Academic Writing Handbook

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Academic Writing
handbook

Guidance for students

2012-13
INTRODUCTION

As a postgraduate institution, LSHTM expects all students to demonstrate a
high standard of academic practice in work done for School courses. This
handbook gives general guidance about how to write in the academic style
the School expects. It should be applicable for students at all levels (MSc,
Diploma, Certificate, short course, or even Research Degrees), whether
studying in London or by distance learning.

This supplements basic guidance you will have been given in your course
handbook or other similar documents (e.g. project handbook, research
degrees handbook). Please take some time to read the information here,
especially if you are not already familiar with concepts like how to reference
and avoid plagiarism, or if you have not studied in UK higher education
before. Developing your understanding and making use of the guidance can
potentially help you attain better grades.

The handbook should be particularly useful for those writing extended pieces
of work, e.g. projects, although the basic principles should apply to all writing
done as part of your studies. It is structured with specific sub-sections you can
dip into and refer back to if you need guidance on something specific.
Chapter 1 covers some basic pointers about how to structure your written
work, the standard of English expected, etc. However this chapter does
not go into great detail, but instead gives links to further useful resources.
Chapters 2 to 4 give more extensive guidance on what is perhaps the
most important element of good academic writing learning to cite,
reference and acknowledge your sources, so as to avoid the risks of
plagiarism or other irregularities. Further useful links are also given; but
what is here represents the Schools policies on these matters.
Chapter 5 gives some information about copyright.
An Appendix provides detailed guidance on how to reference different
types of source material in the Harvard and Vancouver styles.

In the event of any inconsistency between the information in this handbook
and any other School document, please contact your Course Director (taught
courses) or Faculty Research Degrees Director. Where an interpretation may
be required, advice should be sought from the Associate Dean of Studies.
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: WRITING SKILLS ......................................................... 3
A.) GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR ACADEMIC WRITING ................................ 3
A.1 Reviewing the literature ..................................................................... 3
A.2 Considering the topic and examining the question ........................... 4
A.3 Planning and structuring .................................................................... 4
A.4 Major structural elements .................................................................. 4
A.5 Presentation ...................................................................................... 5
A.6 Language skills and standards .......................................................... 5
A.7 Other useful pointers ......................................................................... 6
A.8 Developing independent and critical thinking .................................... 6
B.) FURTHER RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPING YOUR WRITING SKILLS 7
B.1 Overall tips on writing and referencing .............................................. 7
B.2 More information on good writing practice ........................................ 7
B.3 Style guide for medical journal papers .............................................. 8
B.4 Useful books ...................................................................................... 8
B.5 Other relevant study skills resources ................................................ 8
CHAPTER 2: CITING AND REFERENCING ....................................... 9
A.) PRINCIPLES OF CITING AND REFERENCING ....................................... 9
A.1 Key principles .................................................................................... 9
A.2 The Harvard referencing style (author/date) ..................................... 9
A.3 The Vancouver referencing style (numbering) ................................ 10
A.4 Presenting a reference list ............................................................... 10
A.5 Which referencing style to use ........................................................ 11
B.) REFERENCING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOURCE ............................... 11
B.1 Official reports, non-authored works and material from websites ... 12
B.2 Material in non-standard media ....................................................... 12
B.3 Personal communications ............................................................... 12
B.4 Self-citation ...................................................................................... 12
B.5 Indirect citation, and secondary sources ......................................... 12
B.6 Encyclopedias ................................................................................. 13
B.7 Wikipedia and other open-content collaborative resources ............ 13
B.8 Common knowledge that does not need to be referenced ............. 13
B.9 Off-topic references ....................................................................... 14
B.10 Referencing tables and figures ...................................................... 14
C.) FURTHER NOTES ON CITING AND REFERENCING ........................... 14
C.1 How often to cite .............................................................................. 14
C.2 Giving page numbers ...................................................................... 15
C.3 Distinguishing citations from your own notes .................................. 15
D.) USING A REFERENCE MANAGER ........................................................ 15
D.1 Benefits of using reference management software ......................... 16
D.2 Which reference manager to use..................................................... 16
D.3 Guidance and training for using reference managers ..................... 17
E.) FURTHER RESOURCES ABOUT CITING AND REFERENCING .......... 17
E.1 Useful books .................................................................................... 17
E.2 Web-based guides to referencing systems ...................................... 17
E.3 Web-based tutorials on referencing and citation ............................. 18
E.4 More information .............................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 3: AVOIDING PLAGIARISM AND ASSESSMENT
IRREGULARITIES ............................................................................ 19
A.) ASSESSMENT IRREGULARITY DEFINITIONS...................................... 19
A.1 Types of assessment irregularities .................................................. 19
A.2 Declaration on plagiarism and cheating ........................................... 19
A.3 LSHTM definition of plagiarism ........................................................ 19
A.4 Avoiding plagiarism .......................................................................... 20
A.5 Quoting directly from a source ......................................................... 21
A.6 Collusion, and how to avoid it .......................................................... 21
A.7 Personation, and how to avoid it ...................................................... 22
A.8 Fraud, and how to avoid it ................................................................ 22
A.9 LSHTM definition of cheating ........................................................... 23
B.) ASSESSMENT IRREGULARITIES PROCEDURE .................................. 23
B.1 Penalties .......................................................................................... 24
C.) AVOIDING PLAGIARISM A WORKED EXAMPLE .............................. 24
C.1 Original material to be quoted .......................................................... 24
C.2 An acceptable approach direct quotation with citation ................. 24
C.3 An acceptable approach paraphrasing with citation ..................... 25
C.4 An unacceptable approach direct quotation without indication .... 25
C.5 An unacceptable approach editing without indication or citation .. 25
C.6 What to put in the reference list ....................................................... 25
C.7 Applying these examples to other types of source .......................... 26
D.) DETECTING PLAGIARISM ...................................................................... 26
D.1 How Turnitin works .......................................................................... 26
D.2 What happens when suspected plagiarism is identified .................. 27
E.) TIPS FOR AVOIDING PLAGIARISM ....................................................... 27
E.1 Leaving enough time for the research process ................................ 27
E.2 Using clear note taking techniques .................................................. 27
F.) FURTHER RESOURCES ABOUT AVOIDING PLAGIARISM ................. 27
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CHAPTER 4: RECOGNISING THE CONTRIBUTION OF OTHERS .. 28
A.) PRINCIPLES FOR ACKNOWLEDGING INPUT FROM OTHERS .......... 28
A.1 Key principles .................................................................................. 28
A.2 Marking of work ............................................................................... 29
A.3 Groupwork ....................................................................................... 29
B.) PROOF-READING AND HELP WITH WRITING OR LANGUAGE ......... 29
B.1 Proof-reading and advice from others ............................................. 29
B.2 Proof-reading and copy-editing for research degrees theses ......... 30
C.) GIVING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................... 30
C.1 Key principles .................................................................................. 30
C.2 Including an Acknowledgements section ........................................ 30
C.3 Research participants ...................................................................... 31
C.4 Additional requirements................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 5: COPYRIGHT AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ....... 32
A.) SCHOOL POLICIES FOR STUDENT WORK ......................................... 32
A.1 Copyright and intellectual property rights ........................................ 32
A.2 Copyright and IPR agreements for major work ............................... 32
A.3 Copyright that otherwise applies to your work as a student ............ 33
A.4 Intellectual Property Rights School policy .................................... 33
A.5 Setting restrictions on access to your work ..................................... 33
B.) PUBLICATION OF STUDENT WORK ..................................................... 33
B.1 Authorship ....................................................................................... 33
B.2 Obtaining copyright permissions for publication .............................. 34
APPENDIX: REFERENCING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOURCE ..... 35
A. Referencing a journal article .......................................................... 35
B. Referencing a book (including edited books) .............................. 36
C. Referencing a book chapter ........................................................... 37
D. Referencing a thesis or dissertation ............................................. 38
E. Referencing reports or non-authored works ................................ 39
F. Referencing online resources ........................................................ 40
G. Referencing conference proceedings ........................................... 41
H. Referencing tables and figures ...................................................... 42

Academic Writing handbook Guidance for students 2012-13
London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.
Last updated August 2012.
CHAPTER 1: WRITING SKILLS

The ability to produce good-quality written work is a key aspect of obtaining
your degree, and also likely to be very important in your subsequent
professional life. Later chapters of this handbook cover the key requirements
of academic writing how to cite and reference your sources correctly,
ensuring you acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism. But first,
this chapter offers some brief guidance on general writing skills how to
marshal your ideas and present your work well. Links to more comprehensive
guidance and resources have been provided.

A.) GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR ACADEMIC WRITING

The style of writing required for LSHTM assessments may call for different
skills to those you have used in your previous education or employment. If you
are not entirely confident in this, remember that 'practice makes perfect' the
more academic writing you do, the better you will become at it. Aspects that
may be new or unfamiliar, such as citing and referencing, should become
much easier when you have had the chance to practice applying them in
different assessments. Staff may also give you comments or feedback about
your writing style, and help you to identify whether there are any aspects you
can improve.

The following guidance is intended to help with all forms of writing. It is mainly
drawn from guidance about producing essays or reports that are a few
thousand words long. However, these ideas may be applied in a more
condensed way for shorter work, e.g. assignments of less than a thousand
words.

A.1 Reviewing the literature
Your first step should normally be to gather together all your existing
knowledge about the topic(s) you need to address, e.g. by checking back
through lecture notes, and identifying the areas where you need to learn
more. Depending on the requirements of the work or assessment, it may be
necessary to carry out a thorough literature review; the Library provide more
information about how to do this most effectively. Even if you dont need to do
a formal literature review, it will usually be helpful to prepare a list of all the
key academic literature on the subject, which you can update as you work
through your reading and writing for the assignment. Putting key details into a
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reference manager programme (e.g. EndNote, Mendeley or Zotero) can help
make things easier for later on guidance about this is given in Chapter 2.

A.2 Considering the topic and examining the question
As well as reviewing the literature, before you start writing it is always healthy
to spend some time thinking carefully about the topic. If there is a specific
question you have been asked to answer, can you 'unpack' it or break it down
into a set of smaller and more specific questions? If you have leeway to
choose your own topic, what are your options? The further resources linked at
the end of this chapter touch on some of the many different techniques which
exist for brainstorming and coming up with thoughts and ideas e.g. about
how problem X affects issue Y, and what follows from this. Do whatever works
best for you; but as an end result, you should aim to come up with a fairly
clear idea of the scope, parameters and dimensions of what you will cover.

Another useful approach is to consider what kind of different 'lenses' you can
use to look at the topic. What theories or evidence does the literature provide?
What different groups of people are affected by the subject under discussion?
What arenas does this issue affect (e.g. social or economic impacts)? What
factors underpin it (e.g. physical or biological variables)? What components is
the issue made up of? What tensions or challenges does it create? Can you
give some case studies? You may wish to think about commenting on and
critiquing some, but probably not all, of the different approaches that may be
taken to answering the question.

A.3 Planning and structuring
A good piece of academic writing should always be well-structured being
clear, consistent, relevant and readable all the way through, to support an
authoritative conclusion. The best way to achieve this is by planning your
structure and arguments in advance.

If you feel that simply writing or typing away in a 'free flow' is a technique that
produces good results for you, by all means do so. However, you will almost
always be able to improve the end result by editing and adjusting the structure
so be prepared to come up with a first draft which you then aim to improve.

Having identified or worked out all the main aspects of the topic that you want
to cover, you should develop a structure. Typically, each point you wish to
make will correspond to a paragraph or two in the final work. Ideally, all your
points should flow in a logical sequence from one to another, to create a
coherent proposition or argument. Everything you include should be relevant
to the question or title of the work, and create a consistent answer or
treatment of it. You may need to discard certain points or ideas that don't fit
with this plan, or refine them so that they are relevant to include.

You should also be aware that while the guidance here is generic, certain
courses or assessments will have much more specific requirements for how
your work should be written up and structured. In some cases this may mean
a requirement to follow established public standards for example if you are
working in an epidemiological area, you may be required to follow the
CONSORT and STROBE guidelines for reporting of clinical trials and
observational studies. Please check the assessment requirements you have
been given (especially the project handbook for any MSc students doing a
project) to see what may apply in each case.

A.4 Major structural elements
The kind of written work you may need to produce as an LSHTM student may
be greatly varied but invariably, everything you write will need to have a
beginning, a middle and an end. For anything at essay length or longer, this
will normally correspond to an introduction, main content, and a conclusion.

The introduction should set out for the reader the topic that you are going to
cover. It should normally include a brief interpretation of the title or question
(including defining any key terms) i.e. what the issue is, and why it is
important. It should set the scene briefly, mentioning any key contextual
issues relevant to the topic). It should make clear how the
assignment/essay/report will be structured, so as to address the title or
question. And it should give an idea of how your personal 'voice' or
interpretation will be put across later on.

The main content of your work is obviously very much dependent on
whatever topic you are addressing.
If you are describing a scientific experiment, the MethodsResults
AnalysisDiscussion approach is very standard and may be encouraged
in the assessment criteria.
If you are writing a more discursive essay, it is often useful to use an
argumentinterrogationintegration approach, i.e. taking a specific issue
from the data or idea from the literature, establishing the context and
identifying the main issues or problems, examining and critiquing
strengths or weaknesses (giving practical case examples is often helpful),
and making a judgement about it.
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Generally, it is good to give ideas from both theory (literature) and practice
(evidence from you or from others). It is also generally helpful to set out
specific strategies or recommendations for how to address any problems you
have identified. And unless discouraged in the assessment criteria, it is
generally good to include some personal views about the issues, e.g.
reflecting on examples from your own experiences, or critiquing aspects of the
literature. However, note that personal opinions should always be clearly
labelled as such, and should not dominate a piece of academic work.

The conclusion should neatly summarise everything you have set out in the
main body of the work, recapping arguments/findings/recommendations you
identified earlier in the main content. As a general rule, you should avoid
introducing any new material in your conclusion. You should reflect on the
argument, variables or critical factors, and the implications of the issues
raised. The conclusion should pair up with and reflect the introduction to
form a coherent whole, that 'book-ends' the main content.

A.5 Presentation
The way you present your work may have a limited, but important, effect on
the mark it receives. Some key rules to bear in mind are:
It is vital to follow whatever presentation or formatting criteria are laid out
in the assessment guidelines e.g. font size, line spacing, margins etc.
Its usually good to present your work so it demonstrates the underlying
structure, e.g. with headings and subheadings to distinguish different
sections.
You should be consistent in the formatting style you apply e.g. using the
same font and font size throughout the main part of your work; or
standardising your use of different formats (bold, underlining etc.) to
distinguish headings and subheadings.
Paragraphs should be short-to-medium-sized and uncluttered. Five or six
paragraphs per A4 page is generally about right, while fewer than two or
three paragraphs breaks on a page is likely to be difficult for readers to
digest. It is also helpful to put a line break in after each paragraph, to
make them more visually distinct (i.e. dont simply start your next
paragraph on the next line down, even if you are indenting the first line to
show that it is new).
Aim to reinforce the narrative flow of your work and the power of your
argument, by using visual elements (e.g. tables, diagrams, charts) and
signposting (e.g. headings, recaps and summaries) throughout .Use of
bullet-pointed or numbered lists may be helpful.

A.6 Language skills and standards
LSHTM is proud to have a very diverse student body, including many whose
native tongue is not English, or others returning to study from a job which did
not required regular academic-style writing.

If English is not your first language or you are not fully confident is your
fluency, please be reassured that a 'high' standard of English is not a general
requirement for assessed work. Rather, LSHTM assessments will normally
ask you to produce readable and evidence-based commentary that puts your
points across clearly. Well-structured organisation (such as distinct main
sections), clear presentation (such as uncluttered short paragraphs and
sensible use of lists, bullet points or tables) and straightforward unambiguous
phrasing (e.g. using short descriptive sentences) are all much more important
than trying to come up with brilliant phrasing. Your use of language needs to
demonstrate your knowledge of the topic, not your fluency in English, so you
will not be marked down for minor imperfections.

At the same time however, all LSHTM courses are English-language-based,
and all students are expected to have a standard of written English sufficient
to demonstrate their academic competence. If you are worried about your
level of English, you may wish to take some additional language training,
separate to your LSHTM course the British Council, www.britishcouncil.org,
are a good source of information on English courses available in different
countries around the world. Students studying in London can also attend a
free programme of English for Academic Purposes workshops

While this handbook cannot possibly cover all the ways you might want to use
English in your writing, the following points may be useful to bear in mind:
Always remember that the objective of a piece of academic writing should
be to produce something readable and evidence-based that puts your
points across clearly.
Aim to use straightforward unambiguous phrasing, e.g. with short
descriptive sentences, rather than trying to come up with brilliant
phrasing. You should choose words because they are clear and precise
and convey exactly the meaning you intend, not because they sound
complex and clever. There should be no room for misinterpretation.
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Sentences should be no more than two or three lines long at the most
any longer sentences are probably too long and should be broken
down.
As much as possible, try to ensure your spelling, grammar and
punctuation are correct. Using correct English is a key part of being able
to communicate ideas and demonstrate your knowledge, as well as a
courtesy to the reader to make your work as readable as possible.
Choose to write in a specific voice, and do this consistently. For
example, an active voice in the first person would be I observed the
handwashing practices of staff during rostered shifts this is a good
voice to use for describing experiments. The same statement in the
passive voice would be The handwashing practices of staff were
observed during rostered shifts this is a good voice to use for less
specific and more discursive work.
When you have finished writing a draft of your work and are reasonably
happy with it, you may ask someone else (for example, a native speaker
of English) to proof-read it. They may then make suggestions about your
use of language, grammar, etc.; but it is your responsibility to decide what
to change, you should acknowledge any assistance you have received,
and you must never let anyone else extensively edit or rewrite your
assessed work for you. More guidance about this is given in Chapter 4.

A.7 Other useful pointers
Practice makes perfect if you have not done a great deal of academic
writing in English recently, then as preparation for formal assessments
you may find it helpful to practice turning your study notes into exam-
style answers or essay-style paragraphs and sections. You may be able
to ask someone appropriate (such as a tutor) to comment on whether
such material meets the standards required for assessments.
It is important to always answer the question or ensure you fully address
the subject your title indicates. Examine the question carefully to identify
any sub-questions and consider exactly what is being sought.
Any arguments or assertions should link back to specific evidence.
It is usually helpful (especially with word count constraints) to strategically
select specific issues you will deal with rather than attempting to deal
with absolutely everything that may be of relevance. One way to do this is
to briefly list all major issues that may apply, then state which subset of
these you will consider in depth.
Look at the question from different angles; and where appropriate, try to
use a mix of theory/literature and practice/personal elements i.e.
integrating academic context (from your reading) and particular case
material. It is often useful to present examples as structured case studies
(with comparable information and evidence) this can help support your
argument much more strongly than scattering different unrelated
examples throughout the text
Apply criticality don't simply quote or describe the work of others; show
how they differ, take a position and examine pros and cons, be sceptical.
If appropriate, use a variety of perspectives and theoretical
frameworks/concepts.
Aim to demonstrate excellence through comprehensive engagement with
and understanding of the topic, insightful analysis that leads to a
compelling argument, and demonstrating original or independent thinking
(for example, adapting an existing model from the literature to work in a
new way).
Finally, always proof-read your work (yourself) before submission.
You can also potentially ask others to proof-read it and offer any
suggestions about your use of language. More guidance about this is
given in Chapter 4.

A.8 Developing independent and critical thinking
All LSHTM assessments will require you to demonstrate knowledge of the
basic facts in the area under discussion by making use of the literature, and
citing the work of relevant authorities. Over and above this, at postgraduate
level you are expected to demonstrate evidence of independent critical
thought and real understanding. As well as summaries of what other
researchers have found, you should give details of what you yourself think of
their findings and their interpretations. Do not be afraid to be critical of other
peoples ideas, however eminent the author (academic life is based on
criticism); but always give the reasons why you disagree. Your point of view
should come across to the reader as a justified judgement or reasoned
argument, and not simply as an opinion.

As outlined in later chapters, it is vital that the work of others is cited or
acknowledged appropriately wherever you make use of it otherwise you run
the risk of plagiarising. The references you use should demonstrate your
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reading and learning. References can also provide a useful concise shorthand
for particular ideas or concepts.

Conversely, you should be aware that over-reliance on referencing is liable to
attract a lower mark. While a correctly-presented reference is never in itself a
bad thing, it would be seen as excessive for a piece of work to consist almost
entirely of referenced quotations or paraphrasing of the work of others. Work
that demonstrates a lack of original argument or analysis, or understanding
and engagement with the topic, is liable to fail so you need to give your own
comments about any work you are citing.

There are a number of good reasons why some students may be less
comfortable about giving a personal perspective. You may wish to reproduce
the words, ideas and thoughts of authors, lecturers and tutors because you
consider it respectful to do so; or because you feel that these views constitute
the correct answer, response or approach to a question; or because you do
not feel you can communicate as lucidly or clearly as the source to which you
are referring. You may even have come from a previous educational system
that required students to repeat (even verbatim) information given during the
course, without demanding further analysis or use of this information.
However, this is not what will be required of you at LSHTM; and an
assessment consisting entirely of the work of others, even if comprehensively
referenced, is likely to result in poor marks.

You should also avoid learning information by rote. Rote learning involves
memorising extracts of text or information, often for the purpose of recalling
and reproducing the material in answering an examination question. Students
that do so risk failing to acknowledge the source or author correctly and may
therefore commit plagiarism. Remember that LSHTM assessments are
designed to test your understanding and application of knowledge, not simply
to test of your capacity to reproduce large extracts of information or text.

To obtain high marks, you will almost always be expected to:
Examine a particular body of knowledge which may be your own
research, or the work and ideas of others, or a combination of the two.
Demonstrate your understanding of this knowledge beyond simply
stating facts or repeating information from textbooks or other sources, you
should show that you have learnt and can apply the concepts and skills
involved.
Critically examine and challenge such knowledge give your own views
and analysis, and aim to identify both strengths and weaknesses (whether
in your own research or in the work of others).

When putting forward the viewpoints of others, it can be good to set out your
own opinions or alternative thoughts. As you write, try to ask yourself "how
does this demonstrate critical thinking?", and "how does this demonstrate
independent thought?". You may be able to give examples to show that you
understand the concepts, or to compare and contrast different facts or ideas
to show that you have thought critically about them.

B.) FURTHER RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPING YOUR WRITING SKILLS

All students, no matter how experienced or fluent in producing written work,
are likely to benefit from reflecting on how you approach the 'skill' of writing for
academic purposes. You should find at least some of the following selection
of resources helpful.

B.1 Overall tips on writing and referencing

Recommended:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ from Purdue University Online
Writing Lab, USA an extensive set of resources on good writing
practice. Click on the General Writing link for guidance that is likely to be
helpful in writing assignments and essays.

Also potentially helpful:
http://writing.yalecollege.yale.edu/what-good-writers-know from Yale
University. A good summary of principles for writing well, included as part
of the wider suite of resources from the Yale Writing Center.
www.hamilton.edu/writing/sources.html from Hamilton College, USA.
Useful tips on using sources, with guidance on citing and paraphrasing.

B.2 More information on good writing practice

Recommended:
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=3359 from the
Open University. A comprehensive set of introductory-level online tutorials
about planning, structuring and writing academic assignments or reports.

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www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/onlineguide/chapter5-01.cfm from
University of Maryland University College, USA. This has in-depth
guidance on all aspects of documenting sources, as part of a chapter from
an online book about academic writing. Other chapters of the book cover
many further aspects of effective writing, and may also be helpful.

B.3 Style guide for medical journal papers

Recommended:
http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/authors/bmj-house-style from the British
Medical Journal. These are the BMJs official instructions for authors on
the house style to use in submitted papers. These include many helpful
tips for good writing in general, e.g. grammar and punctuation, as well as
more specific guidance on exactly what the BMJ will accept. This can be
seen as a gold standard of how you should aim to put a paper together
for medical topics.

B.4 Useful books
The Library has a wide range of books that provide guidance and support for
academic writing and study skills, shelved under the classmarks AH.AZ and
AR.AT. Most such books also tend to be reasonably priced and commonly
available from bookshops catering to students and academics.

Recommended:
Bailey, S. (2006) Academic writing: a handbook for international students.
2nd ed. Routledge, London.
Swetnam, D. (2004) Writing your dissertation. 3rd ed. How To Books,
Oxford.

Burnapp, D. (2009). Getting Ahead as an International Student. Open
University Press, Maidenhead.
Cottrell, S. (2003). The Study Skills Handbook. Palgrave, Basingstoke.
Craswell, G. (2005). Writing for Academic Success. Sage, London.
Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006). The Handbook of Academic Writing A
Fresh Approach. Open University Press / McGraw Hill, Oxford.
Murray, R. (2007). How to Write A Thesis. 2nd ed. Open University Press,
Maidenhead.

B.5 Other relevant study skills resources

Recommended:
www.lshtm.ac.uk/edu/studyskills.html the School's own study skills
page, with links to many further useful study resources from other
academic institutions. As well as the writing skills links given above, this
covers areas like research skills, using the internet and searching
databases, as well as maths and numeracy, memory skills, time
management, groupwork, presentation skills, etc.

www.vts.intute.ac.uk/detective from JISCs Intute student resources
(developed by staff from the University of Bristol and Manchester
Metropolitan University). A short and approachable online tutorial entitled
Internet Detective, aimed at developing students internet research skills
for coursework. Includes practical advice and exercises for evaluating the
quality of web sites, to help prevent poor-quality information from wasting
your time.

www.britishcouncil.org the British Council, a good source of information
on English language training/courses available in different countries
around the world.
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CHAPTER 2: CITING AND REFERENCING

Academic writing, particularly when it is formally assessed, has to follow
certain rules and conventions. Among the most important of these are rules
and conventions about citing and referencing the work of others. These help
distinguish academic material from other forms or writing.

Scholars and researchers should always clearly state which ideas and work
are their own and which are other peoples by citing and referencing
correctly. This chapter sets out the Schools standard guidance on how to do
this, and should apply for all work you do in the course of your LSHTM
studies. Additionally, certain modules or courses may have more specific
requirements and will make these clear if so.

The Schools key requirements are that your written work should always:
(i) Acknowledge the work of others wherever you make use of it.
(ii) Present such acknowledgements in a consistent way using a
recognised citation system.
(iii) Give a well-presented reference list at the end of your work.

You are also encouraged to make use of reference manager software,
particularly for extended pieces of work with many references. Such software
allows you to manage citations and reference lists in your work more easily
and more consistently than doing so manually. The packages recommended
by the School are EndNote, Mendeley or Zotero. Guidance is available for
using these; further details are given later in this chapter.

A.) PRINCIPLES OF CITING AND REFERENCING

A.1 Key principles
A citation or reference is a way of properly acknowledging where you make
use of the work of others. Citing means giving such an acknowledgement
within the main body of a piece of work, while referencing is a broader term
which covers both in-text citations and the more extensive information about
your source material which should be presented at the end of your work. As
well as allowing any of your readers to consult your references, this also gives
authority to your work by demonstrating the breadth of your research.

Whenever you quote directly from a source, paraphrase, use ideas you
obtained from a source, or use sayings or facts which are not common
knowledge you must cite where these have come from. This doesn't just
include printed materials such as books or journal articles, it also includes
electronic information (webpages, emails, postings from webgroups etc),
images (electronic images, photographs, paintings, illustrations, graphs,
tables etc) and recorded or spoken information (television broadcasts, radio,
lectures, interviews, public speeches, conversations etc).

You should always use a recognised citation system or style for your
references. This will determine how you present references in the main body
of your work, and how you present the reference list at the end. There are a
large number of recognised systems; the two most widely used in medicine
and science are known as Harvard (the author/date style) and Vancouver
(numbering style). Both are described more fully in the next two sections.
Whichever system you adopt should be used consistently throughout your
piece of work do not mix and match different referencing styles.

All references you give should be collated in a reference list sometimes
called a bibliography at the end of your piece of work. Again, this should be
clearly and consistently presented, in line with widely-recognised rules.
Instructions about this are given in a later section.

The body of your work should make clear which pieces of information have
come from your own research and which have come from the work of others.
As well as citing and referencing sources, you should also acknowledge any
further assistance you have received in preparing your work. Further guidance
is given in the later chapter on recognising the contribution of others.

A.2 The Harvard referencing style (author/date)
This style of citation, sometimes known as the author/date style, works as
follows.

Presenting a citation in Harvard style:
The author's surname and year of publication should be quoted in the
text, e.g. "as confirmed by Abrams (1969)" or "as confirmed by
another study (Abrams 1969)".
If citing different authors with the same surname then distinguish them
by adding their initials, e.g. "(Bond, C.E. 1993)" versus "(Bond, J.
1997)".
If there are two or three authors then all should be named, e.g.
(Sewell and Foster 1976) or (Bond, Norrish & Burton 1994).
Authors names should always be listed in the same order as they are
10
credited in the original. If there are more than three authors, then use
the first authors name followed by et al., e.g. (Gillespie et al.
1983)".
Where there are multiple authors, some variants on the Harvard style
recommend using the word and rather than an ampersand (&).

The author and date details should be presented with no punctuation
between them (i.e. no commas, hypens or colons). If the author's name is
already clearly indicated in that piece of text, then only the date needs to
be entered as a citation, e.g. Berals findings on links between ovarian
cancer and HRT (2007) suggest that.

You may need to distinguish works from the same author(s) that date
from the same year. This should be done by adding different lower-case
letters (in alphabetical order) after the year. For example, if you are
making use of two World Health Organisation reports from 2008, you
should cite them as (WHO 2008a) and (WHO 2008b) with the a and
b versions also being clearly distinguished in the reference list.

For long documents or direct quotes, page numbers should be added
after the year of publication, separated by a colon.

Multiple citations should be separated by a semicolon, e.g. Societal
transitions in Eastern Europe have been described as a risk
environment linked to increased mortality through alcohol use and
HIV infection through injecting drug use (Bobak and Marmot, 1996;
Leon et al., 1997, 2007; McKee, 2002; Rhodes and Simi, 2005;
Rhodes et al., 1999; Walberg et al., 1998).

Presenting the reference list in Harvard style:
The reference list or bibliography should be arranged by alphabetical
order of the first author's name an example (for a journal article) would
be:
Ganapati R., Naik S.S., Acharekar M.Y. and Pade S.S. (1976)
Leprosy endemicity in Bombay: an assessment through surveys
of municipal schools, Leprosy Review 47: 127 - 31.

Comprehensive details of how to use the Harvard style are given in the
Appendix, Referencing different types of source.

A.3 The Vancouver referencing style (numbering)
This style of citation, sometimes known as the numbering style, works as
follows.

Presenting a citation in Vancouver style:
Each citation should be numbered sequentially in the text, either in
brackets, e.g. "as confirmed by Abrams (3)", "as confirmed by other
studies (3)" or as a superscript, e.g. "as confirmed by Abrams.
3
".

The first citation is given number 1, the second citation number 2, etc.
Each citation is given the same number throughout the text so if you wish
to cite the first citation again at a later point, it is still given the number 1.

The placement of the citation numbers within the text should be carefully
considered, for example a particular reference may only be relevant to
part of a sentence. As a general rule, reference numbers should be put
outside full stops and commas and inside colons and semi-colons.

For long documents or direct quotes, page numbers should be added
after the reference number, separated by a colon.

Presenting the reference list in Vancouver style:
The reference list or bibliography should list the references in numerical
order, i.e. the order in which they appear in the text an example (for a
journal article) would be:
2. Ganapati R, Naik SS, Acharekar MY and Pade SS. Leprosy
endemicity in Bombay: an assessment through surveys of
municipal schools. Leprosy Review 1976; 47: 127-31.

Comprehensive details of how to use the Vancouver style are given in the
Appendix, Referencing different types of source.

A.4 Presenting a reference list
All references or citations given in the main body of your text should be
compiled in a specific reference list at the end. This should be clearly and
consistently presented, and follow a prescribed format. It should give sufficient
details about each reference, above and beyond the citation given in the main
text, to enable a reader to look up the original source material if they wish to
do so.

11
You should also note that the term reference list is often used
interchangeably with bibliography, but has a slightly different meaning.
A reference list (or works cited list) should only include items you have
referenced in your work, even if you read other sources while researching
the topic.
A bibliography should cover all sources you consulted in preparing your
work, even if you did not end up making use of them; or sometimes, a
bibliography may be presented as a comprehensive annotated list of
further reading on a topic. However, you should always distinguish works
you have actually made use of from any others you are simply listing.
In longer works, such as academic books, a works cited list may be
given to cover references in the text, followed by a bibliography of
recommended reading.

For the purpose of LSHTM assessments, you should normally provide a
reference list unless the assignment criteria specifically request a
bibliography.

Different types of source material will need to be referred to in different ways
in the reference list. The citation system you use will also affect how the list is
ordered and the types of details that need to be given in it.

A.5 Which referencing style to use
There are many other well-recognised citation systems in addition to Harvard
and Vancouver. Specific modules or courses may teach you particular
advanced approaches or prescribe certain writing styles that meet the
conventions of the field you are working in. Otherwise, it will normally be up to
you to decide which system you would like to use.

It may be helpful to note
The Harvard system can be easier to use during word processing, since
the insertion of an extra reference does not require the renumbering of all
subsequent references (as it can with the Vancouver system). This tends
to be a good system to use for discursive essay-type work, or in fields like
social science.
The Vancouver system may aid clarity and readability where the same
item is cited many times, since you just need to give the same numeric
reference in each case rather than cluttering up your work with repetitions
of the same author-and-date details. This tends to be a good system to
use for more technical work, e.g. in relation to lab-based experiments, or
in medical writing.
Other alternative styles of referencing may also be recommended for a
specific piece of work. For example, footnotes-based styles such as the
Chicago style or the Turabian system are commonly used for presenting
research in historical fields such as history of public health.

Its also useful to be aware that academic journals provide instructions to
authors (which are usually accessible via their websites) to describe the
specific house style they use for references. For example, the journal Cell
describes the use of the Harvard system, while both the British Medical
Journal (BMJ) and the Lancet use the Vancouver system.

Remember that whichever referencing style you use will have its own
requirements for both presenting a citation in the main body of your text (the
data and format required), and presenting the reference list at the end (the
data, order and format required). These requirements will also vary depending
on the type of source, e.g. journal articles, books or websites may all require
slightly different information to be given in the reference list.

B.) REFERENCING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOURCE

While you should always acknowledge any work you make use of which is not
your own, there are some types of work that you may need to reference
slightly differently, and some types of information that you should not make
use of at all.

The main types of academic source material you are likely to need to use are:
Journal articles
Books (authored)
Books (edited)
Chapters of edited books
PhD theses
Official reports and other forms of grey literature or non-authored
works
Material from websites
Conference papers or proceedings
Tables or figures from the work of others (whatever source medium)
12
Comprehensive instructions describing how to reference these, in both the
Harvard and Vancouver styles, are given in the Appendix on Referencing
different types of source. The basic requirements are all very similar.

The following additional guidance covers some of the less standard types of
source including ones that you may need to be more careful about using.

B.1 Official reports, non-authored works and material from websites
Most reference lists will include some works which have not been produced by
specific named authors for example, reports published by an organisation.
Such works should be referenced just as clearly as any others, but mentioning
other responsible parties (such as editors, funding or sponsoring agencies,
etc.) in the absence of named authors.

Likewise, if you are using material without any clear author, creator or
originator, such as images found on the internet, you should make clear
where you sourced this e.g. by referring to the website you downloaded the
material from.

Detailed guidance on how to reference both reports and internet material, with
examples, is given in the Appendix.

B.2 Material in non-standard media
Material from other media e.g. film/television/radio documentaries, or
audio/video recordings needs to be referenced just as clearly as any other
source. Your reference list should make this clear, giving any further specific
identifying information such as the date and channel of broadcast, or date and
location of recording. For example:
BBC (2003). War Spin - TV documentary broadcast on BBC Two on
Sunday 18 May 2003 at 1915 BST. British Broadcasting Corporation,
London.

B.3 Personal communications
Personal communications are information that has been imparted personally
to you, such as emails, telephone calls and direct conversations, or other
material such as unpublished material or personal letters which you personally
have access to but is not publicly available.
These are allowable sources and should be clearly indicated at the point
you make use of them in your main text; for example,
(Cervenda J 1967 personal communication) or
(Pande A B unpublished).
However, they should not be included in a formal reference list. You
should ask permission from the source before you cite any personal
communications.

B.4 Self-citation
If you are submitting something that builds on work you previously did for
another purpose e.g. a published article, an essay for a course previously
undertaken at another institution, or a piece of research carried out as part of
your employment you should reference this as carefully as any other source.
Similarly, if you want to re-use work you first did for a previous LSHTM
assessment (e.g. to use elements of a module assignment in an MSc project
report), this needs to be made very clear as credit can only be given once
for a particular piece of work.

This is known as self-citation. Professional academics and researchers often
self-cite, and indeed it can be considered good academic practice. Doing this
as a student may even benefit your grades, by demonstrating to markers the
extent of your work on and knowledge about the subject over a period of time.

However, be aware that if you fail to reference or acknowledge your own
further work (i.e. anything originally done for other purposes) as clearly as the
work of others, then this may be treated as a form of plagiarism. Even if you
own the copyright to the original work, you still have a responsibility to refer to
it correctly.

As an example of self-citation: A 2009 paper by Rhodes (Risk environments
and drug harms, International Journal of Drug Policy, Vol 20, pp193-201)
begins with the following sentence referring to his own previous work on the
topic: Drug harms are shaped by risk environments (Rhodes, 2002).

B.5 Indirect citation, and secondary sources
Indirect citation means making use of a source you have not directly seen
yourself, but only seen referenced in some other source (the secondary
source). This is strongly discouraged it is best to look up the original
versions of any primary sources you identify via secondary sources, and
confirm their validity before making any use of them. Over-reliance on
secondary sources is seen as poor academic practice, and unlikely to achieve
a high mark.

13
However, in circumstances where you have very limited library or journal
access or the primary source is difficult to track down (as is often the case
where you want to use a quote from a historical figure), it may be acceptable
to cite a secondary source provided you clearly label the provenance of your
information. Always give a direct quote from what is written in the secondary
source, rather than paraphrasing it, so as to avoid distortion; and use the
terms "quoted in" or "cited in" to show how the secondary source refers to the
primary source.
An example of how to cite a quote from a secondary source in your text:
The proper function of a university is the imaginative acquisition
of knowledge (Whitehead 1929 quoted in Ramsden 2003)
An example of how to present a secondary source in your reference list:
Trost, J. 1986. What holds marriage together? In Continuity and
Change in Marriage and Family, ed. J. Veevers, Toronto: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Quoted In R. Beaujot, Earning and Caring in
Canadian Families (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2000),
110.

You should not paraphrase ideas from any source that you have not actually
seen in a primary form, unless it is absolutely necessary to do so and you
make absolutely clear that you have drawn this from a secondary source.

Furthermore, beware of copying a list of interesting-looking references into
your bibliography if you have not actually read them: giving a false impression
that you have done so could be considered an offence.

B.6 Encyclopedias
Publications such as encyclopedias and dictionaries are secondary sources.
They may be helpful research tools, useful as starting points to help scope the
general area you are covering and identify some academically reliable
information i.e. pointing you towards more authoritative primary sources.

However, encylopedias should not be a final source of facts that your work
depends on so you should not normally cite or reference from them. You
should have a good reason if you wish to use them instead of a primary
source; for example, if you want to quote the dictionary definition of a
particular term, or if you are working in conditions with very limited library or
journal access (if so, please mention it in a note with your reference list).

B.7 Wikipedia and other open-content collaborative resources
Wikipedia and similar wiki-based internet resources are not considered a
reliable source of information for academic work, and you should never cite
them in any work at LSHTM. No professionals in any LSHTM discipline would
ever normally cite Wikipedia or other such sites when writing a journal article,
government document or similar. You are expected to uphold the same
standards in your work as a postgraduate LSHTM student.

Wikipedia itself even has a general disclaimer which states that it cannot be
guaranteed to be accurate; and explains various reasons why it should not
normally be cited in academic work, including that anyone in the world can
edit an article, deleting accurate information or adding false information see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_Wikipedia#A_caution_before_citi
ng_Wikipedia.

This does not mean you cannot make use of such resources; they may still be
helpful research tools to point you towards authoritative primary sources.
However, you should treat Wikipedia and its ilk with caution, and always verify
anything you find using primary or reliable sources. If you do need to use
secondary sources, they should be more reliable ones like published
encyclopedias. Reliance on potentially poor quality internet-based resources
is seen as poor academic practice and likely to result in a lower mark.

B.8 Common knowledge that does not need to be referenced
For well-established and commonly-known facts ('general knowledge') which
you can be confident a reader will already be aware of and understand, you
should not usually need to provide a reference. Any such facts should
invariably be ones you can write down in confidence without referring to
anything else, which you can expect your readers to know, and which would
also be easily checkable if desired for example, that Paris is the capital of
France.

Similarly, if you are writing for a specialist readership (e.g. submitting a piece
of work to a scientific journal or for assessment by experts in your subject
field) then you may not need to reference well-established scientific facts,
terms, methods or procedures within that field.

However, if in any doubt as to whether a specific term can be held to be
'common knowledge' for the field, please err on the side of caution and give a
reference. For example, in the field of microbiology, if mentioning by name a
standard laboratory technique for cultivation and isolation of bacteria, then
14
you should not normally need to provide a reference for it; but if you have
used a slightly more obscure technique which might not be known to all
readers, then you should give further details.

Any points which are fundamental to the content of your work should be more
fully referenced, even if they are generally held to be common knowledge. For
example, smoking causes cancer is now a fairly universally known and
accepted scientific fact. In a paper about alcohol control you could mention
this as an aside, e.g. to illustrate a point about the potential negative effects of
alcohol, without giving a reference. However if your paper was on the specific
effects of smoking, you ought to refer to basic primary research supporting the
statement smoking causes cancer.

As a general rule that applies to everything you write, not just matters of
common knowledge if in doubt, cite. Each time you write about an idea,
take a phrase or use a definition from something you have read or heard (e.g.
a document, information from the internet, or a personal communication), you
should give a clear reference to the original source. And as a corollary to this
rule, always avoid using general phrases like it has often been said that
unless you can support them with a specific example.

B.9 Off-topic references
Even if an item you quote or reproduce is not of direct academic relevance to
the topic, you still need to acknowledge it appropriately. For example, you
might wish to add some local colour by including a poem by a well-known
national poet in the preface to a project about nutrition in India, or by including
a stock photograph of spectacular scenery on the cover of a project about
fieldwork in South America.

In such cases you should give a clear note about the provenance of what you
have included. You should not assume that your readers will recognise a
particular quote, or immediately understand that an image was not created by
you. However, you do not need to include off-topic references like this (i.e.
items which do not contribute to the academic content of your work) in the
reference list, provided they have been referenced in full within the main body
of your work.

B.10 Referencing tables and figures
Within your work, you may have a variety of non-text items such as tables
(grids of numbers) or figures (such as photographs, diagrams, graphs and
maps). Most tables and figures are likely to be your own work, but it is also
perfectly reasonable to include items that are the work of others e.g. tables
of published demographic data, anatomical diagrams, photographs from field
sites, etc. However these must be referenced as clearly as you would any
direct text quotation.

Where the table or figure appears in the report, a brief acknowledgement and
citation should normally be given in the label or in a credit under the label. For
example:
[Label] Figure 1 How health systems are diverted from PHC core values
[Credit] Reproduced from WHO World Health Report 2008, figure 1.10,
p.11.

It is good practice to number all tables or figures you include, separately and
consecutively e.g. Table 1 above the first table, Figure 1 above the first
figure, etc.

More detailed information about reproduced items should normally be given in
your reference list. For example:
Figure 1 reproduced from World Health Organisation (2008),
World Health Report 2008: primary health care now more than
ever, WHO, Geneva, figure 1.10, p.11.

Further guidance on how to reference tables and figures is given in the
Appendix on Referencing different types of source.

Finally, if your work is to be published, remember that you will need to obtain
specific permission from the copyright owner(s) to include each table, figure or
any other material you wish to reproduce in this way.

C.) FURTHER NOTES ON CITING AND REFERENCING

In addition to the basic principles of how to cite and reference correctly,
please also be aware of the below guidance on more detailed related matters.

C.1 How often to cite
If you make extensive use of a particular source e.g. if you use several
quotes from it, or you spend a paragraph or two discussing something from it
then you may ask do I need to keep repeating the same citation?.

15
You should always give a formal citation at the first point you make use of a
source. The citation is likely to go at the end of a sentence that mentions an
idea, or after a quote. If you then carry on discussing material from that source
or giving further quotations, you dont need to repeat the citation at the end of
every sentence or quote, provided that you dont make use of any other
sources in that discussion, and that you present it in a way that makes clear to
the reader that this is all based on the same source.

One way of making the source clear without repeating the full citation is to use
the Latin term ibid, meaning the same place. For example:
Community workers cannot provide comprehensive care for all
community health needs (Haines et al, 2007). However, they can
have an important role in increasing coverage of essential
interventions for child survival (ibid).
The term ibid can also be used to indicate where you are using the same
reference but a different page number e.g. ibid:63.

C.2 Giving page numbers
Page numbers should be added to your citations whenever you cite a direct
quote or a specific element from a long document. This is to help readers
to find the element you mention if they go to look up the source. It also allows
you to include a book just once in the reference list, but cite different specific
pages or sections at various points in your work. To explain further:
Sources like journal articles, conference papers and short reports dont
necessarily need a page reference and can be presented in the standard
form, such as "(Abrams 1969)". Someone looking up the source, from
the detailed information you give in the reference list at the end, could
reasonably be expected to find the specific element you mention without
too much difficulty. However, if giving a direct quote its good practice to
also give the page number.
For lengthier sources like books, PhD theses or long reports, if you are
specifically giving a quote or referring to an idea on particular pages, then
you should always specify the page(s) involved. The reference can either
be to a single page e.g. Using Bushaway's (2003:142) definition of
research management; or to a range of pages, for which you should
give the start and end pages separated by a dash for instance
International views on effective public policies for health (WHO
2008:64-65).
However, if you are referring to an idea or body of knowledge represented
by the entirety of a long-form source like a book, you do not need to give
page numbers. The context in which you present the citation should make
this clear, for instance applying the concept of human capital put
forward by Becker (1994).
The above examples are cited in the Harvard style, but exactly the same
principles apply in Vancouver and most other styles. For example, Using
Bushaway's definition of research management
1 p.142
; or
International views on effective public policies for health (2 p.64-5).

Citing page numbers is generally as simply as putting them at the end of the
normally-presented citation, separated by a colon.

C.3 Distinguishing citations from your own notes
You should be careful to clearly distinguish citations, i.e. mentions of other
peoples work, from further explanations of your own work such as spelling
out abbreviations, giving details of complicated units of measurement like
number of infant deaths per 1000 live births and stillbirths, or making
reference to additional details you have put in a footnote, endnote or
appendix.
In most cases this should be straightforward e.g. a Harvard-style citation
(author/date) in brackets should be obviously different to an internal
reference or note (such as viz. Table B or please see Annex 2) in
brackets.
However this has the potential to be more confusing if you are using a
number-based referencing system such as Vancouver or Footnotes, and
you want to indicate your further explanation in a similar way. One way to
avoid confusion is to use different numeral systems consistently
throughout your work e.g. so citations are labelled with an Arabic
numeral such as 1, but explanatory notes are labelled with a Roman
numeral such as (i).

It can also be helpful to give a glossary of terms or a list of abbreviations used
in a specific section towards the end of your work.

16
D.) USING A REFERENCE MANAGER

Various computer software packages are available which allow references to
be readily recovered from databases, easily inserted into your document, and
automatically adjusted whenever any other alterations are made. These are
known as reference management packages or reference managers.

The School supports a package called EndNote (available on School network
for London-based student, or for purchase at preferential rates by all
students). Details are also given below for two free packages, Mendeley and
Zotero.

You are strongly encouraged to become familiar with the use of one of these
(or another reference manager if you prefer) from early in your studies. It will
be particularly helpful to learn to use such a tool before you start any
extended literature searches.

D.1 Benefits of using reference management software
Software packages such as EndNote can greatly simplify your referencing
maintaining accuracy while reducing the amount of time you need to spend
inserting or updating references in your documents and are especially
useful for longer pieces of work such as projects, dissertations and theses.
They all cover the same core functions:
Reference managers store and manage bibliographic data, and act as a
mini-database of references you are using. You can retrieve
comprehensive reference information directly from many online
databases, saving you the time of typing them in by hand.
After inputting your references, they can be searched, sorted and
grouped, and you can add your own notes, tags and comments. Grouping
relevant items or adding notes and tags while conducting your literature
search is a good idea, as it should make it easier to identify these topics
again later on when writing up relevant parts of your work.
All these packages link in with word processing applications like Microsoft
Word. This lets you easily insert correctly-formatted citations throughout
your document while you are in the process of writing it. The software can
automatically create and update a reference list at the end of your work.
References can be presented in whichever format you desire from a
selection of available styles (e.g. Harvard or Vancouver with the option
to re-format from one to the other with a single button-click). The software
can automatically adjust for any later edits or alterations, for example
renumbering in Vancouver style if an extra reference is added.

D.2 Which reference manager to use
EndNote, Mendeley and Zotero all do fundamentally the same thing but in
slightly different ways, and with different advantages. EndNote is the most
well-known but needs to be paid for to use on your own computer. Mendeley
and Zotero are both free, and also offer Web 2.0 functions like online
collaboration and sharing of reference files. The following further information
may help you decide what to use or try:

EndNote, www.endnote.com is a desktop application from the US
multinational company Thomson Reuters. Its a well-established package
and has been used at LSHTM for many years. If you are based in
London, it is available to use for free if connected to the Schools network
(either at a School computer, or via remote access). However, you will
need to buy the software if you wish to install it on a personal PC or
laptops. Students of the School are eligible for a discount on the price;
more details are available at www.lshtm.ac.uk/its/offers/.
Key benefits? It does the job, is well-known, and is able to import
references from most online databases. Has a very comprehensive
range of almost 4000 bibliographic output styles, including for most
well-known journals. For London-based students, its on the network
with specific training available.
Any drawbacks? You need to pay for it unless you are using the
LSHTM network, so less recommended for distance learning
students. Can only be used on the specific computer its been
installed on. Is not designed with online collaboration in mind.

Mendeley, www.mendeley.com is a free desktop and web-based
application from a small UK start-up company. Its relatively new but has
had many good reviews.
Key benefits? It does the job, its free, it can also import references
from most online databases, and has sharing/collaboration features.
Stores PDF files and allows you to extract data from them e.g.
bibliographies. Being both desktop and web-based means it can be
used either on your own computer offline, or at another computer via
the web.
Any drawbacks? You need to register online to use all features
(though this is still free). Still relatively new and developing, and not
17
quite as well-known as EndNote (e.g. your tutor/supervisor may not
be familiar with it).

Zotero, www.zotero.org is a free web-based open-source application from
a US not-for-profit organization (linked to a university). Its also relatively
new but has had many good reviews.
Key benefits? It does the job, its free, it can import references from
most online databases, and has sharing/collaboration features. Being
web-based means it can be used almost anywhere.
Any drawbacks? Currently only works with the Firefox browser. Still
relatively new and developing, and not quite as well-known as
EndNote (e.g. your tutor/supervisor may not be familiar with it).

Note that the three packages described above are not the only ones on the
market others such as Reference Manager (RefMan) are also very well
known.

D.3 Guidance and training for using reference managers
Useful guides for using EndNote, Mendeley and Zotero are available from the
IT Training Team. London-based students can access these via
http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/its/ittraining (then following the link for Learning
Materials), and distance learning students can access them via the DL
website at www.lshtm.ac.uk/dl.

Help with reference management software queries (and other applications on
the School network) is also available on weekdays from the Schools
Computing Advisory service; both London-based and distance learning
students can e-mail advisory@lshtm.ac.uk or phone (020) 7927 2183. Note
that the service is only open 1100-1400 and 1500-1800 UK time, and
immediate responses will not always be possible. More information is
available for London-based students at http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/its/ittraining
(then following the link for Advisory).

Additionally, for London-based students, the IT Training Team run a standard
workshop on EndNote. This covers all the basic features of the program,
including importing references from online databases, managing and storing
references and generating bibliographies. Again, information is available on
the intranet at http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/its/ittraining (and will also be circulated to
London-based students by e-mail).

E.) FURTHER RESOURCES ABOUT CITING AND REFERENCING

The guidance earlier in this chapter sets out the Schools standard
expectations about citing and referencing. However, during the course of your
studies you may come across types of material that have not been detailed
above and which you are not sure how to reference; or you may want to use
an alternative referencing style to best suit the type of work you are doing.

Various recommended resources and guides are listed below which describe
good practice in referencing and citing. While they may each suggest different
approaches, you are likely to find the answers or instructions you are looking
for in at least some of them. Otherwise, you can ask staff (such as your tutor,
supervisor or the Module/Course staff responsible for the assessment you are
taking) to suggest how they would prefer to see a particular item referenced.
Library staff may also be able to provide guidance if you are stuck.

E.1 Useful books
The Library has a number of relevant books about academic writing and study
skills, shelved under the classmarks AHAZ and AR.AT. These include:

Recommended:
The book Cite them right by Richard Pears and Graham Shields is a
widely recognized standard explaining how to cite hundreds of different
types of materials in the correct format. It is available from the Library, or
relatively cheap to buy (RRP 8.99). Pears, R. and Shields, S. (2010),
Cite them right: the essential referencing guide (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan). 102 pages. ISBN 9780230272316

E.2 Web-based guides to referencing systems

Recommended:
http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/library/subjectsandsupport/referenceman
agement from Imperial College London. This includes detailed guides
to both the Harvard and Vancouver referencing systems, with extensive
examples of how to reference different types of source material in-text
and in a bibliography.

18
Also potentially useful:
Harvard system: www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing/harvard.html
from Monash University Library, Australia. This is a helpful guide to the
Harvard (author/date) style, with a number of different examples.
Vancouver system: www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html
from the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE).
These Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical
Journals are seen as the authoritative guide to the Vancouver format.
The page has details of how to cite around 40 different reference types.
Other referencing systems: www.murdoch.edu.au/dirs/citegdes.html
from Murdoch University, Australia. This has links to a variety of guidance
on different citation styles, particularly APA and MLA.

E.3 Web-based tutorials on referencing and citation

Recommended:
http://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/200232/referencing from the University
of Leeds Library. Comprehensive resources about referencing and citing,
with further information on different referencing styles including Harvard
and Vancouver. Click through to the pages About a particular style you
are interested in, then Further resources / Downloads to download an
interactive tutorial.

www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing from Monash University Library,
Australia. A straightforward step-through tutorial on the topic of
referencing and citing, with useful further information about common
terminology, different citation systems, citing electronic sources, how to
keep records of your sources so you know where your information came
from, etc.
www.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/tutorial/reference from the University of London
Research Library Services. A 30-minute tutorial on how to correctly cite
sources and compile a bibliography part of a larger set of library skills
tutorials. Although written from a humanities perspective, it has useful
information including on styles and using referencing software.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbAcQcDTxdo from Pima Community
College Libraries, US. A YouTube video tutorial on plagiarism and citation
styles, which forms the last part of a series of information literacy tutorials.

E.4 More information

Recommended:
www.kcl.ac.uk/content/1/c6/03/45/29/citing2009-10FINAL1.pdf from
Kings College London Information Services. An excellent and detailed
user guide about citing references and making using of sources, which
forms part of more extensive information skills training materials at
www.kcl.ac.uk/library/learn/citing/index.aspx

http://writing.yalecollege.yale.edu/using-sources from Yale University. A
very good guide to using sources, included as part of the wider suite of
resources from the Yale Writing Center.
http://www.princeton.edu/pr/pub/integrity/pages/cite/ from Princeton
University. A good summary of when and how to cite sources, which
forms part of a larger set of pages about academic integrity.
www.cardiff.ac.uk/insrv/educationandtraining/guides/citingreferences
from Cardiff University. A number of PDF guides and online tutorials on all
aspects of citing references.
www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/infoskills/infoskills_ref.html from
Bournemouth University. A range of information skills resources, including
Quick Guides to Referencing which set out how to reference many
different types of source material, with PDF files, powerpoint slides etc.
Focused on the Harvard referencing system.
iskillzone.uwe.ac.uk/RenderPages/RenderConstellation.aspx?Context=10
&Area=8&Room=25&Constellation=39 from the University of the West
of England. An introductory guide to referencing, plus specific guidance
on some of the main citation systems.
19
CHAPTER 3: AVOIDING PLAGIARISM AND ASSESSMENT
IRREGULARITIES

As a student of LSHTM, you are expected to comply with the Schools
standards and expectations in all your scholarly activity especially
assessments, examinations and research.

This chapter sets out the Schools definitions of assessment irregularities
things you must not do in your work. It is important that you make yourself
aware of these definitions. Any breach of the rules, whether intentional or
unintentional, will be treated very seriously and may result in penalties which
affect your degree.

The definitions are followed by guidance about how to ensure your work
follows the rules. A worked example shows how to avoid plagiarism, building
on the citing and referencing guidance given in the previous chapter.

Please consult your tutor, Course Director or supervisor if you are having any
difficulties with assessed work, need clarification or guidance about citing and
referencing, or are in any doubt about what is permissible.

A.) ASSESSMENT IRREGULARITY DEFINITIONS

A.1 Types of assessment irregularities
The term assessment irregularity applies to any suspected instance of
plagiarism, cheating, fraud, collusion, personation or other non-standard
activity identified in connection with assessed work including essays or other
coursework assessments, formal examinations, or research projects.
Definitions are given below.

Note that the term irregularity does not necessarily imply misconduct on the
part of a student. Judgement as to whether a specific offence has occurred
will only be made following proper investigation of the case under the Schools
procedures.

It may also be helpful to observe that although these definitions and guidance
are specific to LSHTM, understanding and applying them as good scholarly
practice may be relevant in your work after graduating. The Schools
principles on issues such as plagiarism or fraud are consistent with typical
expectations in academia or scientific research around the world.

A.2 Declaration on plagiarism and cheating
All students are required to sign a statement confirming that they have read
the Schools definitions of plagiarism and cheating (which follow); that all work
submitted is and will be their own; and that failure to comply with the Schools
policies may be penalised.

This declaration also covers consent for the School to upload relevant
documents and information to external services or third parties, in order to
identify potential plagiarism or irregularities. The School uses the plagiarism
detection service Turnitin UK for cross-checking assessment submissions
further information about this is given later in this chapter.

For specific items of assessment particularly MSc project reports and
Research Degree theses students may be required to complete additional
specific forms, e.g. to reiterate that the work presented in the thesis is their
own, or to acknowledge and describe the contributions of others.

A.3 LSHTM definition of plagiarism
Plagiarism is the copying or use of the work of others, whether intentionally
or unintentionally, as if it were your own. Such work may come from any
source whether published or unpublished, in print or online including words,
images, audio recordings, diagrams, formulae, computer code, performances,
ideas, judgements, discoveries and results.

To avoid plagiarism:
Where any use or mention is made of the work of others, it should be
acknowledged.
A recognised citation system should be used.
Quotations must accurately refer to and acknowledge the originator(s) of
the work.
Direct quotations, whether extended or short, must always be clearly
identified.
Paraphrasing using other words to express the ideas or judgements of
others must be clearly acknowledged.
Work done in collaboration with others must appropriately refer to their
involvement and input.
Use of your own past work should be referenced as clearly as the work of
others.

20
To put this another way: plagiarism is essentially the presentation of another
person's work (such as their words or ideas) as if it were your own even if
this is done accidentally. The School expects all students to demonstrate
rigorous and respectful academic practice at all times, particularly through
referencing and citing as described in the previous chapter. Plagiarism is
considered wrong because it does not clearly indicate where prior work or
knowledge has been used, it is disrespectful to the original authors, it is
misleading for those teaching you and marking your work, it may give the
impression that you are trying to gain credit for someone elses achievements,
and it may be harmful to the reputation of the School and the University.

You should also understand that plagiarism is not the same as copyright
infringement, which is unauthorised use of published work. Plagiarism is about
failing to correctly acknowledge the use of any sorts of intellectual property or
source material. Copyright infringement is more specific, and may have
additional legal and financial implications

A.4 Avoiding plagiarism
To avoid plagiarism, all sources which you draw from must be properly
indicated and referenced, using a recognised citation system. This is vital for
all work completed outside classes or exams such as coursework, essays,
project reports and research theses. Every time you quote or summarise
someone else's work, you must provide readers with accurate details of where
the information came from

Key principles to apply are:
Sources: You must acknowledge all sources from which you have drawn,
including:
published works such as journal articles or books (including any
textbooks set by the course or module even if markers will know
exactly where something comes from, you must still state it clearly);
grey literature such as conference proceedings or reports from
organisations and government agencies;
material from the internet, whether or not it has a named author;
unpublished material such as lecture/tutorial notes or other students
work;
and even exchanges such as emails or conversations with other
people (be they staff, students, friends or others).
If you wish to make use of any of your own previous work, e.g.
elements of essays you previously did for other assessments, you
should indicate and cite this as clearly as any other source ('self-
citation' as described in the previous chapter).
Quotations: You must always clearly identify any directly copied
quotations (such as sentences, phrases or even striking expressions),
e.g. by placing them inside quotation marks, followed by a clear citation.
Note that a series of short quotations from several different sources, if not
clearly identified as such, constitutes plagiarism just as much as does a
single unacknowledged long quotation from a single source.
Paraphrasing: You must equally clearly indicate where you have
paraphrased or summarised another persons words, ideas or judgments
by referring to that person in your text (e.g. by giving a reference in a
bracket after the paraphrasing, or in a footnote) and including the work
referred to in your reference list. Even if you have made changes to
wording, be aware that replicating the essential meaning, form and/or
progression of ideas from another persons work, or piecing together
sections of other peoples work into a new whole, will constitute plagiarism
if sources are not appropriately acknowledged.
Referencing: You should use a recognised citation system throughout
your work the two most common are Harvard and Vancouver and
provide a full reference list at the end. Precise requirements will vary
depending on the assessment you have been asked to carry out. Be
aware that certain types of item, such as personal communications or
unpublished work, may not be appropriate to include in a reference list but
should still be clearly identified where used.

Note that failure to observe the rules, even unintentionally, may constitute
plagiarism and be penalised accordingly. Most cases of plagiarism are not
due to students deliberately copying the work of others and trying to pass it off
as their own, but because information they used was not appropriately
acknowledged or referenced. It can be easy to copy text but forget to add the
appropriate reference; however you must make every effort to avoid doing so,
or else you run the risk of committing plagiarism. The School has
sophisticated mechanisms for detecting plagiarism, some of which are
outlined at the end of this chapter.

Your referencing must also be accurate; if a reader checks one of your
references and doesn't find the information expected, the source is termed
'unacknowledged' and you may be accused of plagiarism.

21
A.5 Quoting directly from a source
Whenever you include a direct quotation in your work, even if only a few
words, you should always clearly indicate that it is a quote, and give a citation.
The quote should be presented exactly as in the original, including spelling,
capitalisation, format and punctuation (though you can use your discretion on
whether to present it in the same font as the rest of your work, or in a different
font so it stands out).
Short quotes: Quotations of less than about 40 words (or two lines)
should be enclosed in single quotation marks and included in the main
text, unless it is more appropriate for you to make it distinct from the main
text. For example, in the Vancouver style (where a book by Austen is
reference number 1):
Austen's assertion that 'a single man in possession of a good
fortune, must be in want of a wife' (1 p.6) is perceived by many to
be as true today as it was then.
Long quotes: Where you wish to quote passages of more than about 40
words, or of more than one paragraph even if less than 40 words, they
should not be put into the middle of a sentence. Instead, set them out
distinctly from your text. The quotation may be indented from, or use a
smaller font size than, the main body of the text. For example, in the
Harvard style:
Vertigo is defined as:
'...a false sensation of movement. Most commonly, they report
that their environment is spinning around them. However, the
sensation of tilting, swaying, and being impelled forward,
backward, or to either side are also vertiginous. Nausea,
vomiting, and some degree of imbalance typically are
associated as are autonomic signs such as diaphoresis, pallor,
and tachycardia.' (Jensen 2004 p.235)

The page number where the quote can be found should also be given as part
of the in-text citation. Precise requirements may differ between citation styles.

It may also be helpful to know that when giving quotes, you can use the
punctuation mark (called ellipsis) to join together a set of relevant
consecutive quotes from the same source while editing out non-relevant
sentences or clauses that appear between them. For example:
The mobilisation of specific communities may play an
important part in the improvement of maternal and newborn
health. (Haines et al, 2007)
In this example, a non-vital phrase which appeared in the original has been
replaced by the ellipsis. However, if you do use this technique, please be
aware that you must not distort the meaning of the original source by omitting
text which is required to comprehend the authors original meaning.

A.6 Collusion, and how to avoid it
Collusion is any form of collaboration with another person, including another
student, which has not been clearly acknowledged or permitted for
assessment purposes (either when being submitted, or during the course of
an examination). Different forms of collusion may be regarded as either
plagiarism or cheating.

As with plagiarism, the essence of the Schools policy on collusion is that all
input to your work must be clearly acknowledged. Further key principles
to note are:
Sources: While the School encourages students to learn from each other
and to make full use of the expertise of staff, we also need to know what
you individually know, understand and can do. Therefore anything
submitted for assessment must be your own work. It will always be
important to note where you have drawn ideas from others, even via
informal means e.g. making use of (unpublished) Blackboard
discussions with other students about a topic must be acknowledged.
Appropriate input: Other people may potentially have some input to your
work, but this must be appropriate for the task you have been asked to
undertake. For example, it is normally fine for a tutor to read your work
and give you critical comments before you submit it; but not for them to
rewrite it for you. Equally, it is normally fine to ask a friend or family
member to read your work and check the spelling and grammar, but not
for a peer (especially anyone with specialist subject knowledge) to edit it
in a way that changes the meaning of text or the accuracy of data and
calculations. In all cases, the input of others must be explicitly
acknowledged in your submitted work. Further guidance on how to do so
is given in the later chapter on recognising the contribution of others.
Groupwork: While the majority of assessments at LSHTM require an
independent piece of work, groupwork assignments may also be set. In
these cases, the final submission from the group must constitute the work
22
of the group, and any input from others (such as guidance from a tutor)
should be clearly acknowledged further guidance on this is given in a
later chapter. The submission is normally expected to have been based
on roughly equal contributions from group members, although some
variation in contributions may be reasonable. However, full participation is
a requirement in order to pass your course overall, and students who do
not contribute adequately to their assigned group may not be eligible to
receive a grade or credit for the work of that group.
Similar answers: Where an assessment question is likely to produce
very similar answers from students (e.g. mathematical-type problems, or
requests to describe a specific lab procedure), markers will know to
expect this. However, any indications that answers have been directly
copied from an identical source may result in a charge of collusion
Deliberate collusion: Where input from others has been used but
concealed, this will be treated very seriously and is likely to constitute
cheating (see also the definition of personation). Examples could include
asking another student to write or edit part of any assignment; or two
students collaborating to produce an assignment, then submitting either
identical or very-slightly-amended versions which each claim as their own
work rather than acknowledging the other.
Secondary collusion: All students are individually responsible for
safeguarding their own current or past work e.g. assignments, essays,
projects, reports, dissertations, theses, or even primary work such as
notes, lab results or fieldwork data to prevent it from being copied
inappropriately by other students or persons. If you make your work
available to others, you should remind them to acknowledge you if they
use it, and that they must not copy it without attribution. Failure to do so
on your part may make you liable to a charge of collusion.

A.7 Personation, and how to avoid it
Personation is the deliberate submission of work done by another person
(e.g. another student, a friend, a relative, a peer, a tutor, or anyone else) as if
it were ones own. Such work may come from any source whether published
or unpublished, in print or online including words, images, audio recordings,
diagrams, formulae, computer code, performances, ideas, judgements,
discoveries and results.

This may cross over with a range of other offences; submission of another
persons work with their knowledge is likely to constitute collusion; doing
without their knowledge may constitute plagiarism; representing a piece of
joint or group work as the students own is likely to constitute fraud; and
deliberately procuring work from sources or commercial entities such as essay
banks would be very likely to be considered cheating. Arranging for another
person to falsely identify themselves as a student and take an exam on their
behalf would be seen as a particularly severe form of personation and
cheating.

The above definition should be self-explanatory, and it should be clear that
personation is a very serious offence which will be treated accordingly. Again,
the essence of the Schools policy is that your work must be distinguished
from that of others including that all sources which you draw from must be
clearly acknowledged.

A.8 Fraud, and how to avoid it
Fraud is the submission of any work which may cause others to regard as
true that which is not true. This covers work which has been fabricated (e.g.
with invented data or cases), falsified (e.g. with wilfully distorted data), omits
significant items (e.g. ignoring outliers, not admitting that some data are
missing, not admitting other relevant post-hoc analyses, omitting data on side
effects in a clinical trial, non-disclosure of a conflict of interest, etc.), or in any
way misrepresents the work or research carried out. Fraud may be by
intention, by disregard of possible consequences (e.g. in failing to adequately
describe the input of others), or by negligence (e.g. submission of work based
on distorted data due to poor data handling practice). Assessment or research
fraud may cross over with a range of other offences, from plagiarism (e.g.
unattributed copying of the research data of others) to cheating, collusion or
personation.

Fraud is a strong word, but also a difficult concept to define for academic
work. The essence of the Schools policy is that all work you do should
demonstrate a commitment to scientific truth, the advancement of
genuine knowledge, and values of the academic community. Personal or
other interests should never over-ride these commitments.

The most serious forms of fraud are deliberate fabricating or falsifying work,
or omitting significant items, while knowing that this misrepresents the work
done (or not done). This is likely to constitute cheating, and will be treated
severely by the School.

23
Please also be aware that non-deliberate errors may result in work whose
substance is essentially fraudulent. It is vital that all students make the effort
to understand what constitutes good practice for the type of work they are
undertaking (which may be specific to the subject), and the type of course
they are registered for. Higher standards are expected for higher awards,
such as Masters degrees or research degrees. While the School understands
that students may make mistakes as part of the learning process, and will
treat cases appropriately, ignorance can be no excuse for errors which affect
fundamental academic standards.

To help clarify the definition, some key principles to note include:
Fabricating (making up) data, quotes, results or any other aspect of your
work should be self-evidently wrong, and will be treated as fraud.
Falsifying data or other elements or work is equally serious if done
intentionally. However this may also happen unintentionally e.g. by
accidentally copying data into the wrong column, by mixing up the
attribution of quotes, or by making a mistake in calculations. If poor
presentation or writing results in misrepresentation of facts, this will
normally just be marked down and not treated as fraud. Nonetheless,
errors considered to be seriously negligent may be penalised under the
Assessment Irregularities procedure, even if they were not necessarily
deliberate.
Omitting relevant information may also be treated as fraud. Deliberate
omissions of important matters are very liable to be treated as fraud for
example not disclosing a conflict of interest, failing to acknowledge a
contributor or credit a co-author, or not admitting that you did other
analyses which reached different conclusions to the ones now put
forward. Accidental or unintentional omissions may also in some
circumstances be penalised under the Assessment Irregularities
procedure, particularly if they demonstrate negligence in your academic
work for example omitting data on side effects in a clinical trial, failing to
obtain ethical approval where this was required, using participant data for
which consent was not obtained, or not mentioning gaps in your results.

Teaching and guidance provided as part of the preparation for an assessment
will always make clear what is expected of you, and mention any major errors
to be avoided, such as failure to seek necessary approvals. Where errors or
poor practice occur (e.g. sloppy data handling which brings in false data, or
disregarding outliers in results due to a lack of understanding of what they
might mean), these will usually be seen as part of the learning process
getting a lower mark, rather than being penalised.

A.9 LSHTM definition of cheating
Cheating is a deliberate attempt to deceive in order to gain advantage in an
assessed piece of work, including coursework, in-module assessments and
examinations. This covers a range of offences, from significant instances of
plagiarism to exam misconduct.

The essence of the Schools policy on cheating is that you must not engage
in any deliberate deception in order to gain advantage in formal assessment
or evaluation. Key principles to be aware of include:
Submitting someone else's work, knowledge or ideas, while pretending
that they are your own, constitutes cheating.
This applies to all forms of assessment e.g. coursework assignments,
presentations, groupwork, module tests, formal examinations, research
project reports, or theses.
Serious forms of plagiarism, fraud, collusion or personation, or any
deliberate failure to comply with assessment regulations, are all liable to
constitute cheating.
The use of commercial essay banks, essay-writing services or any similar
cheat sites is highly likely to constitute cheating.
Any inappropriate activities under exam conditions, e.g. bringing
unauthorised materials into an exam room, will also constitute cheating.
Cheating will be treated even more seriously and result in heavier
penalties than other forms of assessment irregularities.

B.) ASSESSMENT IRREGULARITIES PROCEDURE

The Schools formal Assessment Irregularities procedure, established under
the Regulations, sets out how any allegations will be investigated, and the
potential penalties that may be applied. This is available via the School
intranet at:
http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/registry/regulations/taught_regulations/assessment
_irregularities___taught_courses.pdf (for taught courses including
masters degrees, diplomas, certificates and short courses); and
24
http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/registry/regulations/research_regulations/research
_degree_assessment_irregularities_procedure.pdf (a very slightly
different version for research degrees).

You do not need to be aware of the detailed content of this procedure, but you
should be aware that it exists. In the event that an allegation or case arises
which affects you, anything you are required to do will be clearly
communicated and explained. Your tutor, supervisor, Course Director(s) or
the Registry should all be able to provide further advice if necessary.

B.1 Penalties

Where an assessment irregularity is identified and confirmed, a range of
penalties may be invoked e.g. a reduction of the grade, or an outright fail for
the piece of work with a requirement to re-submit. The nature and extent of
each case will differ, so there is no standard set of prescribed penalties in
relation to specific offences. However, severe offences may result in students
having their registration on a programme terminated, or even being excluded
from entry to any further School examinations or future degree/certificate
awards from the School.

The above details are not intended to frighten you; occasional slips in
attribution or similarity of text may happen with even the most diligent student.
All relevant factors will be taken into account in consideration of any case, and
students will be presumed innocent unless the contrary can be established
through formal procedures and on the balance of probabilities. However,
please do not be tempted to copy material; plagiarism and other offences are
easy to detect, and the risks are very high. It is not unusual for one or two
students a year to fail an entire module or even their entire degree course due
to assessment irregularity issues, including for plagiarism.

C.) AVOIDING PLAGIARISM A WORKED EXAMPLE

This section runs through some examples of how to cite and reference the
work of others in your own work, to demonstrate what is and is not
permissible. The author-date (Harvard) style has been used throughout, but
the same basic principles will apply if using alternative referencing styles.

C.1 Original material to be quoted
Lets say you want to refer to a paper by El-Sadr concerning the treatment of
tuberculosis. This is the original version, as written in her article:

One of the most important issues that remain controversial is whether 6
months of treatment with regimens that include rifampin can effectively and
safely treat HIV-related tuberculosis. The ability to use this short-course
regimen for HIV-infected patients could allow programs to provide DOT to a
larger number of patients, and it also would allow programmatic efficiency in
the treatment of patients both with and without HIV infection with the same
duration of therapy.

Full reference: El-Sadr WM, Perlman DC, Denning E, Matts JP, Cohn DL. A
review of efficacy studies of 6-month short-course therapy for tuberculosis
among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: differences in
study outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:623-32.

C.2 An acceptable approach direct quotation with citation
If you want to quote exactly what an author has said, you must include the
quotation inside inverted commas followed by a citation. The most usual way
to do this is as an embedded quotation:

As El-Sadr notes, One of the most important issues that remain controversial
is whether 6 months of treatment with regimens that include rifampin can
effectively and safely treat HIV-related tuberculosis. (El-Sadr et al. 2001).

Note that the section quoted word for word is inside inverted commas.

An alternative way to present a word-for-word quotation (particularly a lengthy
one) is as a separated indented paragraph:

One of the most important issues that remain
controversial is whether 6 months of treatment with
regimens that include rifampin can effectively and
safely treat HIV-related tuberculosis. The ability to use
this short-course regimen for HIV-infected patients
could allow programs to provide DOT to a larger
number of patients, and it also would allow
programmatic efficiency in the treatment of patients
25
both with and without HIV infection with the same
duration of therapy. (El-Sadr et al. 2001).

Other alternative forms of presentation use italics to indicate quoted text. This
is also fine but the quotation should still be inside inverted commas.

C.3 An acceptable approach paraphrasing with citation
If you want to refer to El-Sadrs idea but not to quote her entire sentence or
paragraph then you can paraphrase (rewrite the text in your own words), but
must also cite the source. When paraphrasing, you should always check
your wording against the original idea to ensure that the authors original
meaning is conveyed accurately and unambiguously. For example, this would
be acceptable:

There is debate concerning the use of short-course regimens to treat
tuberculosis in people with HIV infection (El-Sadr et al. 2001).

C.4 An unacceptable approach direct quotation without indication
If you quote a sentence word-for-word from another author, then you must
make it clear that it is a quotation. The following would not be acceptable,
because the word-for-word quotation is not indicated by inverted commas:

safely treat HIV-related tuberculosis. (El-Sadr et al. 2001).

Note that even though a citation has been given, the lack of quotation marks
is misleading and makes it appear as if you have paraphrased rather than
quoted. This counts as plagiarism.

The following would likewise not be acceptable:

safely treat HIV-related tuberculosis. The ability to use this short-course
regimen for HIV-infected patients could allow programs to provide DOT to a
larger number of patients, and it also would allow programmatic efficiency in
the treatment of patients both with and without HIV infection with the same
duration of therapy.

This is a particularly poor use of the source material; not only are there no
inverted commas to indicate a quotation, but the authors are not cited at all so
you are effectively claiming that this is your original idea.

C.5 An unacceptable approach editing without indication or citation
It is also not sufficient just to change a few words. The following would still be
regarded as inappropriate:

One of the key issues that remain controversial is whether 6 months of
treatment with drugs including rifampin can effectively and safely treat HIV-
related tuberculosis. Use of this short-course regimen for HIV-infected
patients could allow programs to provide DOT to more patients, and it also
would allow programmatic efficiency in the treatment of patients both with
and without HIV infection with the same duration of therapy. (El-Sadr et al.
2001)

Note that the words used above remain effectively the original authors words,
and have not been paraphrased in your own words, just edited very slightly.
The lack of quotation marks is misleading as it makes it look like you have put
the authors idea in your own words; this counts as plagiarism.

Were such an edited quote to be presented without quotation marks and also
without a citation at the end, this would be an even stronger case of
plagiarism.

C.6 What to put in the reference list
In all the above cases, you should include an appropriately-formatted full
reference in the reference list at the end of your work, e.g. like:

El-Sadr WM, Perlman DC, Denning E, Matts JP, Cohn DL. A review of
efficacy studies of 6-month short-course therapy for tuberculosis among
patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: differences in
study outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:623-32

Further details about how to do this are given in the previous chapter on citing
and referencing, and in the Appendix. Remember that the appropriate
reference format should vary depending on the type of source the above
example is for a journal article, but this would look different depending on
whether it was perhaps a book, or a webpage, or an NGO report, or some
other type of material.
26

C.7 Applying these examples to other types of source
The above principles should apply when making use of any source that is not
your own work, including published articles, material from websites, lecture
notes, other grey or unpublished literature, material from other students etc.
This may cover many types of material, not just text e.g. photographs,
diagrams, video, other types of images, audio recordings; or even more
conceptual or idea-based items such as specific formulae, computer code,
judgements, discoveries and results.

The golden rules are that if you use material generated by anyone else then
you should: (i) make clear whether you are directly reproducing the source
material, or presenting your own edit or interpretation of it; and (ii) give a clear
in-text citation to indicate the source or author(s), as well as including a full
reference in the reference list.

D.) DETECTING PLAGIARISM

LSHTM staff have a responsibility to ensure that all students' assessed work
is marked fairly and equitably this includes checking for plagiarism or other
issues, to ensure that no-one gains an unfair advantage. Staff have
considerable expertise in identifying plagiarism, and all markers look out for
assessment irregularities and have access to a variety of tools to assist them.

The School uses the plagiarism detection service Turnitin UK, which is widely
used by universities across the country and recommended at national level by
the Higher Education Funding Council for England and the Joint Information
Systems Committee Internet Plagiarism Advisory Service. This is a
subscription service delivered via a website (www.submit.ac.uk) run from
Northumbria University and using software provided by a US company,
iParadigms.

Any work you submit for assessment may be cross-checked using Turnitin.
Administrative offices (for Teaching Support, Distance Learning or Research
Degrees) and marking staff all have access to upload LSHTM student work.
This is done anonymously, by candidate number, and this material cannot be
seen by others unless permission is given by School staff.

D.1 How Turnitin works
Turnitin compares students' work against a very extensive pool of journals,
periodicals, books, databases, current and archived internet pages, and other
published or grey literature, as well as previously submitted student work from
subscribing institutions around the world (including from current and past
LSHTM students). At the last count, in 2009, Turnitin covered 10.5 billion
pages of web content, 67.8 million published papers, 75 million student
papers, and continued to add content at a rate of 20 million papers per day.

Turnitin creates an 'originality report' for each piece of work run through it,
highlighting which elements have come from other sources in the database,
and to what proportions. This also provides tutors with links to the source files,
and the facility to compare matching text between the submitted work and the
originals. As in the above screenshot, Turnitin is capable of matching text
even where words, phrases or entire sections have been changed, removed
or re-ordered.

Turnitin screenshot: comparison against an individual text source

27
D.2 What happens when suspected plagiarism is identified
Turnitin is just a tool, and does not make any 'decisions' about students or
their work. Rather, it provides information for members of academic staff to
review any work that contains copied text, checking that this is referenced
correctly and not presented as a student's own work. All submissions will
normally contain at least some matches to the Turnitin database, e.g.
properly-cited quotes, or items in the bibliography. There is no set percentage
up to which Turnitin matches may be allowed or not allowed in all cases, it is
up to staff to check whether citations are legitimate or whether work has been
plagiarised. Should potential plagiarism be identified, this will be followed up
through the Schools Assessment Irregularities procedures.

If you would like to know more, information about Turnitin is available at
www.submit.ac.uk

E.) TIPS FOR AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

E.1 Leaving enough time for the research process
Many students underestimate the amount of time it takes to find and obtain
sufficient high quality resources. Particularly when conducting a research
project, you will usually be expected to read and digest information from a
wide variety of sources before writing your thesis. When students are pushed
for time they are far more likely to be tempted to plagiarise.

Once you have then got hold of the information you have found, evaluated it,
and digested the information, you may then have to go back to the beginning
of the cycle to follow up points of interest or clarify issues. As a rule of thumb,
estimate how long the research process will take and triple it.

E.2 Using clear note taking techniques
When taking notes from a source, ensure you clearly mark the words you
copy directly, by placing them in quotation marks, highlighting them or in other
ways making them distinct from notes in your own words. If you do copy
directly from the source, copy it exactly as published, including all punctuation
and formatting (e.g. words in italics).

Ensure you note the full citation information of the source both on any notes
you make and onto any photocopies. Many journals include the source
information in the header or footer of a printed article but books rarely do. It
can be next to impossible to determine which book a chapter or set of pages
has been photocopied from after the event.

Keep a working bibliography of the sources you have found during your
research. As well as assisting you in compiling your bibliography at the end of
your thesis, this will also allow you to keep track of which sources you have
read and which you have discarded and why. Using a reference management
software package, as described in the previous chapter, can be a powerful
tool to keep track of sources you have identified and found useful, as well as
providing a quick and easy way to insert citations and references into your
final submission.

F.) FURTHER RESOURCES ABOUT AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

Some additional resources and guidance on the topic of plagiarism (and how
to avoid it!) are linked below. It may also be helpful to speak to your tutor or
supervisor if you wish to develop your understanding in this area.

Recommended:
www.ldu.leeds.ac.uk/plagiarism from the University of Leeds Learning
& Development Unit. A comprehensive range of resources aimed at
raising awareness of plagiarism and improving academic integrity. This
includes examples of good and bad practice, tutorials on how to avoid
plagiarism, and a highly recommended quiz to test your knowledge
about good writing practice and avoiding plagiarism.
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=4329 from the Open
University. A thorough set of online learning materials about good
academic practice and avoiding plagiarism. Includes both introductory and
advanced-level quizzes to test your understanding.

www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mwbw9KF-ACY&sns=em from the
University of Bergen library. A light-hearted short film, A plagiarism carol,
about the importance of understanding plagiarism and learning to
reference correctly in student work. In Norwegian with English subtitles
(click the CC button on screen to turn subtitles on).
www.ucd.ie/library/supporting_you/support_learning/plagiarism/ from
University College Dublin Library, Ireland. This has useful explanations of
what may constitute plagiarism, and how to avoid it.
www.plagiarismadvice.org/documents/tipsheetsv3/tp12_UsingElectronicR
esourcesAppropriately.pdf from the JISC Internet Plagiarism Advisory
28
Service. A guide on how to using electronic and web resources
appropriately when working on coursework assignments.
www.plagiarismadvice.org/documents/tipsheetsv3/tp11_BeingAnInformati
onLiterateResearcher.pdf from the JISC Internet Plagiarism Advisory
Service. A practical guide to being an information-literate researcher, and
avoiding plagiarism when gathering information, managing and writing up
your research project.
CHAPTER 4: RECOGNISING THE CONTRIBUTION OF
OTHERS

Any individual work you submit for assessment at LSHTM should be based on
your own ideas and judgments, expressed in your own words, and supported
by appropriately-referenced use of the work of others as described in
previous chapters. However, it can be appropriate (particularly for significant
pieces of work like MSc projects) to receive further support and input from
other sources, for example:
advice from your tutor or supervisor on academic content;
help from technical experts regarding areas like laboratory procedures or
statistical methods;
assistance with fieldwork, e.g. where others have collected data on your
behalf;
or suggestions about writing style or language use from peers, friends or
family.

In certain cases, particularly for some MSc projects or research degree
projects, you may be undertaking work towards your LSHTM degree that
forms part of a larger professional research study. Such studies may be
carried out under the aegis of LSHTM, or another research institution, or a
government, or an NGO, or even (for students studying part-time or by
distance learning) your employer. In such cases you will need to have your
own defined sub-set of work, so it can be clearly assessed; but you are also
likely to need to collaborate closely with others, including having the scope of
your work set out by the Principal Investigator (PI).

This chapter describes how to indicate and acknowledge all such
contributions from others towards your assessed work.

A.) PRINCIPLES FOR ACKNOWLEDGING INPUT FROM OTHERS

A.1 Key principles
To be able to mark all work fairly, markers should always be made aware of
any support or input you have received from other people.
All assistance received from others should be clearly specified, to
distinguish the main body of work done by yourself from any other
supporting/enabling work where you have had help.
29
Any additional resources made available to you should also be clearly
specified for example, to make clear where a dataset has been provided
to you for analysis (as opposed to your collecting the data yourself).
Such input and support should be indicated at the relevant points
throughout your work.
For major pieces of work, you should also give appropriate credit in an
Acknowledgements section.
Acknowledgements can be given anonymously (e.g. referring to help from
a supervisor, Research Assistant, lecturer, fellow-student, friend or a
family member) rather than by name. The aim is to indicate the type and
level of input received, rather than from whom.

A.2 Marking of work
Assessments that you are set as part of your LSHTM studies should always
make clear what kind of work they expect you to do and how much time and
effort this is expected to take. Criteria may also clarify what types of input it
may be appropriate to get from others.

Work will not be marked down for receiving additional support in a particular
area, provided this in line with the assessment criteria and means that your
own contribution to the work meets what is expected. Conversely, please be
aware that work you do that goes beyond what is required for the assessment
will not be rewarded with extra marks you can be marked only against what
is in the assessment criteria. However, if information about support or input
received is incorrect or omitted, this may be subject to penalties under the
Schools assessment irregularity procedures.

To give two examples:
If you want to do a piece of work that requires a qualified member of staff
to carry out a specific laboratory procedure, this should be fine provided
the total work you do, e.g. design of experiment and subsequent analysis,
is of an equivalent amount to that of other students who may be doing
their own lab work. However if your final submission does not specify
which elements of your assessment have been assisted by others, you
may be penalised.
If you are working on something that is part of a larger research initiative
and elements of your work have been designed or prescribed by the
Principal Investigator, this should be made clear in your submission and
less detail would need be given on those elements. However if this is not
made clear then such work may be penalised or marked down e.g. for
misrepresentation, or for having given insufficient detail about work
otherwise assumed to have been done by you.

A.3 Groupwork
In some cases, you may be part of a team when undertaking assessed work.
Arrangements may require either a single joint submission from the group, or
separate individual submissions (typically drawing on the work of the group
but allowing you to give your own interpretation or additional input).

Joint submissions must constitute the work of the group, and should normally
be based on roughly equal contributions from all members although some
variation in contributions may be reasonable, and may be spelt out. Any input
from others (such as guidance from a tutor) should be clearly acknowledged.

Individual submissions should make clear what work was done or conclusions
reached by the group, and differentiate this from the any further individual
work done by you separately from the group.

B.) PROOF-READING AND HELP WITH WRITING OR LANGUAGE

B.1 Proof-reading and advice from others
Proof-reading means checking for any grammar, punctuation or spelling errors
that need to be corrected. Spell-checking or grammar-checking software (as
included in most word-processing packages) is a useful tool which you should
always use; but remember that there are many issues that software cannot
necessarily spot, like incorrect use of specialist or technical terms. Therefore,
re-reading and checking things in person remains very important.

Whatever your standard of English, you should always proof-read your work
before sending it on anywhere, even in draft form, and correct any obvious
errors before submission. If markers see evidence of unnecessarily 'sloppy'
writing that demonstrates insufficient attention to accuracy (in reporting other
work or checking what you have written), this may cause you to be marked
down.

After checking your draft yourself, it can then be appropriate to also ask other
people e.g. a fellow student, family member or friend to proof-read it or
give comments on your choice of words. You may ask a peer who knows the
30
academic subject area (e.g. a fellow-student) to give comments on the
content. However, you must always make the final decision about what is
included and how it is expressed, as well as ensuring your final submission
acknowledges any assistance you have received.

You should not have anyone else extensively edit or rewrite your assessed
work for you e.g. in such a way that the language used no longer represents
your own expression of the work done, or so that another person than yourself
has made decisions about the content or presentation of the work put forward.
In particular, you should be aware that the use of 'professional' (paid) editors
is strongly discouraged by the School.

B.2 Proof-reading and copy-editing for research degrees theses
For research degree theses (PhD, DrPH or MPhil), in addition to the above,
further expectations apply to the standard of writing expected. Submitted
theses should be structured and of a sufficient standard of English so as to be
ready for academic publication without needing any further editorial
corrections by a third party. Specific rules on copy-editing and proof-reading
are given in the research degrees handbook, at
http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/registry/rd_handbook/index.html.

This defines proof-reading as checking a manuscript prior to
publication/printing, to identify any grammar, punctuation and spelling errors
requiring correction which should then be done by the author. Copy-editing
is defined as the process of checking/revising a manuscript against a
prescribed style (in terms of paper size, page layout, fonts, heading styles,
word count, pagination, sequential numbering of tables etc.), making
alterations necessary to ensure consistency and remove any duplicated
content.

Proof-reading and copy-editing are both skilful processes which require good
English language proficiency, but not specialist subject knowledge. You as the
author may proof-read and copy-edit your own work; or ask someone else to
do so for you, provided you acknowledge them. If a third party proof-reads or
copy-edits your work, they should be reviewing or correcting the surface text
of the document not altering textual meaning or the accuracy of data.

While the School discourages the use of professional or paid editors, research
degree theses are the one form of work (given their length and complexity)
where this may sometimes be appropriate. If so, you as a research degree
student will be responsible for making any arrangements, in consultation with
your supervisor, and for any associated costs such as fees. The Schools
policy is that any proof-reading or copy-editing by third parties, whether paid
or unpaid, must be acknowledged in a declaration accompanying the
submitted thesis. This will be available to the examiners. You as the student
will be responsible for ensuring that any third-party contributions have not
introduced changes to the intellectual content or substance of the thesis. Note
that if third-party input introduces any deficiencies in the work, these cannot
be accepted as mitigating circumstances affecting the outcome of the thesis
examination.

C.) GIVING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

C.1 Key principles
You should always acknowledge all input or assistance which has had a
material impact on your work. This may include:
Any specific input from other people e.g. editing, proofreading, specific
academic advice or ideas, general advice or ideas such as on structuring
your work, assistance with collecting data in the field or in a lab, technical
support, translation services, etc.
Any specific permissions you were granted for your work e.g. for use of
copyrighted material, use of a specific dataset, use of a patented process,
etc.
Any financial assistance or equivalent support especially any funding or
grants which have supported the work done, but also things like access to
facilities or resources which might not have been automatically available.

C.2 Including an Acknowledgements section
For extended pieces of work, it will often be appropriate to include an
Acknowledgements section.

You should always indicate the following types of assistance if received,
under a sub-heading of Formal acknowledgements:
The input of your supervisor or tutor, and any co-supervisors or technical
advisors where appropriate especially where local support and
collaboration has been given either overseas or at another institution.
Acknowledgement may be given in a form like my supervisor or my
tutor rather than using individual staff names; or they may be named if
more appropriate.
31
Any specific input to your work e.g. editing, proof-reading, specific
academic advice or ideas, general advice or ideas such as on structuring
your work, assistance with collecting data in the field or in a lab, statistical
support, lab technical support, support in respect of a specific disability,
translation services, etc.
Any specific permissions you were granted for your work e.g. for use of
copyrighted material, use of a specific dataset, use of a patented process,
etc.
Any financial assistance or equivalent support especially any funding or
grants which have supported the work done, but also things like access to
facilities or resources which might not have been automatically available.

You may also wish to recognise and express appreciation of other people who
contributed in ways which didnt directly change your work, under a sub-
heading of Personal acknowledgements.
This may include family, friends, staff or others e.g. to thank them for
encouragement, support, motivation, inspiration or similar. Who and what
you choose to include under this is completely up to you.
However, to help ensure the anonymity of assessed work, it is generally
better to express thanks to my family or to friends using first names only.

In terms of style, you can write an acknowledgements section however you
like. Its best to keep it clear and simple, e.g. thanking each specific
person/group for the specific input/assistance received. Its also best to keep it
short a paragraph would be typical, and anything over 1 page would
probably be seen as over-long for work submitted at LSHTM.

In an extended piece of work that includes an acknowledgements section, this
should normally be placed towards the end either before or after the
reference list. You may take a different approach if you prefer, e.g. listing
copyright permissions in a separate section with its own heading, or
mentioning translation services at the point in your text where you make use
of the translated work. In some cases you may wish to give important
acknowledgements or a dedication in a very brief note after the Title page at
the start of the work; but if so, this should normally be no more than two or
three lines.

C.3 Research participants
Where you have undertaken primary research with human subjects or
participants, it is customary to thank them in the acknowledgements section.
This should normally be done anonymously, i.e. simply thanking them as a
group. It is vital to ensure that you fully understand any ethics-related
obligations that apply to you regarding anonymity and confidentiality. For
example, any interviewees should have given consent for how they may be
named and quoted, and should typically be referred to as anonymous
individuals, e.g. 'Respondent A', throughout the work.

If you will be working with research participants, please ensure you are
completely familiar with the Schools rigorous ethical requirements regarding
such activities, including how they should be written up.

C.4 Additional requirements
Note that for specific items of assessment particularly MSc project reports
and Research Degree theses students may need to complete additional
specific forms, e.g. to reiterate that the work presented in the thesis is their
own, or to acknowledge and describe the contributions of others.

32
CHAPTER 5: COPYRIGHT AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Note for MSc students, some of the information in this chapter will be
duplicated in your project handbook. For research degrees students, these
issues may be more complex and further information is given in the RD
student handbook.

A.) SCHOOL POLICIES FOR STUDENT WORK

As well as ensuring that you correctly reference everything you make use of in
your work, you also need to be sure that you are allowed to make use of the
work of others being aware of any copyright or intellectual property rights
that may apply. You should be certain about whether any restrictions may
apply in the way you communicate, disseminate or even publish work that you
have produced based on that of others.

A.1 Copyright and intellectual property rights
These issues can be defined as follows:
Copyright subsists in any original work (or part of that work) from the
moment it is created. The rights holder (usually the author, but in some
cases the employer) is granted certain rights which are protected by law
over how the work may be used - this includes copying.
Intellectual property (IP) is an intangible asset whose broadest scope
covers all types of knowledge, but which is generally focused on patents,
know-how, copyright, trademarks, brand names, designs & secrets. Most
forms of IP can be protected legally (with the exception of know-how and
secrets) and the resulting proprietary rights are referred to as intellectual
property rights (IPR).

The copyright of work you produce during your studies at LSHTM will normally
legally belong to you as the author of the work. There may sometimes be
exceptions to this however usually if this is research work subject to the
terms and conditions of a specific agreement.

If you are making use of the work of others, their copyrights and intellectual
property rights also need to be carefully respected. This may apply not just to
written work, but to other forms of work carried out by third parties e.g. data
collected, photographs taken, diagrams drawn, computer code written, etc.

Especially if you are unfamiliar with these issues, please look through the
introductory guidance on the Librarys web pages at
www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/libraryinfo/copyright.html, which also link through (at
the end of that web page) to further resources, including about the Schools
IPR policy.

A.2 Copyright and IPR agreements for major work
For any significant pieces of work, e.g. MSc research projects, you should
ensure that you discuss copyright and IPR with your tutor, supervisor or
another relevant member of staff both before embarking on substantive
work, and as you complete writing-up.

Copyright or IPR agreements won't be necessary for most LSHTM student
work, but may be appropriate in some cases particularly:
To clearly assign and specify ownership of IPR for data collected during
the course of a research project (e.g. in the lab with help from LSHTM
staff; or in the field, working with an external organisation).
To clarify permissions given for use of data or other copyrighted materials
provided by the School or an outside party which will usually remain the
copyright property of the original party even where incorporated in your
project report.

Where research funding is provided by an external sponsor, a specific
contract will normally apply; contract terms may often assign ownership of
copyright or IPR to the sponsor, or impose specific restrictions such as on
publication. Similarly, where your work is to be undertaken in collaboration
with an external organisation (e.g. working with their staff or at their facilities),
it is very helpful to reach a clear agreement with them before you begin about
the copyright and IPR of the results. This can avoid problems later on, e.g. if
you or they want to do something specific with the work.

Likewise, where LSHTM staff (such as your supervisor) have supplied data or
other key elements of your project and own the corresponding copyright or
intellectual property rights, the position of both parties should be set out in a
specific agreement. Standard LSHTM templates are available for such
agreements between student and supervisor, and may be edited as
appropriate to create a specific agreement for each individual piece of work.
Your Course Administrator should be able to advise. Once agreed, a copy of
the final signed statement should be lodged with your Course Administrator to
be kept in your student file. You are also encouraged to keep a copy for your
own records.
33

A.3 Copyright that otherwise applies to your work as a student
Unless you have signed a specific agreement to the contrary, the copyright
that applies to your work as a student (including your final project report) is
retained by you as the author. All students are asked to sign the Schools
registration declaration form when registering, which includes the following
statement:
I authorise that any coursework, project, dissertation or thesis presented by
me for examination for a degree of the University of London may be
deposited in the library of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical
Medicine, and that, subject to the conditions set out below may be made
available, either in print or electronically, for public reference, interlibrary
loan and copying. I authorise the School Library and their designated agents
to make a photocopy or digital copy of any such work for the purposes of
inter-library loan and the supply of copies to library users and members of
the public. I authorise the School to make a microform or digital copy of this
work as the archival copy for permanent retention in substitution for the
original copy. I authorise library users to copy up to 5% of the work for their
own personal research for a non-commercial purpose or for private study.

A.4 Intellectual Property Rights School policy
All students must notify the School, through their supervisor, of any invention,
device, material, product, method or process, computer software or other
potentially valuable result which it is considered might have industrial or
technical significance, whether patentable or not, developed or invented
during the course of a students' research or study whilst a registered student
of the School and make assignment of their rights to the School.

It would be unusual for student work on taught courses to generate significant
new intellectual property meriting such notification. However, this may
potentially be more relevant for research degree students; further guidance is
available at http://intra.lshtm.ac.uk/registry/rd_handbook/section18/

A.5 Setting restrictions on access to your work
The Schools standard policy, as described on the registration declaration,
sets a standard right of access to student project reports for purposes of study
and research. In rare cases, you (or external organisations or funders you are
working with) may wish to restrict such access by others, e.g. not wishing to
have your final project report placed in the School Library.

A restriction of access might typically be requested in relation to exploitation of
the research or pending a patent application. It may only be granted by
special permission of the School and the University up to a maximum period
of 2 years, as outlined in a further point on the Schools registration
declaration form:
A candidate may apply to the School for restriction of access, for a period
not exceeding two years, to an MSc project, DrPH Organisational and
Policy Analysis Project report or DrPH/MPhil/PhD thesis on the grounds
of commercial exploitation, patenting or in very exceptional circumstances
and in accordance with the procedure adopted by the School for
consideration of such applications.

Restriction will not normally be granted except where the work is said to
contain sensitive or confidential material or material that would infringe the
rights of third-party holders of copyright.

B.) PUBLICATION OF STUDENT WORK

Work done as an LSHTM student may sometimes result in papers published
in peer reviewed journals. Where work is to be submitted for publication,
issues related to both authorship and obtaining copyright/IPR permissions
need to be considered.

B.1 Authorship
As detailed above, you as a student will normally be the copyright owner and
primary author of your project report. However, considerations of secondary
authorship may come into play if your work is to be published especially if:
the project was done in close collaboration with others (e.g. working
closely with a supervisor in the lab); or
made use of notable contributions from others (e.g. statistical analysis
carried out by a technical advisor and acknowledged as such); or
was done as part of a larger programme of collaborative work (e.g. where
your work was on a particular element within a larger field trial).

In such cases you may often need to credit others, e.g. your supervisor, as
co-authors. Indeed, in cases where your work formed part of a larger study, it
is likely that your supervisor or Principal Investigator would be the lead
author for any published work, with student contributors more likely to be
listed as co-authors.
34

To help understand who should be credited as an author, the following notes
have been compiled from guidance on the International Committee of Medical
Journal Editors website, www.icmje.org
All persons designated as authors should qualify for authorship, and all
those who qualify should be listed. Each author should have participated
sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions
of the content. One or more authors should take responsibility for the
integrity of the work as a whole, from inception to published article.
Authorship credit should be based only on (1) substantial contributions to
conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and
interpretation of data; (2) drafting the article or revising it critically for
important intellectual content; and (3) final approval of the version to be
published. Conditions 1, 2, and 3 must all be met. Acquisition of funding,
the collection of data, or general supervision of the research group, by
themselves, do not justify authorship.
Authors should provide a description of what each contributed, and
editors should publish that information. All others who contributed to the
work who are not authors should be named in the Acknowledgments, and
what they did should be described.
Increasingly, authorship of multi-centre trials is attributed to a group. All
members of the group who are named as authors should fully meet the
above criteria for authorship. Group members who do not meet these
criteria should be listed, with their permission, in the Acknowledgments or
in an appendix.
The order in which authors are listed on the byline should be a joint
decision of the co-authors, who should be prepared to explain it.

B.2 Obtaining copyright permissions for publication
If your work contains properly-cited textual quotations from the published work
of others, although the original authors will retain the copyright of their
material you will not normally be required to seek permission in order to quote
them.

However, if your work contains any substantive or non-textual material that is
the work of others in particular, tables and figures (including photographs,
diagrams, graphs and charts) then you will usually need to obtain specific
permission from the copyright owner(s) to include such items in a publication.

If your work required you to obtain specific permissions e.g. for use of
copyrighted material, use of a specific dataset, use of a patented process
then check whether the permission granted was just for use by you as a
student, or also explicitly allows for publication, or sets any further restrictions
on publication. If the original permission granted did not explicitly mention
publication, then you will need to go back and obtain specific further
permission for this.

35
APPENDIX: REFERENCING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOURCE

The following information provides further detailed guidance on how to
present the following different types of sources in your reference list:
A. Journal articles
B. Books (including edited books)
C. Book chapters
D. Theses or dissertations
E. Reports or non-authored works
F. Online resources (web-pages)
G. Conference proceedings
H. Tables and figures

Each section has two tables indicating the information, order and format in
which references must be presented for the Harvard and Vancouver styles.

Remember:
Presentation may differ according to which style you are using, whether
Harvard, Vancouver or another system; for example the place of
publication may appear before the name of the publisher, or the date of
publication may be given at the end. There are many variant styles of
presentation, but it is always important to be consistent e.g. about
putting brackets or full stops round dates, names of authors in capitals,
commas between initials or not, etc.
Also note that if you use reference manager software like EndNote,
Mendeley or Zotero (as described in chapter 2), you will not need to worry
about the precise layout of different reference types. Instead, you would
just need to enter data in the relevant fields (e.g. author, year of
publication) and the software can prepare a reference list formatted in a
suitable reference style. Most packages can instantly convert between
different styles, e.g. Harvard and Vancouver, and will have a long list of
different styles and sub-styles to choose between such as ones used by
specific journals.

A. Referencing a journal article
Harvard style for referencing journal articles
Author Names should be given, surname first, followed by initials. The
surname and initials should be separated by a comma, and
initials punctuated with full stops. All author names should be
cited, with a comma separating each author's name. An &
should be inserted before the last author name.
Year of
publication
Give the year, followed by a full stop. Note that if a paper has
been accepted for publication but not yet been published, this
can be indicated by putting adding in press within brackets.
Title of article The title should be given as on the title page. All principal
words should be given initial capital letters. This should be put
in single quotation marks.
Title of
journal
This should be formatted in italic font. The full journal title
should be given.
Volume
number
This should be given in numerals.
Journal issue
or date
If there is an issue number or date (typically month) for the
journal, this should be given in brackets after the volume
number.
Page
numbers
If you are referring to several pages, the first and last page
numbers should be given. You may use the abbreviations p.
for a single page, and pp. for page ranges if you wish.
Examples:
Stinchcombe, J. R. 2004, 'A latitudinal cline in flowering time in
Arabidopsis thaliana modulated by the flowering time gene FRIGIDA',
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA , vol. 101, pp.
4712-4717.
Meric, F., Bernstam, E. V., Mirza, N. Q., Hunt, K. K., Ames, F. C., Ross, M. I.,
Kuerer, H. M., Pollock, R. E., Musen, M. A., & Singletary, S. E. 2002, 'Breast
cancer on the world wide web: cross sectional survey of quality of
information and popularity of websites', British Medical Journal, vol. 324,
no. 7337, pp. 577-581.

36
Vancouver style for referencing journal articles
Author Names should be given, surname first, followed by initials. The
surname and initials should be separated by a space, with no
punctuation (i.e. no commas or full stops). If there are 6 or
less authors, all should be cited. If there are 7 or more
authors, only the first 6 are listed followed by et al. The last
author must have a full stop after their name.
Title of article

The title should be given as on the title page with only the first
word (and words which normally begin with a capital letter)
capitalized. The title is followed by a full stop. If the item has a
subtitle this should be separated from the main title by a colon.
Do not use italics or other formatting unless this is used in the
title (such as to designate species names).
Title of
journal
This should be abbreviated according to the style used in the
MEDLINE database. A full list of MEDLINE journal
abbreviations is given in the PubMed journals database at
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=journals.
Year of
publication
As well as the year, if necessary the month and day can also
be given, in the format yyyy mmm dd. If a paper has been
accepted for publication but not yet been published, this can
be indicated by adding in press within brackets.
Volume and
issue number
If the journal has continuous page numbering throughout the
issues in a volume the month/day and issue information may
be omitted. These are written in numerals with round brackets
around number. This should end with a colon.
Page
numbers
Do not repeat digits unnecessarily, so write 11-3 rather than
11-13. There is no need to add p. or pp.
Examples:
Stinchcombe JR. A latitudinal cline in flowering time in Arabidopsis
thaliana modulated by the flowering time gene FRIGIDA. Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A 2004;101:4712-7.
Meric F, Bernstam EV, Mirza NQ, Hunt KK, Ames FC, Ross M I, et al. Breast
cancer on the world wide web: cross sectional survey of quality of
information and popularity of websites. BMJ 2002;324(7337):577-81.
Glantz MJ, Choy H, Akerley W, Kearns CM, Egorin MJ, Rhodes CH, Cole BF.
Weekly paclitaxel with and without concurrent radiation therapy: toxicity,
pharmacokinetics, and response. Semin Oncol 1996 Dec;23(6 Suppl
16):128-35.
B. Referencing a book (including edited books)
Note that when citing an edited book whose contributors are not the same as
its editor, then in Harvard style your in-text citation should add the word ed.
before the editors name, e.g. (ed. Black 1998). This is not relevant in the
Vancouver style.

Harvard style for referencing books
Author/Editor/
Group author
Names should be written as for journal articles (section A
above). Insert ed. or eds. after editors names.
If there no authors or editors are given, the title should be
listed first followed by the year of publication, and the item
placed alphabetically in the reference list by the first word
of the title.
Year The year of publication should be given, followed by a full
stop. If a paper has been accepted for publication but not yet
been published, this can be indicated by adding in press
within brackets.
Editor,
translator etc
Listed with initials first, followed by surname. Followed by
'ed(s).', or preceded by 'trans. by', 'rev. by' etc.
Title The title should be given as on the title page and formatted
using italic font. All principal words should be given initial
capital letters. The title is followed by a full stop. If the item has
a subtitle this should be separated from the main title by a
colon.
Series If the book is part of a numbered series, the series title and the
number should be included. This can be omitted if the series is
not numbered.
Edition If the edition is not the first, this should be added. eg '2nd edn',
'rev. edn' etc.
Number of
volumes
If there are more than one volume, the number should be
given as, e.g. '2 vols'.
Publisher The name of the publisher should be given in full, followed by
a colon.
City/town of
publication
If based in more than one place, the first should be given. If
the place name is not well known, add the state or the country
for clarification. For places in the USA, add the 2 letter postal
code for the state in upper case.
Page
numbers
Specific page numbers may be given as for journal articles
(section A above).
37
Harvard style for referencing books
Volume
number
If you are citing a multi-volume work, the number of the
volume should be given in small roman numerals.
Examples:
Cooke, A. 2001, A guide to finding quality information on the Internet:
selection and evaluation strategies, 2nd edn, Library Association
Publishing, London.
Feldman, R. S., Meyer, J. S., & Quenzer, L. F. 1998, The American Psychiatric
Press textbook of psychopharmacology, 2nd edn, American Psychiatric
Association, Washington DC.
Fine B, Lapavistas C and Pincus J (eds) 2001, Development Policy in the
21st Century: Beyond the Washington Consensus, Routledge, New York.
Pavlosky E.N. 1960, Human diseases with natural foci, Foreign Language
Publishing House, Moscow.

Vancouver style for referencing books
Author/Editor/
Group author
Author names should be entered as for journal articles
(section A above). Editors should have editor or editors
inserted after their names. If there are no authors or editors
given, the title should be listed first.
Title The title should be entered as for journal article titles (section
A above).
Edition If the edition is not the first, this should be added, followed by
a full stop. eg '2nd ed.', 'rev. ed.' etc.
City/town of
publication
If based in more than one place, the first should be given,
followed by a colon. If the place name is not well known, add
the state or the country for clarification. For places in the USA,
add the 2 letter postal code for the state in upper case.
Publisher This should be spelt out in full, not abbreviated.
Year The year of publication should be given, separated from the
publication details by a semi-colon, and followed by a full stop.
If a book has been accepted for publication but not yet been
published, this may be indicated by adding in press in
brackets.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Vancouver style for referencing books
Series and
volume
number
If the book is part of a numbered series, the series title and the
number should be included. This can be omitted if the series is
not numbered. This is included in round brackets after the
page numbers (if any) or year.
Examples:
Cooke A. A guide to finding quality information on the Internet: selection
and evaluation strategies. 2nd ed. London: Library Association Publishing;
2001.
Feldman RS, Meyer JS, Quenzer LF. The American Psychiatric Press
textbook of psychopharmacology. 2nd ed. Washington DC: American
Psychiatric Association; 1998.
Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, Wilson JD, Martin JB, Kasper DL, et
al, editors. Harrison's principles of internal medicine. 14th ed. New York:
McGraw Hill; 1998
Horuk R, editor. Chemokine receptors. New York, NY: Academic Press;
1997 (Methods in enzymology; vol 288).

C. Referencing a book chapter
Harvard style for referencing a book chapter
Author Names should be written as for journal articles (section A
above).
Year The year of publication, followed a full stop.
Title of
chapter
The chapter title should be written as for journal article title
(section A above).
Book details The word 'in' should be followed by the editors name (given
with initials first, then surname), title and full publication details
as laid out as for referencing a book (section B above).
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
Greenhalgh, T. 2000, "Checklists for finding, appraising, and
implementing evidence," in How to read a paper - the basics of evidence
38
Harvard style for referencing a book chapter
based medicine, BMJ Publishing Group, London, pp. 177-179.
Haefner, H. 2004, "Negative symptoms and the assessment of
neurocognitive treatment response," in R. S. E. Keefe & J. P. McEvoy, eds.,
Negative symptom and cognitive deficit treatment response in
schizophrenia, American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC, pp. 85-
110.
McGregor, I.A. 1976 Epidemiology and control of malaria, in
Cruickshank, R., Standard, K. and Russell, H.B.L. (eds) Epidemiology and
community health in warm climate countries. Churchill Livingstone,
Edinburgh, UK.

Vancouver style for referencing a book chapter
Author Author names should be entered as for journal articles
(section A above).
Title of
chapter
The title should be entered as for journal article titles (section
A above).
Book details The word 'In:' should be followed by the editors name, title and
full publication details as laid out as for referencing a book
(section A above).
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
Greenhalgh T. Checklists for finding, appraising, and implementing
evidence. In: How to read a paper - the basics of evidence based medicine.
London: BMJ Publishing Group; 2000. p. 177-9.
Haefner H. Negative symptoms and the assessment of neurocognitive
treatment response. In: Keefe RSE, McEvoy JP, editors. Negative symptom
and cognitive deficit treatment response in schizophrenia. Washington
DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2004. p. 85-110.

D. Referencing a thesis or dissertation
Harvard style for referencing a thesis or dissertation
above).
Year The year the degree was granted should be given.
Title of
thesis
The full title should be entered as for journal article titles
(section A above).
Details of
degree
The degree level and university, separated by a comma.

Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
Croser, C. 1997, Biochemical restriction of root extension under mechanical
impedance, Thesis (PhD), University of Birmingham.
Deb, S. 1991, Psychopathology of adults with a mental handicap and
epilepsy, Thesis (MA), University of Leicester.
Sabir N I (1984) Why do girls die more? Sex differences in growth and
Child-rearing practices in a slum area in Lahore, MSc thesis, Institute of
Child Health, University of London.

Vancouver style for referencing a thesis or dissertation
(section A above).
Title of
thesis
The full title should be entered as for journal article titles
(section A above).
Details of
degree
The degree level and university, separated by a full stop.
Year The year the degree was granted should be given, preceded
by a semi colon.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
Deb S. Psychopathology of adults with a mental handicap and epilepsy.
MA thesis. Leicester: University of Leicester; 1991.
39
Vancouver style for referencing a thesis or dissertation
Croser C. Biochemical restriction of root extension under mechanical
impedance. PhD thesis. Birmingham UK: University of Birmingham; 1997.

E. Referencing reports or non-authored works
Note that when citing a report or other publication which has no specific
authors because it has been written by an organisation (such as a
government publication, NGO report or other grey literature), then in Harvard
style your in-text citation should use the name of the organisation in place of
an author e.g. (CSIRO 1996). Anonymous works not originating from a
specific organisation are referred to by their title in parentheses e.g. (A
history of Greece 1994). However, these points are not relevant in
Vancouver style.

Harvard style for referencing reports or non-authored works
Group author The organization responsible for the report should be spelt out
in full. For reports from a subgroup of the originating body,
e.g. a committee at the Department of Health, list the full title
of the subgroup plus main organisation.
For anonymous documents, the title should be listed first
followed by year of publication, and the item placed
alphabetically in the reference list by the first word of the
title.
Year The year of publication should be given, followed by a full
stop.
Title of report The title should be given as on the title page and formatted
using italic font. All principal words should be given initial
capital letters. The title is followed by a full stop. If the item has
a subtitle, distinguish it from the main title using a colon.
Report
number
If the document has a specific report number or publication
code, it should be listed.
Details of
publication
The name of the main organization or institution which has
produced the report (effectively the publisher), and place of
publication should be given, separated by a colon. If more
than one place is given, the first should be quoted.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Harvard style for referencing reports or non-authored works
Examples:
World Health Organisation (2008). World Health Report 2008: primary
health care now more than ever. WHO, Geneva.
SCONUL Advisory Committee on Information Literacy (2004). Learning
outcomes and information literacy. SCONUL, London.

Vancouver style for referencing reports or non-authored works
Group author The organization responsible for the report should be spelt out
in full, followed by a full stop. For reports from a subgroup of
the originating body, e.g. a committee at the Department of
Health, list the full title of the subgroup plus main organisation.
For anonymous documents, the title should be listed first.
Title of report The title should be given as on the title page, followed by a full
stop. If the item has a subtitle this should be separated from
the main title by a colon.
Details of
publication
The place of publication and name of the organization or
institution which has produced the report should be given,
separated by a colon. If more than one place is given, the first
should be quoted.
Report
number
If the document has a specific report number or publication
code, it should be listed.
Year The year of publication should be given, preceded by a
semicolon and followed by a full stop.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
SCONUL Advisory Committee on Information Literacy. Learning outcomes
and information literacy. London: SCONUL; 2004.

40
F. Referencing online resources
Guidelines for citing online information are constantly developing and subject
to change. As a general rule, online resources should be cited in a similar way
to printed publications, but with the addition of the date the resource was last
viewed and the web address (URL). The following specific guidelines are
adapted from recommendations of the US National Library of Medicine.

Note that e-journals which are also available in printed format may be cited in
the same way as a printed journal (section A above) even if you accessed
them over the web.

Harvard style for referencing online resources
Author
names
Any identifiable author names should be given (as per section
A above) otherwise treat like a report or non-authored work
(section E above).
For anonymous web pages, the title should be listed first
followed by year of publication, and the item placed
alphabetically in the reference list by the first word of the
title.
Year The year of publication or copyright (as indicated on the web
page) should be given, followed by a full stop.
Title of web
page
The title of the page or resource should be given, in italics,
followed by a full stop. It may be appropriate to combine the
homepage title with that of the specific page or resource used.
Online
identifier
Add the word [online] in square brackets followed by a comma
to indicate that the source used was web-based.
Name of
hosting
institution
The name of the organization or institution responsible for the
web page should be given (e.g. WHO, LSHTM, BBC),
followed by a comma.
Place

The primary physical location (town/city) of the hosting
organisation should be given where identifiable, followed by a
comma then the country.
Date
accessed
Indicate the date you accessed/viewed/downloaded the
information. This is important because web-based information
may change over time.
URL Give a direct link to the page or start page of the resource
used.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Harvard style for referencing online resources
Examples:
National Institute for Clinical Excellence, 2001 Obesity: the prevention,
identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in
adults and children, [online], NICE, London. Accessed 15 October 2007.
http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG43
British Sociological Association, 1992. BSA statement of ethical practice,
March 2002, [online], British Sociological Association, Durham, UK.
Viewed 29 January 2009.
www.britsoc.co.uk/media/27107/StatementofEthicalPractice.pdf

Vancouver style for referencing online resources
Author
names
Any identifiable author names should be given (as per section
A above), followed by a full stop. Otherwise treat like a report
or non-authored work (section E above).
For anonymous web pages, the title should be listed first.
Title of web
page
The title of the page or resource should be given, followed by
a full stop. It may be appropriate to combine the homepage
title with that of the specific page or resource used.
Online
identifier
Add the word [online] in square brackets followed by a full stop
to indicate that the source used was web-based.
Name of
hosting
institution
The name of the organization or institution responsible for the
web page should be given (e.g. WHO, LSHTM, BBC),
followed by a colon.
Place

The primary physical location (town/city, country) of the
hosting organisation should be given where identifiable,
followed by a semi-colon.
Year The year of publication or copyright (as indicated on the web
page) should be given.
Date
accessed
Indicate the date you accessed/viewed/downloaded the
information. This is important because web-based information
may change over time.
URL Give a direct link to the home page or start page of the
resource used.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
41
Vancouver style for referencing online resources
National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Obesity: the prevention,
identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in
adults and children [online]. NICE: London; 2006 [cited 15 Oct 2007].
Available from: URL: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG43
Newell A, Zlot A, Silvey K, Ariail K. Addressing the obesity epidemic: a
genomics perspective. [online]. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2007 Apr [cited 15 Oct 2007]; Available from:
URL: http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2007/apr/06_0068.htm

G. Referencing conference proceedings
If the conference proceedings are published in a journal, the article should
be cited as for a journal article, with the details of the conference given in
the title as below.
If the proceedings have been published as chapters in a book then treat
the entire proceedings as a book and individual presentations as book
chapters, add details of the conference to the book title.
Otherwise, papers from conference proceedings which have not been
published may be referenced as below but without the publication details.

Harvard style for referencing conference proceedings
above). If no author or editor is given on the title page the
name of the conference is cited first, in italics.
Year of
publication
Followed by a full stop.

Title of
conference
paper
The conference paper title should be written as for journal
article title (section A above).
Title and
location of
conference
This should be formatted in italic font and separated from the
title by a colon. It should be written in the format: Proceedings
of the [year] [title of conference] held at [location of
conference].
Publication
details
Where proceedings have been published, the name of the
publisher and place of publication should be given, separated
by a colon. If more than one place is given, the first should be
Harvard style for referencing conference proceedings
quoted.
Page
numbers
Page numbers do not need to be preceded by 'p' or 'pp'. If you
are referring to several pages, the first and last page numbers
should be given. If you have cited information from a particular
page, this should be given in brackets after the page numbers
of the chapter.
Page
numbers
(section A above).
Examples:
Zhou, T., Lu, Z.H. & Sun, X. 2005, The correlation between recombination
rate and codon bias in yeast mainly results from mutational bias associated
with recombination rather than Hill-Robertson interference: Proceedings of
the 27th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in
Medicine and Biology Society held in Shanghai, Peoples Republic of China.
New York, IEEE. pp. 4787-4790.
Bhushan, S., Johnson, K.A., Eneqvist, T. & Glaser, E. 2006, Proteolytic
mechanism of a novel mitochondrial and chloroplastic PreP peptidasome:
Proceedings of the 4th General Meeting of the International-Proteolysis-
Society/International Conference on Protease Inhibitors held in Quebec
City, Canada. Biological Chemistry, vol. 387, no. 8, pp. 1087-1090.
Wattal, B.L. 1986, Entomological basis of human disease and loss in
livestock an ecological approach: Paper presented October 1986 at a
Seminar in Entomology, University Grants Commission/Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, India.

Vancouver style for referencing conference proceedings
(section A above).
Title of
conference
paper
The title should be entered as for journal article titles (section
A above).
Conference
details
This should be written in the format: Proceedings of the [year]
[title of conference] held at [location of conference].
Page
numbers
(section A above).
42
Vancouver style for referencing conference proceedings
Examples:
Zhou T, Lu ZH, Sun X. The correlation between recombination rate and
codon bias in yeast mainly results from mutational bias associated with
recombination rather than Hill-Robertson interference: Proceedings of
the 27th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in
Medicine and Biology Society held in Shanghai, Peoples Republic of China.
IEEE: New York; 2005. p. 4787-90.
Bhushan S, Johnson KA, Eneqvist T, Glaser E. Proteolytic mechanism of a
novel mitochondrial and chloroplastic PreP peptidasome: Proceedings of
the 4th General Meeting of the International-Proteolysis-
Society/International Conference on Protease Inhibitors held in Quebec
City, Canada. Biol Chem 2006;387(8):1087-90.

H. Referencing tables and figures
Your work may potentially include photographs, diagrams or graphs etc.
(known as figures), or tables of data or text, that are the work of others.
These must have their provenance clearly indicated through a citation and
reference.
If you are reproducing a text box or a list of bullet-points from another
work, you can present it either as a straightforward piece of quoted text
(giving a clear and appropriate citation), or as a labelled table (with an
equally clear indication of the source).
Tables of data, e.g. published demographic information, also need to be
referenced as clearly as you would any direct text quotation.
However tables, text boxes or lists that are entirely your own work do not
need a citation or reference.
If you are using a photo you have taken yourself, you should indicate its
provenance by giving a citation with your name, an approximate date or
year, the location of the photo setting, and any other details that may be
relevant. You do not need to give a reference in the reference list.
If you are using a photo taken by a personal contact (e.g. a colleague at a
field site) who has given you permission to use it, you should cite that
individual as the source and also include date and location. If the photo is
relevant to the academic content of your work (e.g. a photo of a parasite
you are studying), you should also give a full reference in your reference
list. However if the photo is simply for visual interest, you do not need to
list it in your reference list (see sub-section on off-topic references in
chapter 2).
If you are reproducing an image/photo/diagram/graph or similar from a
public source, you should cite and reference it in the format relevant to the
source you took it from e.g. a journal-format reference for a graph
originally published in a journal article; a web-format reference for an
anatomical diagram you found on the internet. For example, an image
taken from the LSHTM photo-library might be cited as:
Figure 3, Larval tapeworms from a case of sparganosis

Reproduced from LSHTM Photolibrary, file PL-6116.tif (2009) London
School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK. Downloaded 22 July
2010. www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/archives/photolibrary.html
Also remember that if you find images using a search engine like Google
images, you need to click through to identify the original source and cite
that do not cite Google images (this principle applies to absolutely
anything you find using a search engine).

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