionary meaning, adding to it fresh connotations or shades of
meaning. Gut this influence, however strong it may be, will never
reach the degree where the dictionary meaning entirely disappears.
;ow metaphor wor?s (according to Lei?off and Iohnson)
Source domain is a realm with the help of which the imagianary
and verbal representation are made. TaBen from the Source 4omain
(-k[L'(j-2'(-i)2Z) images and words are applied to a Target
4omain (-k[L'(j-q&[j).
Types of metaphors (according to Lei?off and Iohnson)
. `riental metaphors (up and down, front and bacB, in and out,
near for, etc.)
3. 8ntological metaphors, associate with activity motions C
personification
A. Structural metaphors (argument is war, life is a !ourney, etc.)
1%. Syntagmatic semasiology. Semantic figures of coB
occurrence (general remar?s on classification)
Semantic #igures of oBoccurrence
1. #igures of &dentity
a. simile" b. Duasi-identity" c. replacers
2. figures of ineGuality
a. specifiers" b. climax" c. anti-climax" d. pun" e. feugma" f.
tautology" g. pleonasm
%. #igures of contrast
a. oxymoron" b. antithesis
8s distinct from syntagmatic semasiology investigating the
stylistic value of nomination and renaming, syntagmatic
semasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of
names in texts. 5t studies types of linear arrangement of
meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is
called here Qfigures of co--''urr&n'&Q, b$ which term
combined, !oint LXX&LrLn'& of sense units is understood.
The interrelation of semantic units is uniDue in Ln$
individual text.
set stylistics, liBe any other branch of science, aims at
generalifations.
The most general types of semantic relationships 'Ln b&
reduced to three. T&Lnings 'Ln b& either identical, or
different, -r else opposite. Pet us have L more detailed
interpretation.
.5dentical meanings. Pinguistic units co-occurring in the
text either have the same meanings, or Lr& used Ls nLm&s of
the same ob!ect (thing, phenomenon, process, property, etc.).
3. 4ifferent meanings. The correlative linguistic units in the
text Lr& perceived as denoting different ob!ects (phenomena,
processes, properties).
A. `pposite meanings. Two correlative units Lr& semantically
polar. The meaning of one of them is incompatible with the
meaning of the secondF the one excludes the other.
The possibility of contrasting notions stand in n- logical
opposition to each other (as do antonyms long - short, young -
old, uX - down, etc.).
8s for the second item discussed (difference, ineDuality of
co-occurring meanings), it must b& specially underlined that
we are dealing here not with Ln$ Bind of distinction or
disparity, but only with cases when carriers of meanings are
syntactically andgor semantically correlative. Nhat is meant
here is the difference manifest in units with homogeneous
functions.
M- sum uX, sometimes two or more units are viewed b$ both
the speaBer and the hearer - according to varying aims of
communication - as identical, different, or &v&n opposite.
The three types of semantic interrelations are matched b$
three groups of figures, which are the sub!ect-matter of
syntagmatic semasiology. They areF figures of identity,
figures of ineDuality, and figures of contrast.
1(. Semantic figures of coBoccurrence J figures of identity
and contrast
Semantic #igures of oBoccurrence
1. #igures of &dentity: a. simile" b. Duasi-identity" c. replacers
2. figures of ineGuality: a. specifiers" b. climax" c. anti-climax" d.
pun" e. feugma" f. tautology" g. pleonasm
%. #igures of contrast: a. oxymoron" b. antithesis
#igures of &dentity
Yuman cognition, Ls viewed b$ linguistics, 'Ln b& defined
Ls recurring acts of lingual identification of what we perceive.
R$ naming ob!ects (phenomena, processes, and properties -f
reality), we identify them, i.e. search for classes in which to
place them, recalling the names of classes already Bnown to
us.
1. Simile, i.e. imaginative comparison. This is an explicit
statement of partial identity (affinity, liBeness, similarity) -f
two ob!ects. The word identity is only applicable to certain
features of the ob!ects comparedF in fact, the ob!ects cannot
b& identical" they are only similar, they r&s&mble each other
due to s-m& identical features. S simile has manifold forms,
semantic features and expressive aims. Ss already mentioned,
L simile mL$ b& combined with or accompanied b$ another
stylistic device, or it mL$ achieve one stylistic effect or
another. Thus it is often based -n exaggeration of properties
described.
2. KuasiBidentity. 8nother Xr-bl&m arises if we inspect
certain widespread 'Ls&s of Qactive identificationQ usuLll$
treated as tropes" when we looB at the matter m-r& closely, they
turn out to b& L special Bind of syntagmatic phenomena. S-m&
-f Duasi-id&ntiti&s manifest special expressive force, chiefly
when the usual topic - comment positions change placesF the
metaphoric (metonymical) nLm& LXX&Lrs in the text first, the
direct, straightforward denomination following it. S&& what
happens, for instance, with L metaphorical characteristics
preceding the deciphering noun.
%. Synonymous replacements. Mhe term goes bacB to the
classification of the use of synonyms\ proposed b$ ].4.
hufnets in L paper -n syn-n$ms in Wnglish as early Ls 6H<. She
aptly remarBed that -n the whole, syn-n$ms are used in actual
texts for two different reasons. tn& of them is to avoid
monotonous repetition of the sLm& word in L sentence or L
seDuence of sentences.
The other purpose of co-occurrence of s$n-n$ms in L text,
according to hufnets, is to maBe the description Ls exhaustive
as possible under the circumstances, to provide additional
shades of the meaning intended.
#igures of ontrast
They Lr& formed b$ intentional combination, often b$ direct
!uxtaposition -f ideas, mutually excluding, and incompatible
with one another, -r at least assumed to b&. They Lr&
differentiated b$ the type of actualifation of contrast, as well
as b$ the character of their connection with the referent. Ne
remember from previous sections of this chapter that
presentation mL$ b& passive (implied) -r active (expressed -r
emphasifed).
'$ymoron. The etymological meaning of this term
combining ?reeB roots (Qsharp-dullQ, -r Qsharply dullQ) shows
the logical structure of the figure it denotes. t/$m-r-n
ascribes some feature to Ln ob!ect incompatible with that
feature. 5t is L logical collision of notional words taBen for
granted as natural, in spite of the incongruity of their mean-
ings. The most typical oxymoron is an attributive -r an
adverbial word combination, the members of which Lr&
derived from antonymic stems or, according to our common
sense experience, are incompatible in other ways, i.e. express
mutually exclusive notions. 5t is considered b$ some that an
oxymoron mL$ b& formed not only b$ attributive and
adverbial, but also b$ predicative combinations, i.e. b$
sentences. 5n certain 'Ls&s oxymoron displays n- illogicality
and, actually, n- internal contradictions, but rather an
opposition of what is real to what is pretended.
8ntithesis. This phenomenon is incomparably m-r&
freDuent than oxymoron. The term QantithesisQ (from ?reeB anti
QagainstQ" thesis QstatementQ) has L broad range of meanings. 5t
denotes Ln$ active '-nfrontation, emphasifed co-occurrence
of notions, really or presumably contrastive. Mh& most natural,
or regular expression of contrast is the use of antonyms. Ne
hLv& already seen itF best - worst, wisdom - foolishness. light -
darBness, everything - nothing. 8ntithesis is not only an
expressive device used in every type -f emotional speech
(poetry, imaginative prose, oratory, colloDuial speech), but
also, liBe any other stylistic means, the basis of set phrases,
some -f which are not necessarily emphatic unless
pronounced with special force.
1+. Semantic figures of coBoccurrence J figures of ineGuality:
pun2 Aeugma2 tautology2 pleonasm.
Semantic #igures of oBoccurrence
1. #igures of &dentity: a. simile" b. Duasi-identity" c. replacers
2. figures of ineGuality: a. specifiers" b. climax" c. anti-climax" d.
pun" e. feugma" f. tautology" g. pleonasm
%. #igures of contrast: a. oxymoron" b. antithesis
#igures of &neGuality
Their semantic function is highlighting differences. The
expression of differences 'Ln b&, !ust Ls previously, either
QpassiveQ, i.e. nearly, though not Duite unintentional (e.g.
specifying synonyms), or QactiveQ, i.e. used -n purpose (e.g.
climax, anti-climax), and, in some varieties, effecting
humorous illogicality (Xun, feugma, pretended ineDuality).
Specifying2 .r clarifying synonyms. Ss suggested above,
their use contributes to precision in characterifing the ob!ect
of speech. Synonyms used for clarification mostly follow one
another (in opposition to replacerEs), although not necessarily
immediately. Ilarifiers mL$ either arise in the speaBerQs mind
Ls Ln afterthought and b& added to what has b&&n said, or they
-''uX$ the sLm& syntactical positions in two or more parallel
sentences.
-lima$ (.r: 6radation). The ?reeB word 'limax means
QladderQ" the Patin gradatio means Qascent, climbing uXQ. These
two synonymous terms denote such an arrangement of
correlative ideas (notions expressed b$ words, word
combinations, or sentences) in which what precedes is less
than what follows. Thus the second element surpasses the first
and is in its turn, surpassed b$ the third, and so -n. M- put it
otherwise, the first element is the weaBest (though not
necessarily weaB)" the subseDuent elements gradually increase
in strength, the last being the strongest.
8ntiBclima$ (.r: Cathos). The device thus called is
characterifed b$ s-m& authors as QbacB gradationQ. Ss its very
nLm& shows, it is the opposite to climax, but this assumption is
not Duite correct. 5t would serve n- Xurpose whatever maBing
the second element weaBer than the first, the third still weaBer,
and s- -n. S real anti-climax is L sudden deception of the
recipientF it consists in adding -n& weaBer element to -n& or
several strong ones, mentioned before. The recipient is
disappointed in his expectationsF he predicted L stronger
element to follow" instead, some insignificant idea follows the
significant one (ones). #eedless to say, anti'limL/ is employed
with L humorous aim. Oor example, in It's bloody lie and not
quite true, we s&& the absurdity of mixing uX Ln offensive
statement with L polite remarB.
Pun. This term is synonymous with the current expression
Qplay upon wordsQ. The semantic essence of the device is based
-n polysemy or homonymy. 5t is Ln elementary logical fallacy
called QDuadruplication of the termQ. The general formula for
the pun is as followsF QS eDuals R and dQ, which is the result of
L fallacious transformation (shortening) of the two statements
QS eDuals RQ and QS eDuals dQ (three terms in all). e.g. 5s life
worth livingc 5t depends -n the liver.
8longside the Wnglish term QpunQ, the international
(originally Orench) term calembour is current (cf. the >ussian
ZL[L%k$X).
Leugma. Ss with the pun, this device consists in
combining uneDual, semantically heterogeneous, or even
incompatible, words or phrases.
ueugma is L Bind of economy of syntactical unitsF one unit
(word, phrase) maBes L combination with two or several
others without being repeated itselfF vShe was married to ]r.
Uohnson, her twin sister, to ]r. Nard" their half-sister, to T r.
Trench.v The passive-forming phrase was married does not
recur, yet is obviously connected with Lll three prepositional
ob!ects. This sentence has n- stylistic colouring, it is
practically neutral. e.g. vShe dropped L tear and her pocBet
handBerchief.v (4icBens)
Tautology pretended and tautology disguised. 5s a
repetition of one and the same word or idea within a sentence
or a figure syntactic unit. Tautology pretended (e.g. Oor Wast is
Wast, Gefehl ist Gefehl, )L \-+)& ZLZ )L \-+)&) and tautology
disguised (e.g. Yeads, 5 win, tails, you lose C .$k[2X-\L)2&
2.&2).
Pleonasm. Using more words that reDuired to express an idea,
being redundant. #ormally a vice, it is done on purpose on rare
occasions for emphasis. Wg.F Ne heard it with our own ears.
13. #unctional Styles. "ifferent approaches to functional
styles classification
#unctional Styles of the /nglish Language
8ccording to ?alperinF Ounctional Style is a system of
coordinated, interrelated and inertconditioned language means
intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aiming
aiming at a definite effect in communication. 5t is the coordination of
the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive
features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices
themselves. Wach style, however, can be recognifed by one or more
leading features which are especially conspicuous. Oor instance the
use of special terminology is a lexical characteristics of the style of
scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognifed.
The authors of handbooBs on different languages propose systems
of styles based on a broad subdivision of all styles into 3 classes C
literary and colloDuial and their varieties. These generally include
from three to five functional styles.
6alperin5s system of styles:
. Gelles-lettres style (poetry, emotive prose, drama)" 3. =ublicist
(oratory and speeches, essay, article)" A. #ewspaper (brief news
items, headlines, ads and announcements, editorials)" H. scientific
prose" 7. official documents (business, legal, diplomacy, military).
8rnold5s system of styles:
. =oetic" 3. Scientific" A. #ewspaper" H. IolloDuial.
5n her last issueF . IolloDuial styles (literary coll., familiar coll.,
common coll.) and 3. Piterary booBish style (scientific, official
documents, publicists, oratorical, poetic)
Screbne!5s system of stylesF #umber of styles is infinite.
Screbne! and MusneA
. literarygbooBish style (publicist" scientific (and technological)"
official documents)" 3. freegcolloDuial (literary coll." familiar coll.)
N.O. P.Q.R.STRUV2 W.X. Y.Q.Z[*S)2 \.Y. ]U^._*`R.
. official business style" 3. scientific professional style" A.
publicist style" H. literary coll. Style" 7. familiar coll. Style
"a!id hrystal. #unctional Styles System
. regional (Ianadian" cocBney" etc.)" 3. social" A. occupational
(religious" scientific" legal" plain (or official)" political" news media"
etc.)" H. restricted (Bnit write" cooB write" congratulatory msg." ngp
headlines" sportcasting scores" air speaB" emergency speaB" e-mail"
etc.)
=.8.>altAe! (9/ssays on /nglish Stylistics:): his teory based on
the broad division of lingual material into :formal; and :informal;
varieties and adherence to SBrebnev system of functional styles.
lassification of #unctional Styles of the /nglish Language
. The Gelles - Pettres Ounctional StyleF a) poetry" b) emotive
prose" c) drama"
3. =ublicistic Ounctional StyleF a) oratory" b) essays" c) articles in
newspapers and magafines"
A. The #ewspaper Ounctional StyleF a) brief news items" b)
advertisments and announcements" c) headlines"
H. The Scientific =rose StyleF a) exact sciences" b) humanitarian
sciences" c) popular- science prose"
7. The `fficial 4ocuments Ounctional StyleF a) diplomatic
documents" b) business letters" c) military documents" d) legal
documents"
1<. 6eneral characteriAation and distinguishing phonetic2
morphological and le$ical features of Literary olloGuial Style2
#amiliar olloGuial Style2 Publicist style2 The Style of 'fficial
"ocuments and Scientific Style
Phonetic
1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) standard pronunciation in
compliance with the national norm, enunciation, b) phonetic
compression of freDuently used forms (itEs, donEt), c) omission of
unaccented elements due to the DuicB tempo.
3. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) casual and often pronunciation,
use of deviant forms (gonna instead of going to), b) use of reduced
and contracted forms (youEre, theyEve), c) omission of unaccented
elements due to the DuicB tempo, d) emphasis on intonation as a
powerful semantic and stylistic instrument capable to render subtle
nuance of thought and feeling, e) use of onomatopoeic words (hush,
yum, yaB).
A. Publicist style: a) standard pronunciation, wide use of prosody
as a means of conveying the subtle shades of meaning, overtones,
emotions, b) phonetic compression.
H. Style of Official Documents: `*ab)))))))
+. Scientific Style: `*ab)))))))
>orphological
1. Literary Colloquial Style: use of regular morphological features,
with interception of evaluative suffixes (deary, doggie).
3. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of evaluative suffixes, nonce
words formed on morphological and phonetic analogy with other
nominal words (baldish, hanBy-panBy, helter-sBelter), b) extensive
use of collocations and phrasal verbs instead of neutral and literary
eDuivalents (to turn in instead of to go to bed).
A. Publicist style: a) freDuent use of non-finite verb forms, such as
gerund, participle, infinitive, b) use of non-perfect verb forms, c)
omission of articles, linB verbs, auxiliaries, pronouns, especially in
headlines and news items.
H. Style of Official Documents: adherence to the norm, sometimes
outdated or even archaic (legal documents).
+. Scientific Style: a) terminological word building and word-
derivationF neologism formation by affixation and conversion, b)
restricted use of finite verb forms, c) use of :the authorEs we; instead
of 5, d) freDuent use of impersonal constructions.
1D. Le$ical features of olloGuial Style2 #amiliar olloGuial
Style2 Publicist style2 The Style of 'fficial "ocuments and
Scientific Style
Literary olloGuial Style:
1. Nide range of vocabulary strata in accordance with the register
of communication and participantsE rolesF formal and informal,
neutral and booBish, terms and foreign words. 2. stylistically neutral
vocabulary.%. use of socially accepted contracted forms and
abbreviations (T9, fridge, I4) (. use of etiDuette language and
conversational formulas (nice to see you) +. extensive use of
intensifiers and gap-fillers (absolutely, definitely) 3. use of
inter!ections and exclamations (dear me, well, oh) <. extensive use of
phrasal verbs D. use of words of indefinite meaning liBe stuff, thing E.
avoidance of slang, vulgarisms, dialect words, !argon 1F. use of
phraseological expressions, idioms and figures of speech.
#amiliar olloGuial Style
1. combination of neutral, familiar and low colloDuial vocabulary,
including slang, vulgar and taboo words. 3. extensive use of words of
general meaning, specified in meaning by situation (guy, !ob). A.
abundance of specific colloDuial inter!ections (boy, wow). H. use of
hyperbola, epithets, evaluative vocabulary, dead metaphors and
simile. 7. tautological substitution of personal pronounces and names
by other nouns (you-baby. Uohnny-boy). J. mixture of curse words
and euphemisms (damn, dash, shoot).
Publicist style
1. newspaper clichws and phrases. 3. terminological variety
(scientific, sports, political etc.).A. abbreviations and acronyms. H.
numerous proper names, toponyms, names of enterprises,
institutions.7. abstract notion words, elevated and booBish words.
J..in headlines (freDuent use of pun violated phraseology, vivid
stylistic devices). <. in oratory speech (elevated and booBish words,
colloDuial words and phrases, freDuent use of metaphor, alliteration,
allusion, irony etc.) .K. use of conventional forms of address and trite
phrases.
Style of 'fficial "ocuments
1. prevalence of stylistically neutral and booBish words. 3. use of
terminology. A. use of proper names and titles. H. abstraction of
persons (use of party instead of the name). 7.officialese vocabulary
(clichws, opening and conclusive phrases). J. conventional and
archaic words. <. foreign words, especially Pain and Orench. K.
abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols (].=.). 6. use of
words in their primary meaning. b. absence of tropes. .seldom use
of substitute words (it, on, that).
Scientific Style
. extensive use of booBish words (presume, infer). 3. abundance
of scientific terminology and phraseology. A. use of numerous
neologisms. H. abundance of proper names. 7. restricted use of
emotive coloring, inter!ections, expressive phraseology, phrasal
verbs, colloDuial vocabulary. J. seldom use of tropes, such as
metaphor, hyperbole, simile etc.
1E. Syntactical and compositional #eatures of olloGuial
Style2 #amiliar olloGuial Style2 Publicist style2 The Style of
'fficial "ocuments and Scientific Style
Syntactical
1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) use of simple sentences with a
number of participial and infinitive constructions and numerous
parentheses, b) use of various types of syntactical compression,
simplicity of syntactical connection, c) prevalence of active and finite
verb forms, d) use of grammar forms for emphatic purposes
(progressive verb forms to express emotions of irritation, anger), e)
decomposition and ellipsis of sentence in a dialogue, f) use of special
colloDuial phrases (that friend of yours).
3. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of short simple sentences, b)
dialogues are usually of the Duestion-answer type, c) use of echo-
Duestions, parallel constructions, repetitions, d) coordination is used
more often than subordination, e) extensive use of ellipsis, f)
extensive use of tautology, g) abundance of gap-fillers and
parenthetical elements (sure indeed, well).
A. Publicist style: a) freDuent use of rhetorical Duestions and
interrogatives in oratory speech, b) in headlines (use of impersonal
sentences, elliptical constructions, interrogative sentences), c) in
news items and articles (news items comprise one or two, rarely
three, sentences), d) absence of complex coordination with chain of
subordinate clauses and a number of con!unctions, e) prepositional
phrases are used much ore than synonymous gerundial phrases, f)
absence of exclamatory sentences, breaB-in-the narrative
H. Style of Official Documents: a) use of long sentences with
several types of coordination and subordination, b) use of passive
and participial constructions, numerous connectives, c) use of
ob!ects, attributes and all sorts of modifiers, d) extensive use of
detached constructions and parenthesis, e) use of participle 5 and 55,
f) a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements
into one sentence.
+. Scientific Style: a) complete and standard syntactical mode of
expression, b) direct word order, c) use of lengthy sentences with
subordinate clauses, d) extensive use of participial, gerundial and
infinitive complexes, e) extensive use of adverbial and prepositional
phrases, f) freDuent use of parenthesis introduced by a dash, g)
abundance of attributive groups with a descriptive function, h)
avoidances of ellipsis, i) freDuent use of passive and non-finite verb
forms, !) use of impersonal forms and sentences such as mention
should be, assuming that.
ompositional
1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) can be used in written and spoBen
varieties (dialogue, monologue, personal letters, essays, articles), b)
prepared types of texts may have thought out and logical
composition, to a certain extent determined by conventional forms, c)
spontaneous types have a loose structure, relative coherence and
uniformity of form and content.
3. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of deviant language on all
levels2 b) strong emotional coloring, c) loose syntactical organifation
of an utterance, d)freDuently little coherence or adherence to the
topic, e) no special compositional patterns.
A. Publicist style: a)carefully selected vocabulary, b) variety of
topics, c) wide use of Duotations, direct speech and represented
speech, d) use of parallel constructions, e) in oratory (simplicity of
structural expression), f) in headlines (use of devices to arrest
attentionF pun, puffle etc), g) in news items (strict arrangement of
titles and subtitles), h) careful division on paragraph.
H. Style of Official Documents: a) special compositional design
(coded graphical layout, clear-cut subdivision of texts into units of
formation), b) conventional composition of treaties, agreements,
protocols, c) use of stereotyped, official phraseology, d) accurate use
of punctuation, e) generally ob!ective, concrete, unemotional and
impersonal style of narration
+. Scientific Style: a) highly formalifed text with the prevalence of
formulae, tables etc, b) in humanitarian textsF descriptive narration,
supplied with argumentation and interpretation, c) logical and
consistent narration, seDuential presentation of material and facts, d)
extensive use of citations, e) extensive use of W] and S4, f)
extensive use of conventional set phrases at certain points to
emphasife the logical character of the narration, g) use of digressions
to debate or support a certain point, h) introduction, chapters,
paragraph, conclusion, i) extensive use of double con!unctions liBe
as@as, either@or, both@and, etc, !)compositionally arranged
sentence patternsF postulatory (at the beginning), argumentative (in
the central part), formulative (in the conclusion)
2F. The classification of syntactical stylistic de!ices by
prof.Screbne! (the general sur!ey)
=aradigmatic syntax has to do with the sentence paradigmF
completeness of sentence structure (1), communicati!e types of
sentences (2), word order (%), and type of syntactical connection
((). =aradigmatic syntactical means of expression arranged according
to these four types includeF
(1): ellipsis2 aposiopesis2 oneBmember nominati!e sentences2
redundancy: repetition of sentence parts2 syntactic tautology
(prolepsis)2 polysyndeton.
(2): in!ersion of sentence members
(%): GuasiBaffirmati!e sentences2 GuasiBinterrogati!e sentences2
GuasiBnegati!e sentences2 GuasiBimperati!e sentences
((): detachment2 parenthetic elements2 asyndetic subordination
and coordination.
21. Syntactical stylistic de!ices with missing elements
Syntactical S":
1. Syntactical S" with missing elements
2. Syntactical S" with redundant elements
%. &n!ersion
Syntactical stylistic de!ices with missing elements
8posiopesis stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished.
8posiopesis :a stopping short for rhetorical effect; (5.>.?alperin).
Used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative
imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speaBerEs emotions
prevent him from finishing the sentence (9.8.hucharenBo). e.g. sou
!ust come home or 5Ell ... " e.g. ?ood intentions, but ...
/llipsis. The omission of a word or a part of a sentence that
follows logically. Typical of oral speech.
Wllipsis a deliberate omission of at least one member of the
sentence. e.g. Nhatx all my pretty chicBens and their dam at one fell
swoopc (N.ShaBespeare)" e.g. 5n manner, close and dry. 5n voice,
husBy and low. 5n face, watchful behind a blind. (4icBens)" e.g. Yis
forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all
one side. (4icBens).
8po?oinu is the omission of coordinative or subordinative words.
Typical of spontaneous or illiterate speech.
apo-Boinu constructions (?reeB vwith a common elementv). e.g.
There was a door led into the Bitchen. (Sh. 8nderson)" e.g. Ye was
the man Billed that deer. (>. Narren)" e.g. There was no breefe came
through the door. (W.Yemingway)" e.g. 5 bring him news will raise
his dropping spirits. (`. Uespersen)
22. Syntactical stylistic de!ices with redundant elements
Syntactical S":
1. Syntactical S" with missing elements
2. Syntactical S" with redundant elements
%. &n!ersion
Syntactical S" with redundant elements
8syndeton. Ionsists of omitting con!unctions between words,
phrases, or clauses. 5n a list of items, asyndeton gives the effect of
unpremeditated (,X&.)L%&X&))*+) multiplicity, of an
extemporaneous (2%,X-\2y2X-\L))*+) rather than a labored
account.
8syndeton is a deliberate omission of con!unctions, cutting off
connecting words. Yelps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active
prose. (9.8.hucharenBo). e.g. Soames turned away" he had an utter
disinclination for talB, liBe one standing before an open grave,
watching a coffin slowly lowered. (?alsworthy)
Polysyndeton. 5s the use of con!unction between each word,
phrase, or clause, and it thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton.
The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with that
of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic, enumeration and
building up. =olysyndeton is a repeated use of con!unctions. 5s to
strengthen the idea of eDual logicalgemotive importance of connected
sentences(9.8. hucharenBo). e.g. Gy the time he had got all the
bottles and dishes and Bnives and forBs and glasses and plates and
spoons and things piled up on big trays, he was getting very hot, and
red in the face, and annoyed. (8.TolBien)
8nadiplosis (or catch repetition). >epeats the last word of one
phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the text. 5t
can be generated in series for the saBe of beauty or to give a sense of
logical progression (@a, a@). e.g.F =leasure might cause her read,
reading might maBe her Bnow, @
8naphora. 5s the repetition of the same word or words at the
beginning of successive phrases, clauses or sentences, commonly in
con!unctions with climax and with parallelism (a@, a@). e.g.F
Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not
knowing what they find at the top of the hill.
/pistrophe (also called antistrophe or epiphora). Oorms the
counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or
words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences
(@a, @a). e.g.F 5 waBe up and Im alone and 5 walB round Narley
and Im alone" and 5 talB with people and Im alone and 5 looB at his
face when 5Em home and itEs dead. (U.Graine)
Symploce. Iombining anaphora and epiphora, so that one word or
phrase is repeated at the beginning and another word or phrase is
repeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences (a@b,
a@b). Wg. To thinB clearly and rationally should be a ma!or goal for
man" but to thinB clearly and rationally is always the greatest
difficulty faced by man.
8mplification. 5nvolves repeating a word or expression while
adding more detail to it, in order to emphasife what might otherwise
be passed over. e.g.F Pride boundless pride C is the bone of
civilisation.
Prolepsis. 5s the use of co-referential pronoun after a noun or a
proper name. Typical of spontaneous speech. e.g.F John, he doesnEt
liBe loud music.
;ypophora. Ionsists of raising one or more Duestions and then
proceeding to answer them, usually at some length. 8 common usage
is it asB the Duestion at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that
paragraph to answer it.
Hhetorical Guestion (or erotesis). 4iffers from hypophora in that
it is not answered by the writer, because its answer is obvious or
obviously desired, and usually !ust a zyesE or znoE. 5t is used for
effect, emphasis or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary
statement from the facts at hand. e.g. or i! we lose the ability to
per"eive our !aults, what is the good o! living on#
2%. Types of repetition
>epetition is an expressive means of language used when the
speaBer is under the stress of strong emotion. 5t shows the state of
speaBer. 8s a S4 repetition is recurrence of the same word, word
combination, phrase for two and more times. 8ccording to the place
which repeated unit occupies in the sentence (utterance), repetition is
classifiedF
anaphoraF the beginning of two or more successive sentences
(clauses) is repeated C a.., a..,a@ The main stylistic function of
anaphora is hot so much to emphasife the repeated unit as to create
the bacBground textile non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty,
becomes foreground.
epiphoraF the end of two or more successive sentence (clauses) is
repeated- ..a,@a,@a. The main function of epiphora is to add stress
to the final words of the sentences.
framingF the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus
forming the :frame; for the non- repeated part of the sentence
(utterance)-a..a. The function of framing is to elucidate the notion
mentioned in the beginning of the sentence.
catch repetition (anadiplosis or linBing or reduplication) the end
of one clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following
one -@a,a@ it maBes the whole utterance more compact and
complete. Oraming is most effective in singling out paragraphs.
chain repetition presents several successive anadiplosis- ..a,a@b,
b@c, c. The effect is that of the smoothly developing logical
reasoning.
ordinary repetition has no definite place in the sentence and the
repeated unit occurs in various positions- @a, @a@, a@g ordinary
repetition emphasifes both the logical and emotional meanings of the
reiterated word.
successi!e repetition is a string of closely following each other
reiterated units- ..a,a,a@ this is the most emphatic type of repetition
which signifies the peaB of emotions of the speaBer.
Synonym repetition. The repetition of the same idea by using
synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different
nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.F there are
two terms freDuently used to show the negative attitude of the critic
to all Binds of synonym repetitionF a) pleonasm C the use of more
words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning"
redundancy of expression" b)tautology-defined as the repetition of
the same statement" the repetition of the same word or phrase or of
the same idea or statement in the other words" usually as a fault of
style
2(. Syntactical stylistic de!ices: parallelism2 chiasmc
in!ersion and its types
Parallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type
of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of
several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical
vfleshv. True enough, parallel constructions almost always include
some type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces
a very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic,
emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. The necessary
condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure in
two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. =arallel constructions
are often bacBed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and
con!unctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). =arallel constructions
can be partial and complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the
repetition of some arts of successive sentences or clauses. omplete
parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principal of
identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences. There
are two main functions of parallel constructions$ semantic (suggest
eDual semantic significance of the component parts) and structural
(rhythmical design to these component parts).
>eversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a
chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first construction. Thus, if the
first sentence (clause) has a direct word order - S=`, the second one
will have it inverted - `=S. PiBe parallel constructions chiasmus
contributes to the rhythmical Duantity of the utterance, and the pause
caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be liBened to a
caesura in prosody.
Inversion which was briefly mentioned in the definition of
chiasmus is very often used as an independent S4 in which the direct
word order is changed either completely so that the predicate
(predicative) precedes the sub!ect" or partially so that the ob!ect
precedes the sub!ect-predicate pair. Iorrespondingly, we differentiate
between partial and a "omplete inversion. The stylistic device of
inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion which
is a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion deals with
the rearrangement of the normative word order. {uestions may also
be rearrangedF vsour mother is at homecv asBs one of the characters
of U. GaldwinQs novel. The inverted Duestion presupposes the answer
with more certainty than the normative one. 5t is the assuredness of
the speaBer of the positive answer that constitutes additional
information which is brought into the Duestion by the inverted word
order. 5nterrogative constructions with the direct word order may be
viewed as cases of two-step (double) inversionF direct wgo |_
grammatical inversion |_ direct wgo.
2+. Semantic figures of coBoccurrence J figures of ineGuality:
specifiers2 clima$2 antiBclima$.
Syntagmatic semasiology deals with stylistic functions of
relationship of names in text. 5t studies types of linear arrangement of
meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is called
:figures of co-occurrence; (or figures of replacement). There are A
types of semantic interrelationsF figures of identity, figures of
ineGuality2 figures of contrast.
larifying (specifying) synonyms (synonymous repetition used to
characterife different aspects of the same referent). E.g$ %ou
under"ut sin!ul, insidious hog.
lima$ (gradation of emphatic growing in strength, in ?reeB
means :ladder;).- consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences
in the order of increasing importance, weight or emphasis. E.g:
&hat di!!eren"es i! it rained, hailed blew, snowed, "y"loned#
8ntiBclima$ (bacB gradation C instead of a few elements growing
in intensity without relief there unexpectedly appears a weaB or
contrastive element that maBes the statement humorous or
ridiculous). E.g.: the woman who "ould !a"e the very devil himsel! or
a mouse goes all to pie"es in !ront o! a !lash o! lightning.
23. Phonographical stylistic de!ices
S4 based on the opposition of meanings of phonological andgor
graphical elements of the language are called phonetical and
graphical stylistic devices.
'nomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of
the signified ob!ect or action, such as vhissv, vbowwowv, vmurmurv,
vbumpv, vgrumblev, vsifflev and many more. =oetry abounds in some
specific types of sound-instrumenting, the leading role belonging to
alliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually-in the beginning
of words, and assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in
stressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a
sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony
(a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). To
create additional information in a prose discourse sound-
instrumenting is seldom used. 5n contemporary advertising, mass
media and, above all, imaginative prose sound is fore grounded
mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation.
This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word
combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called
grapon. : mispronunciations in the speech of uneducated people
(:peepul;, :!ewinile;), amalgamated forms (:gimme; (give me),
:gonna; (going to), mispronunciations which show the physical
defects of the speaBersF stumbling, lisping" graphical changes used
to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasifing and thus
foregrounding the stressed words, i.e. all changes of the type (italics2
capitaliAation), spacing of the graphemes (hyphenation2
multiplication) and of lines (verse lines organifed in :steps;).
Hhyme is the repetition of identical or similar sound combinations of
words. Hhythm- the flow of speech presents an alternation of
stressed and unstressed elements" the pattern of interchange of strong
and weaB segments is called rhythm.
2<. Stylistic phraseology. Stylistic differentiation of
phraseological units. dsual and occasional phraseological units2
their stylistic function
Phraseological unit C is a system of words a meaning of which
canEt be guessed from the meaning of its components (hoonin).
Wach phr.unit is characterifed by a certain degree of cohesion.
=hr.units are characterifed by the following featureEsF . Stability"
3. Semantic integraty" A. >eady-made structure which canEt be
changed or substituted.
Professor Screbne! differentiate
1. #ormal,boo?ish phr.units: Wg. The Bnight of the {uill o a
writer" 8 heart of oaB o brave, courageous" 8chilles hill C L/2[&'-\L
,0(L
2. 7eutral phr.units are units which are devoid of any
emotivenessF Wg. Gy hooB or by crocB C \'&%2 ,XL\.L%2 2
)&,XL\.L%2" Oor good and for all C XLy 2 )L\'&r.L
%. #amiliar colloGuial phr.units: Wg. Yave bats in oneEs belfry C
k*(j )& \ '\-&% $%&" 8 pretty Bettle of fish C \&'&[&)jZL0 2'(-X20"
To rain cats and dogs C )&,X20()-'(2 \L[0('0" To be oneEs cups C
k*(j )L\&'&[&, ,-.\*,2\}2%" Small fry C %&[ZL0 '-}ZL
(. Slangish phr.units: Wg. To drop off the hooBs C '-X\L(j'0 '
,&(&[j, $%&X&(j" To BicB the bucBet C .L(j .$kL" To hop the twig C
yLr)$(j'0, .L(j .$kL
Professor &.=. 8rnold classifies phr.units into
1. dsual p.units that are fixed in the dictionaries" 2. 'ccasional
p.units that is creation of different authors. They are contextual
predetermined. They appeared as a result of some change in usual
units. These changes are the followingF a. Prolongation. Wg. To be
born with a silver spoon in oneEs mouth (usual p.unit) C X-.2('0 ,-.
'iL'([2\-+ y\&y.-+F Pittle ?eorge was born with a silver spoon in a
mouth whi"h was "urly and large (prolongation). b. Substitution.
Wg. 8ll the world and his wife (usual p.unit) C \'~ '\&('Z-&
-k1&'(\-F all the world and his mistress (substitution) were at the
party. c. &nsertion (\Z[2)2\L)2&). Wg. To turn oneEs nose at sb.
(usual p.unit) C '%-(X&(j ' \*'-ZLF She turned her well'shaped
(insertion) nose at him.
Professor Moonin differentiate phr.units:
1. Stylistically neutral are units which are devoid of any
emotivenessF Wg. Gy hooB or by crocB C \'&%2 ,XL\.L%2 2
)&,XL\.L%2" Oor good and for all C XLy 2 )L\'&r.L" 2. /moti!e
phr.units contain some Bind of attitude towards this and that sub!ect.
Wg. 8s welcome as flower in may" %. /$pressi!e phr.units are
characterifed by some degree of expressiveness. Wg. Ye is dead nuts
on this girl o he is full of love" (. Stylistically mar?ed phr.units are
those which are referred either to the formal or non-literary informal
styles (!argon, slang, vulgarisms, etc.). Wg. The debt of nature o
death" 8 ?ordian Bnot o complicated problem" To go to Ianossar o
,$k[2i)- ,-ZL0(j'0, $)2y2('0" +. /le!ated phr.units: Wg. To
breath oneEs last C .- 'L%-+ '%&X(2" To fiddle while >ome burns C
,2X \- \X&%0 i$%*. Nithin elevated phr.units he (hoonin)
distinguishesF a) 8rchaic (the iron in oneEs soul C .$}&\)*& %$Z2,
to play upon advantage C -k%L)*\L(j, )L.$\L(j) and b) Poetic
phr.units (of high account C 2%&12+ q&))-'(j, most and the least
C \'& k&y 2'Z[i&)20)" 3. #oreign phr.units (barbarisms). Wg. 8 la
carte C ,- yLZLy$, a la mode C ,- %-.&, beaumonde C k-%-).,
\*'}2+ '\&(, ad patress C Z ,XL-(qL%, ad verbum C '[-\- \ '[-\-.
8ll sorts of proverbs and sayings may undergo some changes.
P.8. GarBova made a research in which she studied pragmatic
effect of using phr.units in commercial advertisementsF eg. The other
side of the medal (usual p.unit) C the other side of the metal (ads.), so
far so good (usual p.unit) C sofa so good (ads.).
2D. 7arratology as a branch of linguistics. Types of
narration and main compositional forms
#aratology-special branch of linguistics, which deals with
narrative of text. The roots of modern naratology can be found in the
narrative theory of >ussian formalist such as ].Gachtin, Potman,
TomashevsBiy, SchlovsBiy, =ropp C the fathers of naratology.
#aratology as a special science combines linguistics an literary. 5t
was formed in the last, but now its acBnowledged and being
developed in different countries. The term :naratology; was
proposed by Todorov by its etymology the word :narrative; stands
bacB to the word (latin verb) :narrare; (:to tell; to give an account
:of;, which in its term goes bacB 5ndo-Wuropean :gna; (Bnowledge).
#arrative-the recounting of one or more real fiction events presented
in the chronological order. #arrative is basically a story of
happenings of event either real or imaginary which the narrator
consider interesting or important. Types of narration. The author5s
narrati!eF unfolded plot, personages of given characteristic, the time
and place of action. The authorial narrative supplies the reader with
direct information about author preferences and ob!ections believes
and contradictions. 8) entrusted narrative is used in an afford to
maBe the text more plausible, to impress the reader with the facts of
authenticity of the described events. The write entrust some fictions
character with the tasB of dealing story. The writer himself that hides
behind the figure of the narrator. "ialogueF personage express their
mind in the utter speech. 5n their exchange of remarBs the
participants of the dialogue, other people and their action expose
them self to. `ne of the significant forms of the personage self-
characterifation-dialogue, which allows the author to show him in
the process. &nterior speech of personageB its allows the author and
the readers to peep into inner world of the character, to observe his
idea and viewF a) interior monologue- a rather lengthy peace of text
dealing with the main topic of the character thinBing, offering past,
future actions" b) short in-sets- presents immediate mental and
emotional reactions of the personage to the remarB or event by
characters" c) stream of consciousness technic- specially popular with
their representative of modernism in contenting literature. The author
tries to portray the purely associated character. Hepresented speech
(reported speech)Bserves to show either the mental production of the
character thinBingF a) represented uttered speech" b) represented
inner speech. The main narrati!e compositional forms. 5f its
semantic of the text that its taBen as foundation of classification A
narrative forms traditionally analyfed in poetics and stylisticsF
narrati!e proper (the unfolding of the plot is concentrating,
dynamic form of the text), description (supplies the details of
appearance of people and things of the place and time of action -
static), argumentation (offers causes and effects of the personages
behavior, his considerations about moral, ethical, ideological or other
issues). 5ts rather seldom that any of their compositional forms is
used in a pure uninterrupted way.