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THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the conversions from
one to another of various forms of energy and how these affect temperature,
pressure, volume, mechanical action, and work.

I. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

A thermodynamic system or simply a system refers to a definite quantity of
matter most often contained within some closed surface chosen for study.

A surrounding is the mass or region outside the system.

A boundary is the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings. It can be either fixed or movable

KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Closed system also known as Control mass is a system consisting of a fixed
amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass
can enter or leave a closed system. However, energy in the form of heat
or work, can cross the boundary.

Isolated system is a system in which neither mass nor energy is allowed to
cross the boundary.

Open system also known as Control volume is a system in which mass is
allowed to cross the boundary.

PROERTIES OF A SYSTEM

A property is any quantity, which serves to describe a system. It can be
divided into two general types:

Intensive property is one, which does not depend on the mass of the system
such as temperature, pressure, density, and velocity.

Extensive property is one, which depends on the mass of the system such as
volume, momentum, and kinetic energy.


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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

The state of system is its condition as described by giving values to
its properties at a particular instant. At a given state, all
properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of
even one property changes, the state of the system will
change to a different one.

Equilibrium implies a state of balance. Under equilibrium state, there
are no unbalanced potentials or driving forces within the
system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes
when it is isolated from its surroundings.

A system is in,

Thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system

Mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of
the system with time.

Phase equilibrium if the system involves two phases, and the mass
of each phase reaches equilibrium level and stays
there.

STATE VARIABLES

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat of a substance.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium, they must be at the same temperature. If both
systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.


TEMERATURE SCALES

Celsius scale, (
o
C) : (A. Celsius, 1701-1744)
SI unit
Freezing and Boiling points are assigned to 0 and 100
o
C,
respectively.
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Fahrenheit scale, (
o
F): (G. Fahrenheit, 1686-1736)

English unit
Freezing and Boiling points are assigned to 32 and 212
o
F,
respectively.

THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALES

Kel vin, (K): (Lord Kelvin, 1824-1907)
SI unit

Rankine, (R): (William Rankine, 1820-1872)
English unit

CONVERSION FORMULAS:


( )
5
C F 32 K C 273
9
9
F C 32 R F 460
5
= = +
= + = +


Celsius (formerly the centigrade)
Fahrenheit
Kelvin
Rankine
=
=
=
=
Where C
F
K
R


TEMPERATURE CHANGE


( )
5

9
9

5
K C C F
R F C
T T T T
T T F T T
= =
= =






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Density
The mass density of a material is defined as the mass per unit volume of
the material:

m
m
V
=
The weight density of a material is defined as the weight per unit volume
of the material:

w
W
V
=

density mass
volume weight
m
Where m
V W
= =
= =

Specific Volume
Specific volume is the volume per unit mass.


1 V
m
= =



specific volume volume
mass mass density
= =
= =
Where V
m


Specific Gravity (relative density)
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density of the
substance to the density of some standard substance. The standard is
usually water (@ 4
o
C) for liquids and solids, while for gasses, it is usually
air.

standard
sp gr

=


Pressure
Pressure is force per unit area.

( )
2
N/m
F
P ,
A
=

2
force (N)
area (m )
=
=
Where F
A


Note:
2
1Pa 1N/m =

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GAUGE PRESSURE

Gauge pressure is the amount by which the absolute pressure exceeds
atmospheric pressure.


gauge abs atm
P P P =

Where:


5
2
1
1 013 10
14 7
760
760
1 013
gauge
abs
atm
P gauge pressure
P absolute pressure
P atmospheric pressure
atm
. Pa
. lb/in (psi)
mmHg
torr
. bar
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=


Pascals Principle

The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by
the same amount.






Formula:
1 2
1 2
1 2
F F
P P
A A
OR = =

F1 F2
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HEAT and ENTROPY

HEAT, (Q)

Heat is a form of transferred energy that arises from the random motion of
molecules.

TRANSMISION OF HEAT

There are three modes of transfer of heat:

Conduction in which heat transfer takes place from molecule to molecule
through a body or through bodies in contact.
Convection in which the transfer is due to the motion of molecules of the
medium.
Radiation in which the heat transfer takes place without any intervening
medium.


Latent Heat is the amount of heat necessary to change the phase of the
system without changing its temperature.

( )
L
fusion or vaporization
Q m H =
Note:
Use ( ) + if heat is absorbed by the substance (substance melts)
Use ( ) if heat is released by the substance (substance freezes)


heat needed
mass
latent heat (fusion or vaporization)
=
=
=
Where Q
m
H


Latent Heat of Fusion is the heat that is necessary to change a unit mass
of a substance from solid to liquid state at its melting point.
For ice at its melting point:


f
H 80 cal/ gm
144 BTU/lb
334 kJ /kg
=
=
=


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Latent Heat of Vaporization is the heat required to change a unit mass of
a substance from liquid to vapor state.
For water at its boiling point:


v
H 540 cal / gm
970 BTU/lb
2257 kJ /kg
=
=
=


Sensible Heat is the amount heat necessary to change the temperature of
the system without changing its phase.

Sensible Heat Equation:


S
Q mc T =


heat needed
specific heat of the substance
change in temperature
=
=
=
Where Q
c
T


Specific Heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
gm of the substance by 1
o
C.

For water and ice:

1 cal/gm C
0.5 cal/gm C
w
i
c
c
=
=


THE TOTAL HEAT entering a substance is the sum of the heat that changes the
phase of the substance (latent heat) and the heat that changes the
temperature of the substance (sensible heat).

Total Heat Equation:


t L S
Q Q Q = +

sensible heat
latent heat
s
l
Where Q
q
=
=


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ENTROPY, (S)

Absolute entropy is a measure of the energy that is no longer available to
perform useful work within the current environment. Other definition is that it
is the measure of randomness or disorder of the system.

Entropy Equation:


K
Q
S
T
=

entropy, (J/K)
heat, (J)
temperature , (K)
=
=
=
Where S
Q
T


ENTHALPY AND
INTERNAL ENERGY

Internal Energy, (U)

The internal energy (U) of a system is the total energy content of the system.
It is the sum of the kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, nuclear, and all
other forms of energy possessed by the atoms and molecules of the system.

ENTHALPY
Enthalpy represents the total useful energy of a substance. Useful energy
consists of two parts:

The internal energy, u
Flow energy also known as flow work, pV

Enthalpy Equation:

H U pV = +

enthalpy
internal energy
pressure
volume
=
=
=
=
Where H
U
p
V

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The First Law of Thermodynamics is a statement of the law of
conservation of energy. It states that:

If an amount of heat flows into a system, then this energy must appear as increased
internal energy for the system and/or work done by the system on its surroundings
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS









The First Law Equation


Total Energy Entering=Total Energy Leaving
Q=U+W



heat flow into a system
change in internal energy of the system
p V (work done by the system)
=
=
=
Where Q
U
W

Note:
The work done by a system ( W) is positive if the system thereby loses energy to its
surroundings. When the surroundings do work on the system so as to give it energy, ( W) is a
negative quantity.
( ) W p V =

The First Law Equation and Thermodynamic Processes

For isobaric process: (Constant pressure)
An isobaric process is a process carried out at constant pressure.

First Law Equation for Isobaric Process:

( ) Q U p V = +

heat flow into a system


change in internal energy of the system
p pressure
V= change in volume
Where Q
U
=
=
=


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For isovolumic process: (constant volume)
An isovolumic process is a process carried out at constant volume.

First Law Equation for Isovolumic Process:

0 0 since Q U ( W , V ) = = =

heat flow into a system


change in internal energy of the system
Where Q
U
=
=


Note that for an isovolumic (also called isochoric or isometric) process, any
heat flows into the system appears as increased internal energy of the
system.


For isothermal process: (constant temperature)
An isothermal process is a process carried out at constant temperature.

First Law Equation for Isothermal Process:

Q W =

0
heat flow into a system
work done
since temperature is constant , )
Where Q
W
U
=
=
=


For ideal gas changing isothermally:


2
1 1
1

V
Q W P V ln
V

= =




For adiabatic process: (no heat flow)
An adiabatic process is a process in which no heat is transferred to or from
the system.

0 U W = +

0 (no heat flow into or from the system


work done
change in internal energy
Where Q
W
U
=
=
=

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The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in three equivalent
ways:

Heat energy flows spontaneously from hotter to a colder
object, but not vice versa.

No heat engine that cycle continuously can change all its
input energy to useful work.

If a system undergoes spontaneous change, it will change
in such a way that its entropy will increase or, at best,
remain constant.

The THIRD law of thermodynamics states that

The absolute entropy of a pure substances approaches zero as the
absolute thermodynamic temperature approaches zero.

THE SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
















THE THIRD LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
(Nernst Theorem)

.








Third Law equation:

lims
T 0K
0

=





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PROCESSES

A process is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another.

A path refers to the series of states through which a system passes during a
process.

A reversible process is one that is performed in such a way that at the end
of the process, both the system and the local surroundings can be
restored to their initial states. A process that does not meet these
requirements is said to be irreversible.

A reversible process must be a quasiequilibrium process and is subject
to the following restrictions:

No friction exists.
Heat transfer is due only to an infinitesimal temperature difference
Unrestrained expansion does not occur
There is no mixing
There is no turbulence
There is no combustion or chemical reaction

TYPES OF PROCESSES

Isobaric process is process by which the state variable of a system is
changed while the pressure is held constant.

ISOVOLUMIC PROCESS also known as isometric or isochoric process is a process
carried out at constant volume.

Adiabatic process is one in which no heat or other energy is transferred to
or from the system.
Isentropic process is an adiabatic process in which there is no change
in the system entropy.

Throttling process is an adiabatic process in which there is no
change in the system enthalpy but for which there is a significant
pressure drop.

Isothermal process is a process carried out at constant temperature.


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POLYTROPIC PROCESS

A polytropic process is one that obeys the polytropic equation of state


( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
n n
p V p V =

pressure
volume
polytropic exponent
Where p
V
n
=
=
=


If:

0
1
Isobaric process
Isothermal process
Isentropic process
Isometric process
n ;
n ;
n k ;
n ;
=
=
=
=

The polytropic specific heat, c


n v
n
n k
c c
n 1
Q mc T

=


=

















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CYCLES

A cycle is a series of processes that eventually brings the system back to its
original condition.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (EFFICIENCY OF A HEAT ENGINE)
The thermal efficiency of a power cycle is defined as the ratio of the
useful work output to the supplied input energy.

thermal
net
input
W net work output
energy input Q
= =

In terms of heat variables:


thermal
in out
in
Q Q
Q

=


THE CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient power cycle . The efficiency of a
Carnot cycle is the maximum possible for any power cycle

Efficiency Equation:


hgh low
low
high high
T T
T
1
T T

= =


efficiency
temperature in Kelvin
Where
T
=
=


Note that the efficiency is increased by rising the temperature T
HIGH
at which
heat is added or by lowering the temperature T
LOW
at which heat is rejected.







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REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration is the process of transferring heat from a low -temperature area
to a high- temperature area. Since heat flows spontaneously only from high
to low temperature areas according to the second law of thermodynamics,
refrigeration needs an external energy source to force the heat transfer to
occur. This energy source is a pump or compressor that does work in
compressing the refrigerant. It is necessary to perform this work on the
refrigerant in order to get it to discharge energy to the high-temperature area.

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE, (COP)

The Coefficient of Performance (COP) is defined as the ratio of the useful
energy transfer to the work input.


in in
in out in
Q Q
COP
W Q Q
= =




ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO, (EER)

The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is defined as the useful energy transfer in
BTU/hr divided by the input power in watts.


in
in
Q
EER
P
=

energy efficiency ratio
energy input in BTU/hr
power input in watts
in
in
Where eer
Q
P
=
=
=












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THE GAS LAWS

IDEAL GAS LAW

The absolute pressure P of n kilomoles of gas contained in a volume V is
related to the absolute temperature T by


PV nRT =


universal gas constant
absolute pressure
absolute temperature
number of moles
= m/M
=
=
=
=
Where R
P
T
n


Values of R in different units:

f
8.314 J/mol K
=1.986 BTU/mol R
=1545 ft-lb /mol R
=


R


SPECIAL CASES OF THE IDEAL GAS LAW

Boyles Law (n, T constant): constant PV =
At constant temperature and number moles, the volume gas varies
inversely with the pressure. In other words, an increase in pressure
is accompanied by a decrease in volume and vice versa.


1 1 2 2
PV PV =


Charles Law (n, P constant): constant
V
T
=
At constant pressure and number of moles, the volume of an ideally
behaving gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature. In
other words, gas volume increases when the temperature is raised.


1 2
1 2
V V
T T
=
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Gay Lussacs Law (n, V constant): constant
P
T
=


1 2
1 2
P P
T T
=

The Combined Gas Law


1 1 2 2
1 2
p V p V
T T
=

STANDARD CONDITIONS (S.T.P.):

5
T 273.15 K 0 C
p 1.013 10 Pa 1atm
= =
= =

Note:
Under standard conditions, 1 kmol of ideal gas occupies a volume of 22.4 m
3.

DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal, nonreactive gasses is the sum of the
partial pressures of the component gases.

t 1 2 3 n
P p p p ... P = + + + +

t
1 2 3 n
Where P total pressure of the mixture
p , p , p ,...,p partial pressure of component gases
=
=


AVOGADROS LAW
At equal volume, under the same pressure and temperature conditions, gases
contain the same number of molecules.


1 1 1
2 2 2
m M R
m M R
= =

mass
molecular weight
gas constant
Where m
M
R
=
=
=

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TEST 4

1. A closed system is also known as

A. control mass*
B. isolated system
C. control volume
D. control boundary

2. A closed system wherein even energy is not allowed to cross the
boundary is called an

A. control volume
B. isolated system*
C. control mass
D. control boundary

3. An open system is also known as

A. control volume*
B. control boundary
C. control mass
D. isolated system

4. The boundary of a control volume system is called a

A. control surface*
B. control point
C. control area
D. control line

5. Mass per unit volume is

A. weight
B. pressure
C. density*
D. specific gravity






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6. The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature is called

A. specific gravity *
B. relative weight
C. elasticity
D. specific density

7. The reciprocal of density (i.e. volume per unit mass) is called

A. specific gravity
B. specific volume*
C. bulk modulus
D. specific weight

8. Properties that are independent of the size of the system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density are called

A. intensive properties*
B. extrinsive properties
C. extensive porperties
D. extrinsic properties

9. Properties that are dependent on the size or extent of the system such
as mass, volume, and total energy are called

A. intensive properties
B. intrinsic properties
C. extensive properties*
D. chemical properties

10. The area under the process curve on a T-S diagram represents

A. heat transfer*
B. temperature change
C. work
D. entropy

11. An isentropic process on a T-s diagram is easily recognized as a
A. horizontal line segment
B. vertical line segment*
C. oblique line segment
D. parabola

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12. The h-s diagram is also called a

A. Argand diagram
B. Euler diagram
C. Mollier diagram*
D. Grolier diagram

13. A pure substance at absolute zero temperature is in perfect order, and its
entropy is zero. This is best known as

A. The first law of thermodynamics
B. The second law of thermodynamics
C. The third law of thermodynamics*
D. The Zeroth law of thermodynamics

14. The condition in which the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system is called:

A. thermal equilibrium*
B. phase equilibrium
C. mechanical equilibrium
D. chemical equilibrium

15. The condition in which there is no change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.

A. thermal equilibrium
B. phase equilibrium
C. mechanical equilibrium*
D. chemical equilibrium

16. The condition in which the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.

A. phase equilibrium*
B. chemical equilibrium
C. thermal equilibrium
D. mechanical equilibrium





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17. A condition in which the chemical composition of the system does not
change with time.

A. phase equilibrium
B. chemical equilibrium*
C. thermal equilibrium
D. mechanical equilibrium

18. Any change that a system undergoes from equilibrium state to another is
called a

A. process*
B. conversion
C. state
D. cycle

19. A series of states through which a system passes during a process is
called the ______________of the process.

A. path*
B. condition
C. state
D. course

20. A process during which, the temperature T remains constant is called

A. isothermal process*
B. isometric process
C. isobaric process
D. isochoric process

21. A process during which, the pressure P remains constant is called

A. isothermal process
B. isobaric process*
C. isovolumic process
D. isometric process

22. A process during which, the specific volume V remains constant is called

A. isometric
B. isochoric
C. isovolumic
D. all of the above*
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23. Who coined the term energy in1807?

A. William Thomson
B. Thomas Young*
C. Lord Kelvin
D. Rudolph Clausius

24. The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame is called

A. kinetic energy*
B. spin energy
C. potential energy
D. elastic energy

25. The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field is called

A. kinetic energy
B. gravitational energy
C. potential energy*
D. mechanical energy

26. Who wrote the first thermodynamic textbook in 1859?

A. Lord Kelvin
B. William Rankine*
C. Thomas Young
D. Rudolph Clausius

27. It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

A. first law of thermodynamics
B. zeroth law of thermodynamics *
C. third law of thermodynamics
D. second law of thermodynamics

28. Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called
A. absolute pressure
B. vacuum pressure*
C. standard pressure
D. reference pressure
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GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
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29. The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount. This is best known as

A. Pascals principle *
B. Archimedes principle
C. Torricellis principle
D. Amagats law

30. A device used to measure small and moderate pressure differences is
called

A. hygrometer
B. manometer*
C. nozzle
D. diffuser

31. Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called

A. barometer*
B. manometer
C. thermometer
D. goniometer

32. The pressure relative to absolute vacuum is called

A. standard pressure
B. absolute pressure*
C. vacuum pressure
D. atmospheric pressure

33. The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure is called the

A. relative pressure
B. gauge pressure*
C. vacuum pressure
D. standard pressure

34. A liquid that is about to vaporize is called
A. saturated vapor
B. plasma
C. superheated vapor
D. saturated liquid*

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GEAS
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35. A vapor that is about to condense is called
A. saturated vapor*
B. plasma
C. super heated vapor
D. saturated liquid

36. At a given pressure, the temperature at which pure substance changes
phase is called

A. critical temperature
B. saturation temperature*
C. triple point
D. kindling temperature

37. At a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called

A. critical pressure
B. saturation pressure*
C. absolute pressure
D. vacuum pressure

38. The amount of energy absorbed during melting and is equivalent to the
amount of energy released during freezing is called

A. latent heat of vaporization
B. melting energy
C. latent heat of fusion*
D. specific heat

39. The amount of energy absorbed during vaporization and is equivalent to
the amount of energy released during condensation is called

A. latent heat of vaporization*
B. melting energy
C. latent heat of fusion
D. specific heat

40. A process during which there is no heat transfer is called
A. isentropic process
B. isothermal process
C. adiabatic process*
D. isometric process
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GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
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41. A process during which the entropy remains constant is called

A. isentropic process*
B. isothermal process
C. adiabatic process
D. isometric process

42. The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance
to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between
particles is called

A. convection
B. conduction*
C. radiation
D. emission

43. The transfer of energy between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that
is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion is called

A. convection*
B. conduction
C. radiation
D. emission

44. The transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) is called

A. convection
B. conduction
C. radiation*
D. emission

45. The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram represents the
boundary

A. temperature
B. pressure
C. energy
D. work*



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GEAS
GEAS
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46. During actual expansion and compression process of gases, pressure
and volume are often related by PVn=C, where n and C are constants. A
process of this kind is called

A. isentropic process
B. isochoric process
C. polytropic process*
D. adiabatic process

47. The idealized surface that emits radiation at a maximum rate is called a

A. blackbody*
B. emitter
C. absorber
D. radiator

48. In what form can energy cross the boundaries of a closed system?

A. sound
B. heat*
C. magnetic waves
D. light

49. A device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure
is called

A. nozzle*
B. diffuser
C. pressure exchanger
D. manometer

50. A device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down is
called

A. nozzle
B. diffuser*
C. pressure exchanger
D. manometer






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G
G









1. H
m

S

2. D
e
t

S

3. A
s
e

S


GEA
GEAS
Heat of 2 x 10
4

melt. Calculate
Solution:
Q
S
T
2 10
S
273
S 73.26

=
=
Determine the
exhaust tempe
the engine is 62
Solution:
max
max
max
1
1
0.5
=
=
=

A heat engine t
source in each
efficiency of thi
Solution:
H
W 4
Q 12
33%
= =
=
So
In

GE
AS
S
J is added to a
the change in
4
0 J
3K
J
6
K

maximum poss
rature of 120C
20C.
( )
( )
cool
hot
T
T
120 273 K
620 273 K
56
+
+
takes 1200 J of
cycle and doe
s engine?
400J
100%
200J


olve
n The
181
ENERAL ENGINEE
CHAP
a block of ice a
entropy.
sible efficiency
C, and the temp
f heat from the
s 400 J of work
ed Pr
ermod
ERING & APPLIED
PTER 4 - Therm
L
at 0C causing
of an automob
perature of the
e high temper
k in each cycle
roble
dynam
SCIENCES
odynamics
Loading Next Page
part of it to
bile engine with
burning gas in
rature heat
e. What is the
ems
mics
h
n

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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
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4. A heat engine takes 1200 J of heat from the high temperature heat
source in each cycle and does 400 J of work in each cycle. How much
heat is released into the environment in each cycle?

Solution:

H C
C H
W Q Q
Q Q W
1200J 400J
800J
=
=
=
=



5. A steam turbine takes in steam at a temperature of 400
O
C and release
steam to the condenser at a temperature of 120
O
C. Calculate the Carnot
efficiency for this engine.

Solution:
( ) ( )
( )
H C
H
T T
100%
T
400 273 120 273
100%
400 273
673K 393K
100%
673K
41.6%

=
+ +
=
+

=
=



6. The tire of an automobile which has a volume of 0.65 m3 is inflated to a
gage pressure 250 kPa. Determine the mass of air in the tire if the
temperature is 20C.

Solution:
( )
( )
( )
3
2
PV
m
RT
kJ N-m
R(air) 0.287 287
kg-K kg-K
N
250000 101325 0.65m
m
m
N-m
287 293K
kg-K
m 2.72 kg
=
= =
+
=



=

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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
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7. A steam turbine takes in 500 kJ of heat in each cycle. If the efficiency of
this turbine is 41.6 %, what is the maximum amount of work that could be
generated by the turbine in each cycle?

Solution:
( )
H
H
W
Q
W Q
0.416 500kJ
208kJ
=
=
=
=


8. Calculate the increase in internal energy, if a 0.95-lbm object is travelling
at a rate of 250 ft/s to enter a viscous liquid and essentially brought to
rest before it strikes the bottom. Consider the object and liquid as the
system, and assume the change in potential energy is negligible.

Solution:

1 2
2 2
1 1 2 2
2
2 2
2 1 1 2
E E
1 1
mV U mV U
2 2
V 0
1 1
U U U mV mV
2 2
=
+ = +
=
= =
1
U 0.95lbm
2
=
1slug
32.2lbm

2
ft
250
s
U 922 ft-lbf




=


9. What is the coefficient of performance of a carnot refrigerator which
delivers heat to a reservoir at 32C and removes heat from a reservoir at
-10C?

Solution:

cold hot
cold
hot cold
10 273 263 K, 32 273 305 K T T
T
COP
T T
263
COP
305 263
COP 6.3
= + = = + =
=

=

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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
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10. Determine the difference in weight of air when the temperature is 93F
during summer and winter when the temperature is 10F in a room which
measures 30x100x20 ft. The pressure is 14 psia.

Solution:

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
3
2
summer
2
3
2
winter
PV
m
RT
ft-lbf
R(air) 53.3
lbm-R
12in
lb
14 30 100 20 ft
1ft in
m 4103.8-lbm
ft-lbf
53.3 93 460 R
lbm-R
12in
lb
14 30 100 20 ft
1ft in
m 4828.5-lbm
ft-lbf
53.3 10 460 R
lbm-R
m W
=
=








= =
+








= =
+
= = 4828.5-lbm 4103.8-lbm
W 724.7 lbf

=



11. The initial temperature of the pressurized can which contains air at a
gage pressure of 38psi, is 75F. What will be the temperature when the
gage pressure reaches 205 psi, the can will burst?

Solution:


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
1 2
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
P P
T T
P T
T
P
205 14.7 144 75 460
T
38 14.7 144
T 2230 R 460
T 1770 F
=
=
+ +
=
+
=
=



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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
Loading Next Page
12. Calculate the work done (ft-lbf) in converting water having 0.0256 ft
3

volume into steam of volume 2.25 ft3 at constant pressure of 305 lb/in2.

Solution:
( )
2
3
2
3
W P V
lb 12in
W 305 2.25 0.0256 ft
1ft
in
W 97.7 10 ft-lbf
=



=




=


13. Determine the compression ratio of an Otto cycle with an efficiency of
55% and r =1.5.

Solution:
r 1
1
2
1.5 1
1
2
1
2
Otto cycle:
1
1
V
V
1
0.55 1
V
V
V
5 compression ratio
V

=



=




=




14. A Carnot engine takes in 110 calories of heat with high-temperature
reservoir at 130C in each cycle, and gives up 78 calories to the low-
temperature reservoir. What is the temperature of the latter reservoir?

Solution:

( )
1 1
2 2
2
2 1
1
2
Q T
Q T
Q
T T
Q
78
T 150 273 300 K 27 C
110
=
=

= + = =




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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
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15. A vertical, frictionless piston cylinder device containing gas, has a mass
of 10 kg with a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2 and is pulled with a force
of 100N, calculate the pressure inside if the atmospheric pressure is 101
kPa.

Solution:

( )
( )
atm
atm
atm
atm
2
3
2
2
3
PA F mg P A
P P A mg F
mg F
P P
A
mg F
P P
A
m
10kg 9.8 100N
s
P 101 10 Pa
1m
10 cm
100cm
P 99 10 Pa
P 99 kPa
+ = +
=

= +




= +






=
=



16. Determine the mass of air when the pressure is 20 psi and the
temperature is 80F in a closed chamber with dimensions of 30ft x 20 ft x
15 ft. Assume air to be an ideal gas. R(air) =53.3 ft-lb/lbm-R.

Solution:

( )
( )
2
3
2
PV
m
RT
lb 12in
20 30 20 15 ft
1ft
in
m
ft-lb
53.3 80 460 R
lbm-R
m 901 lbm
=








=

+


=




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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
Loading Next Page
17. What is the absolute pressure for a system if the gauge pressure is 1
MPa and the barometric pressure (atmospheric pressure) is 103 kPa.

Solution:
abs atm gage
3 6
abs
abs
P P P
P 103 10 Pa 1 10 Pa
P 1.103 MPa
= +
= +
=



18. If gallium liquid is employed in a barometer instead of mercury at 35C.
Determine the height of a column of gallium sustained in the barometer
at 1 atm pressure. Note that the density of liquid gallium is 6.09 g/cm3 at
35C, and the density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm
3
.

Solution:
( )
Ga
g
( ) ( ) ( ) Ga Hg
h g =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
Hg
Hg Hg
Ga
Ga
Hg
Hg 3
3
Ga
3
h
h
h
1 atm pressure h 760 mmHg 76 cmHg
g
13.6
cm
g
13.6 76 cmHg
cm
h 169.7 cmGa 1697 mmGa
g
6.09
cm
=
= = =
=



= = =




19. A piston weighing 5.2 kg has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2. What is
the pressure exerted by the piston on the gas in the chamber?
Solution:

( )
( )
2
2
2
F
P
A
5.2kg 9.8m s
mg
P
A
1m
400mm
1000mm
P 127 kPa
=
= =






=

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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
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20. The volume of the container is 0.5 m3 which holds oxygen at 70C and
30 bars. How much oxygen in the container if the atmospheric pressure
is 1.013 bar?

Solution:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
3
PV
m
RT
R 8.314 J mol-K
R
Molar mass O 1kg
2 16g
1000g
N
101325
m
30 1.013 bar 0.5m
1bar
m 8.8kg
8.314 J mol-K
70 273 K
1kg
2 16g
1000g
=
= =



+
= =
+






21. A cylinder containing 75 lbm of carbon dioxide, the pressure is 25psig at
240F. Find the volume of the cylinder. R(carbon dioxide) =35.13 ft-
lbf/lbm-R.

Solution:

( ) ( )
( )
2
2
3
mRT
V
P
ft-lb
75lbm 35.13 240 460 R
lbm-R
V
lb 12in
14.7 25
1ft
in
V 322.6 ft
=

+


=

+


=








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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
Loading Next Page
22. What is the specific volume of Argon gas in a vessel having a pressure
of 150 kPa at 20C. Ar =39.9amu.

Solution:
( )
( )
3
3
3
3
PV mRT
J
8.314
R
mol-K
R(Argon)
g
Molar mass
39.9
mol
J J
R(Argon) 0.208 0.208 10
g-K kg-K
V RT
Specific Volume
m P
J
0.208 10 20 273 K
kg-K
Specific Volume
150 10 Pa
m
Specific Volume 0.407
kg

=
= =
= =
= =

+


=

=























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GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES
GEAS
GEAS
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23. A container having a volume of 70.85L contains oxygen gas at a
pressure 861.6kPa when the temperature is 24C. Oxygen leaks from
the drum until the pressure drops to 689.3 kPa, while the temperature
remains constant. How much oxygen leaked out of the container?

Solution:

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
2 2 2
2 2
2
2
2
Initial : P 861.6kPa,V 70.85L, T 24
P V
n
RT
L-kPa
R 8.314
mol-K
861.6kPa 70.85L
n
L-kPa
8.314 24 273 K
mol-K
n 24.72 mols
Final:P 689.3kPa,V 70.85L, T 24
P V
n
RT
689.3kPa 70.85L
n
L-kPa
8.314
mol-K
= = =
=
=
=

+


=
= = =
=
=

( )
( )
2
leaked 1 2
leaked
leaked 2
leaked 2 2
24 273 K
n 19.78 mols
Amount of oxygen leaked out:
n n n 24.72 mols 19.78 mols
n 4.94 mols
2 16g
m O 4.94 mols
1mol
m O 158g O

=
= =
=
=
=







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GEAS
GEAS
CHAPTER 4 - Thermodynamics
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24. The initial volume of the air inside a chamber is 0.028 m3 at a pressure
of 10.3 MPa. It is heated and the volume is changed to 0.227 m3.
Consider the expansion process is quasi-static and given by the relation
PV1.4 =C, find the total work done.

Solution:

( )
( )
2
1 2
1
1.4
1.4
1.4 1.4
1 1 2 2
1.4 1.4
2
1 2
1
2
1 2
1.4
1
2
1 2
1.4
1
0.227 0.227
1.4
1 2 1 1
1.4 1.4
0.028 0.028
0.227
1.4 6
1 2
1.4
0.028
1 2
W PdV
PV C
C
P
V
P V P V
P
V V
W PdV
C
W dV
V
dV
W
V
dV dV
W C P V
V V
dV
W 10.3 10 Pa 0.028
V
W 408.832 kJ

=
=
=
= =
=
=
=
= =
=
=

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