Atoms cant be seen even under microscopes

To improve understanding of atoms, scientists

have designed scientific models & theories of
what they think the atom looks like.

Atoms consist of:
Protons & neutrons in the small, central
nucleus
Electrons move in orbitals in the energy
levels about the nucleus
Protons, neutrons & electrons
1
An Atom can be defined as:
The smallest particle of an element that has
the same properties of the element.
The smallest portion of an element that can
take part in a chemical reaction.

An atom is indestructible by chemical reactions,
however, it can be split in nuclear reactions.
2
1803 Dalton billard ball model.
1834 Faraday electrical nature of matter.
1879 Crookes negatively charged particles.
1886 Goldstein positively charged protons.
1897 Thomson ratio of e/m for electrons.
1911 Rutherford nuclear atomic structure.
1913 Bohr energy levels for electrons.
1927 Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
1932 Chadwick neutrons.

Atomic structure
Dalton theory
Important history of the atom
3
Elements made of small, indivisible particles
called atoms.
Atoms of same element are identical shape,
size & mass but different to other elements.
Atom is smallest particle that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
Compounds are made up of atoms from 2 or more
elements.
(These concepts, concerning atomic
structure, are still acceptable today.)
Dalton's theory
4
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e
He considered the atom to be a very
small indestructible particle with
positive and negative electricity in it.
Thomsons atom
J J Thompson
5

Thin gold
foil
Pb
block
Ra
Zinc sulphide
screen
He bombarded thin gold foil with alpha particles
from radium in a lead block. When the alpha
particles hit the ZnS screen, it glowed.
Rutherford's
experiment
6
+

+

+

+

+
Straight through
Atom in the
gold foil
7
Bombarded gold foil with alpha particles (helium nuclei).
Most particles went straight through the foil, some
were deflected and a few were even reflected.
Conclusions:
1. Atoms have central nucleus.
2. Nucleus was positively charged.
3. Nucleus was very small, compared to atom.
4. Nucleus very dense & responsible for most of
the mass of the atom.
Rutherford theory
8
A neutral
Boron atom
= + proton
= neutral neutron
+ Nucleus
Electron
space
=
Bohr's atom
9
Protons are heavy, positively charged
particles found in the nucleus symbol: p
+

Neutrons have the same mass, no charge &
also found in nucleus symbol: n
0
The collective name for protons & neutrons is
nucleons
Electrons are 1840 times lighter, negatively
charged & found moving in orbitals
(spaces) & energy levels about the nucleus
symbol:
10
23
11
Na is the symbol used to represent the
element Sodium.
Na is the symbol for sodium

23 is called the mass number (A) & indicates the
number of nucleons (11 protons + 12 neutrons)

11 is the atomic number (Z) & indicates the
number of protons & also the number of electrons
11
Relative atomic mass
Relative atomic mass:
A number that compares the average mass
of an atom of that element with the mass of
the C-12 atom taken to be 12 units.

Take note that it is a rough, average idea of
the number of nucleons an atom has.
Because we are looking at a mixture of
isotopes, we get fractions though.
No real atom of Carbon has 12,011
nucleons for instance.
RAM
12
Relative atomic mass
35
Cl &
37
Cl exist in nature in 75% & 25% ratio.
17

17
Determine the relative atomic mass of Cl
from this data.

This value of 35.5 is the average mass of
the Cl atoms as they occur in nature
relative to 1/12 of the C-12 atom.
13
When charged Ne particles moved into a
magnetic field it was noticed that parts of the
beam were deflected by different amounts.
N
S
20
Ne
21
Ne
22
Ne
This happened because their
masses were different
Mass spectrometer
14
10p
10n
10p
11n
10p
12n
3 Neon nuclei
Ne Ne
Ne 20
10
21
10
22
10
The constant magnetic field affected the charged
Ne particles differently. This could only mean that
the particles had different masses since they
each had 10 + protons.
These are called isotopes of Ne.
Isotopes of hydrogen
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Isotopes are different forms of the same element
that differ in the number of neutrons in their
nuclei & thus their mass numbers.
1p
1p
1n
1p
2n
Nuclei of H isotopes
H
H
H 1
1
2
1
3
1
Most elements have at least 2 or 3 natural isotopes.
Although they have different masses, their chemical
behaviour is exactly the same.
Protons, neutrons & isotopes
16
Atomic radius is the distance
between the nuclei of 2 bonded atoms
in a molecule.
Distance between nuclei
Atomic radius
Size of atoms
17
All atoms are neutral since they have
the same number of protons (+) &
electrons (-). Charged atoms are ions
Metals form + ions as a result of losing
an
These are called cations
Non-metals form ions as a result of
gaining .
These are called anions.
Ion formation
18
This refers to the arrangement of electrons in
atoms.
Electrons move around the nucleus in
orbitals in the different energy levels.
There are 4 kinds of orbitals s, p, d & f
Each orbital may contain 0, 1 or a max. of 2
There is 1 s orbital per energy level and 3 p
orbitals per energy level 1 on each of the
x, y & z axes & are at 90
0
to one another
The 1
st
energy level only has 1 s orbital
p orbitals start from energy level 2
Electron configuration
19
Orbitals are regions in space around the
nucleus in which there is a 95% probability of
finding the at any given time.

Each orbital may have up to a max. of 2 and
can be empty, half full with 1 or full with 2.
s, p, d & f Orbitals
Introduction to s & p orbitals
20
s orbitals are spherical and every
energy level has 1 s orbital per
energy level.

The nucleus is at the centre
of the 1s orbital
1s orbital 2s orbital 3s orbital
21
3 p orbitals - 1
on each of the
x, y & z axes
Each energy level from
energy level 2 upwards,
has a set of 3 p orbitals
per energy level
p orbitals are
lobe-shaped
22
Aufbau Principle
The Aufbau principle is used to build up
electron structures for atoms.
The following rules apply:

There are 1 s & 3 p
orbitals per energy level.

orbitals are three-dimensional spaces
representing a certain probability ( 95%) of
finding an electron in that space at any given
time.
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Aufbau Principle
Only two electrons per orbital.
Electrons act as if they are spinning.
There are two directions of spin. We
represent them by drawing arrows
either pointing upward or downward to
indicate opposite spins.
You need to be able to draw energy
level diagrams for the first twenty
elements.
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Aufbau Principle
Paulis exclusion principle:
Any orbital can contain a maximum of two
electrons, provided they spin in opposite
directions.
Hunds rule:
No pairing of electrons will take place in
p-orbitals (or equivalent orbitals) before all
the orbitals of the group concerned,
contain at least one unpaired electron.
Aufbau, Pauli & Hund
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1 s
2 s
3 s
4 s
2 p
3 p
n =1
n=2
n=3
n=4
Orbitals are filled in the following manner:
Known as an aufbau diagram
Arrows pointing in opposite
directions indicate opposite spins
Now draw aufbau diagrams for: C, P & Ar
Aufbau & hund
Filling orbitals
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Electron configuration or structure can
also be represented by giving the
spd notation for the atom.
Here we indicate how many are
accommodated in each orbital.
H is 1s
1
Li is 1s
2
2s
1
C is 1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
Now give the electron configurations for
the following elements:
N, Ne, Si, Cl & K

Filling orbitals
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