Heat Transfer Manual For Printing

Laboratory Manual
For
HEAT TRANSFER
ME F311
BY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus
GOA- 403 726
2014-2015
Laboratory Manual
For
HEAT TRANSFER
ME F311
BY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus
GOA- 403 726
2014-2015
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
S. No. Title of the Experiment Page No.
No. of
Tear off
Sheets
Thermal Science Lab (A110)
1 Heat Transfer through Lagged Pipe 1-4 1
2
Stefan Boltzmann Apparatus
5-7 1
3 Emissivity Measurement Apparatus 8-10 1
4 Heat Transfer in Natural Convection 11-13 1
5
Drop wise and Film Condensation
14-20 2
6 Heat Transfer from a Pin Fin 21-26 1
7 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids 27-30 1
8 Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Powder 31-33 1
9
Heat Transfer in Forced Convection
34-37 1
10
Heat Pump Trainer
38-41 1
11
To Determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of a Vapor
Compressor Trainer
42-45 1
12 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration Trainer 46-51 1
13 Air Conditioning Trainer 52-61 5
14
Parallel and Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
62-65 2
15 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 66-69 2
ii
DESCRIPTION OF LABORATORY
Transport Phenomena laboratory is a hands-on investigation of momentum and
heat transfer. Friction factor; conductivity, convective and diffusion coefficient
measurements; velocity and temperature determination, engineering instrumentation and
experimental analysis of data are some of the tasks in this laboratory.
The experiments focus on demonstration or verifying transport phenomena
principles. The scope is limited to one- dimensional systems and experiments in
momentum transfer and heat transfer are included.
Objectives of the Laboratory component
To supplement theory by enhancing the understanding of basic concepts of
momentum and heat transfer operations.
To gain insight and appreciation for the inherent link between theory and
practical.
To reinforce concepts and principles of Transport Phenomena established in
lecture course through hands- on experience and experience with order of
magnitude and exploration of range of applicability of transport models and
predicted behavior.
To illustrate to the students by actual measurements based on experimental work,
some of the basic laws and principles of momentum and heat transfer.
To provide intensive experience in conducting experiments in laboratory,
analyzing and interpreting data.
To provide experience in engineering measurement and experimentation.
In addition, students get experience in technical communication in the form of
written laboratory reports
iii
The brief focus of the experiments to be conducted in two laboratories is
given below
Fluid Mechanics Laboratory
The momentum transfer experiments in this laboratory are based on portion
studied in the Transport Phenomena- I course. The laboratory has two hydraulic benches,
experimental set up for losses in pipes, Impact of Jet, free and forced vortex. All these set
up can be kept on hydraulic bench to perform experiment. Addition to these, this lab has
got Darcys Law apparatus and Drag coefficient apparatus.
These experiments are aimed to expose the complexities involved in
measurements of fluid variables like pressure drop, velocity, flow rate etc. and the
devices used for these measurements. The experiments are based on application of
Bernoulli Equation, Energy Equation and Boundary Layer Phenomena.
Thermal Science Laboratory
Thermal Transport Phenomena play a key role in the development of almost every
emerging technology. For instance, one of the main factors for the development of faster
microchips that exit today is effective removal of the heat generated within the chips. To
gain understanding of heat transfer in different areas, it is important to have a feel for
heat transfer in several basic situations.
The laboratory has got experiment through which one can learn how to measure
thermal conductivity, heat transfer coefficient and emmisivity. It has two heat
exchangers, drop wise and film wise condensation apparatus. These experiments aimed to
understand heat transfer problem and correlations based on experiments, which is the
only source when approaching a heat transfer problem. Addition to these, this lab has got
Heat pump, Refrigeration (vapor absorption and compression) test rig and Air conditioner
test rig to find their coefficient of performances.
iv
GENERAL GUIDELINES AND SAFETY MEASURES
1. Wearing of an apron is compulsory. Dress worn by students should not have
loose clothes.
2. Students must be wearing proper shoes while working in the laboratory.
3. It is expected that before coming to the laboratory, the students has gone through
the instruction sheet for the experiment to be performed.
4. All data/readings must be recorded on the pull out sheets given at the end of this
manual.
5. The students should bring calculators and graph papers with them while coming
to the laboratory so that the results of the experiments may be verified.
6. Each group will be held responsible for loss or breakage of equipment checked
out to it.
7. Many of the experiments involve heavy equipment and machinery. Therefore, it
is very important that the safety measures and precautions must be thoroughly
read and adhered to before starting the equipment.
8. At the end of the experiment, ensure that all the valves in the equipment used are
closed and the electric supplies are switched off.
v
GUIDELINES FOR SUBMISSION OF LAB. REPORTS
1. Report for each experiment will be due at the beginning of the next laboratory
class. Late submission will not be accepted.
2. Individual detailed lab report is to be submitted by each student for each
experiment.
3. Reports must be submitted on A4 size sheets only and must be suitably fixed in
the file.
4. A sample calculation for one of the readings taken has to be provided. If an
experiment is performed by a group, each group member must give the sample
calculation for a different reading.
Heat Transfer Lab Manual
1
Experiment 1
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH LAGGED PIPE
Objective:
To determine heat flow rate through the lagged pipe for known value of thermal
conductivity of lagging material and get the combined thermal conductivity of lagging
material. Plot the temperature distribution across the lagging material.
Theory:
Consider a long cylinder of inside radius r
i
, and length L. We expose this cylinder to
a temperature differential T
i
-T
O
and see what the heat flow will be. For a cylinder with
length very large compared to diameter, it may be assumed that the heat flow in a radial
direction, so that the only space coordinate needed to specify the system is r. In cylindrical
system the Fouriers law is written
2
2
r
r
dT
Q kA
dr
A rL
dT
Q krL
dr
t
t
=
=
=
with the boundary conditions
T = T
i
at r = r
i
T = T
o
at r = r
o
The solution to equation is
( )
( )
2
ln
i o
o i
kL T T
Q
r r
t
=
and the isothermal resistance in this case is
( )
kL
r r
R
i o
th
t 2
ln
=
The thermal-resistance concept may be used for multiple-layer cylindrical walls just
as it was used for plane walls. For the two layer system the solution is
2
( )
( ) ( )
1 3
2 1 3 2
2
ln ln
A B
kL T T
Q
r r k r r k
t
=
+
Description:
The apparatus consist of three concentric pipe mounted on suitable stands. The
inside pipe consists of the heater. Between first two cylinders the insulating material with
which lagging is to be done is asbestos and in second and third pipe is wooden dust.
The Thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders appropriately to measure
the temperatures. The input to the heater is varied through a dimmerstat and measured on a
voltmeter, ammeter. The experiments can be conducted at various values of input and
calculations can be made accordingly.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Start the supply of heater & by varying dimmerstat adjusts the input for desired values
by using voltmeter and ammeter.
2. Take readings of all the 6 thermocouples at the interval of 10 minutes until the said
steady state is reached.
3. Note down steady state readings in observation table.
(Assumptions: The pipe is so long as compared with diameter that heat flows in radial
direction only in middle half section.)
Formulae:
1. Heat input, Q V I =
Experimental heat flow rate through the composite cylinder (for two insulating layers)

1 0 2
2 ( )
[ln( / ) / ] [ln( / ) / ]
i o
Exp
m i m
L T T
Q
r r k r r k
t
=
+
2. From known value of heat flow rate, value of combined thermal conductivity, k
eff
of
lagging material can be calculated:
0
2 ( )
ln( / )
eff i o
Exp
i
Lk T T
Q
r r
t
=

3
0
ln( / )
2 ( )
Exp i
eff
i o
Q r r
k
L T T t
=
3. To plot the temperature distribution use formula:-

1
0
ln( / )
ln( / )
i
o i i
T T r r
T T r r
Thus the plot of T Vs r (thickness) can be made for different values of r.

Mean Readings:
Inside,
1 2
2
i
T T
T
+
=
Middle,
3 4
2
m
T T
T
+
=

Outside,
5 6
0
2
T T
T
+
=
Nomenclature:
k = thermal conductivity of material, W/ mK
A = heat transfer area, m
2
q = heat transfer rate, W
r
i
= inside radius of the pipe, m
r
o
= outside radius of the pipe, m
T
i
= inside temperature of the pipe,
0
C
T
o
= outside temperature of the pipe,
0
C
L = length of the pipe, m
Exercises:
1. Find the heat flow rate through the lagged pipe.
2. Calculate the combined thermal conductivity of lagging material.
3. Plot temperature profile.
4
Precautions &Maintenance Instructions:
1. Use the stabilize A.C. Single Phase supply only.
2. Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.
4. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240 volts.
6. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
7. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
There is a possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating or if the
satisfactory steady state condition is not reached.
5
Experiment 2
STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
Objective:
To study radiation heat transfer by a black body hence finds the Stefan Boltzmann
constant.
Theory:
The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzmann law
which states that emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of
absolute temperature of the surface and is given by

The constant of proportionally is called the Stefan Boltzmann constant and has the
value of 5.67 x 10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
.
The Stefan Boltzmann law can be derived by integrating the
Plancks law over the entire spectrum of wavelength from 0 to . The objective of this
experimental set up is to measure the value of this constant fairly closely, by an easy
arrangement.
Description:
The apparatus is centered on a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-
conducting base plate. The outer surface of hemisphere is enclosed in a metal water jacket
used to heat it to some suitable constant temperature.
One Temperature Sensor is attached to the inner wall of hemisphere to measure its
temperature and to be read by a temperature indicator. The disc, which is mounted in an
insulating bakelite sleeves is fitted in a hole drilled in the centre of the base plate. A
Temperature Sensor is used to measure the temperature of disc i.e. T
D
. The Temperature
Sensor is mounted on the disc to study the rise of its temperature.
4
b
E T o =
6
When the disc is inserted at the temperature T
D
its temperature increases with timet
since it receives heat by radiation from hemisphere. This timet is used to calculate the
Stefan Boltzmann constant.
The inner surface of hemisphere and base plate forming the enclosure are blacked by
using lamp black to make their absorptivity to be approximately unity. The copper surface of
the disc is also blackened.
1. Heat the water in the tank by the immersion heater up to a temperature of about 70 -
90C.
2. The disc should be removed before pouring the hot water in the jacket.
3. The hot water is to be poured in the water jacket.
4. The hemispherical enclosure and the base plate will come to some uniform
temperature in a short time after filling the hot water in the jacket. The thermal inertia
of hot water is quite adequate to prevent significant cooling in the time required to
conduct the experiment.
5. The enclosure will soon come to thermal equilibrium conditions.
6. The disc is now inserted in the base plate at a time (t = 0) when its temperature is T
D
.
7. Start noting the temperature change for every five second for a minute.
Formulae:
1. o =
0
4 4
( / )
( )
t
D h D
ms dT dt
A T T
=
2. A
D
=
2
4
D
d [
Nomenclature:
A
D
= Area of disc D, m
2
T
h
= Temperature of hemisphere enclosure,
0
C
T
D
= Temperature of disc at time t = 0,
0
C
m = mass of disc, kg
7
s = specific heat of the disc material, kJ/ kg
0
C
Exercises:
1. Plot a graph temperature of disc Vs time.
2. Determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant.
3. Write your comments on the above results.
Precautions & Maintenance Instructions:
1. Always use clean water and heater should be completely dipped in the water before
switch ON the heater.
2. Always take the reading for the first min. of the disc while fixing.
5. Voltage to heater should be constant.
7. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 V and above than 240 V.
10. Dont switch ON the heater before filling the water into the bath.
There is a possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating or if
the satisfactory steady state condition is not reached.
8
Experiment 3
EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS
Objective:
To find out the emissivity of a test plate.
Theory:
An idealized black surface is one, which absorbs all the incident radiation with
reflectivity and transmissivity equal to zero. The radiant energy per unit time per unit area
from the surface of the body is called as the emissive power and is usually denoted by E.
The emissivity of the surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the
emissive power of a black surface at the same temperature. If is noted by .
b
E
E
c =
For black body absorptivity = 1 and by the knowledge of Kirchoff's Law of
emissivity of the black body becomes unity. Emissivity being a property of the surface
depends on the nature of the surface and temperature. The present experimental set up is
designed and fabricated to measure the property of emissivity of the test plate surface at
various temperatures.
Description:
The experimental set up consists of two circular copper plates identical in size and is
provided with heating coils sand witches. The plates are mounted on bracket and are kept in
an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heating
input to the heater is varied by separate dimmerstat and is measured by using an ammeter
and a voltmeter with the help of double pole double throw switches. The temperature of the
plates is measured by Pt-100 sensor. Another Pt-100 sensor is kept in the enclosure to read
the ambient temperature of enclosure.
Plate 1 is blackened by a thick layer of lampblack to form the idealized black surface
where as the plate 2 is the test plate whose emissivity is to be determined. The heater inputs
to the two plates are dissipated from the plates by conduction, convection and radiation. The
9
experimental set up is designed in such a way that under steady state conditions the heat
dissipation by conduction and convection is same for both the cases. When the surface
temperatures are same the difference in the heater input readings is because of the difference
in radiation characteristics due to their different emissivities.
1. Gradually increase the input to the heater to black plate and adjust it to some value and
adjust heater input to test plate slightly less than the black plate.
2. Take readings of all the 3 thermocouples at the interval of 10 minutes until the said
steady state is reached.
3. After attaining the steady state conditions record the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
both the plates.
Specification:
1. Test plate dia = 160 mm
2. Black plate = 160 mm
3. Dimmerstat for both plates = 0-2 A, 0-220V.
4. Voltmeter = 0-250V, Ammeter 0-2.5 A
5. RTD Temperature sensor = 3 Nos
6. Heater for test plate and black plate Nichrome strip wound on mica sheet and sand-
witched between two mica sheets of 440 Watt.
Formulae:
1.
( )
4 4
b b s
q A T T o =
2.
( )
4 4
t t t s
q A T T o c =
3.
t
= Emissivity of the test plate to be determined.

( )
( )
4 4
4 4
0.86
0.86
b s
b
t t t s
A T T
W
W A T T
o
c o

=

10
Nomenclature:
q
b
= heat input to disc coated with lamp black (W)
= W
b
x 0.86
W
b
= wattage supplied to black plate
q
t
= heat input to test plate (W)
= W
t
x 0.86
W
t
= wattage supplied to test plate
o = Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 10
-8
W/ m K
4
A = area of disc (m
2
)
T
b
= surface temperature of black plate disc, K
T
t
= surface temperature of test plate disc, K
T
s
= ambient temperature of enclosure, K
t
= emissivity of the test plate to be determined.
b
= emissivity of black body.
Exercises:
1. Find the emissivity of the test plate
1. Use the stabilize A.C. Single phase supply only.
5. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240
volts.
11
Experiment 4
HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION
Objective:
To find out the heat transfer co-efficient of vertical cylinder in natural convection.
Theory:
Natural convection phenomenon is due to the temp. Difference between the surface
and the fluid and is not created by any external agency. The Setup is designed and
fabricated to study the natural convection phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of
average heat transfer coefficient.
The heat transfer coefficient is given by.
( )
a
s a
Q
h
A T T
=
W/ m
2
K
Description:
The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical
fashion. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the
purpose of undisturbed surrounding. One side of it is made up of glass/acrylic for
visualization. A heating element is kept in the vertical tube, which heats the tube surface.
The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. Digital
temperature indicator measures the temperature at the different points with the help of seven
temperature sensors. The heat input to the heater is measured by digital ammeter and digital
voltmeter and can be varied by a dimmerstat.
12
1. Clean the apparatus and make it free from dust, first.
2. Ensure that all On/Off switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Ensure that variac knob is at ZERO position, given on the panel.
4. Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
5. Switch on the panel with the help of mains On/Off switch given on the panel.
6. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and ammeter
provided.
7. After 30 minutes record the temperature of test section at various points in each 5
minutes interval.
8. If temperatures readings are same for three times, assume that steady state is
achieved.
9. Record the final temperatures.
Specification:
Dia of the tube = 35 mm
Length of the tube = 500 mm
Size of duct = 25 25 90 cm
Temperature Sensors = RTD PT-100 type
No. of RTD Temperature Sensors = 8 Nos.
Digital Voltmeter = 0 to 250 V
Digital Ammeter = 0 to 2.5 Amps
Dimmerstat = 2 Amps/220 V
Temperature Indicator = Digital temperature indicator 0 to
200
o
C with multi channel switch.
13
Formulae:
1. The heat transfer coefficient,
h =
( )
a
s a
Q
A T T
W/m
2
.K
Where
Q
a
= heat transfer rate = V I (W)
A = Area of the heat transferring surface = t d L (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
s
T T T T T T T
T
+ + + + + +
=
T
a
= ambient temperature in duct C = T
8
Exercises:
1. Find out the heat transfer co-efficient of vertical cylinder in natural convection
1. Use the stabilize A.C. single phase supply only.
5. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 V and above than 240 V.
14
Experiment 5
DROPWISE AND FILMWISE CONDENSATION
Objective:
To find the heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation and filmwise
condensation process.
Theory:
Steam may condense on to a surface in two distinct modes, known as Filmwise &
Dropwise. For the same temperature difference between the steam & the surface,
Dropwise condensation is much more effective than Filmwise & for this reason the former is
desirable although in practical plants it rarely occurs for prolonged periods.
Film Condensation:
Unless specially treated, most materials are wettable & as condensation occurs a film
condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film depends upon a numbers of
factors, e.g. the rate of condensation, the viscosity of the condensate and whether the surface
is vertical or horizontal, etc.
Fresh vapor condenses on to the outside of the film & heat is transferred by conduction
through the film to the metal surface beneath. As the film thickness it flows downward &
drips from the low points leaving the film intact & at an equilibrium thickness.
The film of liquid is a barrier to the transfer of heat and its resistance accounts for
most of the difference between the effectiveness of Filmwise and drops wise condensation.
Dropwise Condensation:
By specially treating the condensing surface the contact angle can be changed and
the surface becomes non-wettable. As the steam condenses, a large number of generally
spherical beads cover the surface. As condensation proceeds, the beads become larger,
coalesce, and then strike downwards over the surface. The moving bead gathers all the
15
static beads along its downward in its trail. The bare surface offers very little resistance to
the transfer of heat and very high heat fluxes are therefore possible.
Unfortunately, due to the nature of the material used in the construction of
condensing heat exchangers, Filmwise condensation is normal. (Although many bare metal
surfaces are non - wettable this is not true of the oxide film which quickly covers the bare
material)
Description:
The equipment consists of a metallic container in which steam generation takes
place. The lower portion houses suitable electric heater for steam generation. A special
arrangement is provided for the container for filling the water. The glass cylinder houses
two water cooled copper condensers, one of which is chromium plated to promote Dropwise
condensation and the other is in its natural state to give Filmwise condensation. A
connection for pressure gauge is provided. Separate connections of two condensers for
passing water are provided. One Rota meter with appropriate piping can be used for
measuring water flow rate in one of the condensers under test.
A digital temperature indicator provided has multipoint connections, which measures
temperatures of steam, two condensers, water inlet & outlet temperature of condenser water
flows.
1. Fill water in steam generator by opening the valve.
2. Start water flow through one of the condensers, which is to be tested and note down
water flow rate in Rota meter. Ensure that during measurement, water is flowing only
through the condenser under test and second valve is closed.
3. Connect supply socket to mains and switch ON the heater switch.
4. Slowly steam generation will start in the steam generator of the unit and the steam rises
to test section, gets condensed on the tubes and falls down in the cylinder.
5. Depending upon type of condenser under test Dropwise or Filmwise can be visualized.
16
6. If the water flow rate is low then steam pressure in the chamber will rise and pressure
gauge will read the pressure. If the water flow rate is matched then condensation will
occur at more or less atmospheric pressure or up to 1 kg pressure.
7. Observations like temperatures, water flow rates, pressure are noted down in the
observations table at the end of each set.
Specification:
Condensers = One gold plated for Dropwise condensation & one
natural finish for Filmwise condensation otherwise identical
in construction.
Dimensions = 20 mm outer dia. 160 mm length, Fabricated from copper with
reverse flow in concentric tubes. Fitted with temperature
sensor for surface temperature measurement.
Main Unit = M.S. Fabricated construction comprising test section & steam
generation section. Test section provided with glass cylinder
for visualization of the process.
Heating Elements = Suitable water heater.
Instrumentation = 1) Temperature Indicator: Digital 0-199.9
o
C & least count
0.1
o
C with multi-channel switch.
2) Temperature Sensors: RTD PT-100 Type.
3) Rota meter: for measuring water flow rate.
4) Pressure Gauge: Dial type 0 - 2 Kg/cm
2

Formulae:
1. Heat losses from steam
s s
Q M =
2. Heat taken by cold water
w w P
Q M C T = A
3. Average hear transfer
2
Qw Qs
Q
+
=
17
4. Inside heat transfer coefficient
i
i
Q
h
A T
=
A
5. Outside heat transfer coefficient
o
o
Q
h
A T
=
A
6. Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient
1 1 1
i
EX i o o
D
U h D h
(
= +
(

7. Reynolds Number
1 1
4
Re
w
d
i
m
D t v
=
8. Prandtl Number
P
r
C
P
K

=
9. Nusselt Number Nu
1
= 0.023 (R
ed
)
0.8
(P
r
)
0.4
10. Inside heat transfer coefficient K m / W
L
K Nu
h
2 1
i
=
11. Out side heat transfer coefficient
25 . 0
W S
3
2
2
2
o
L ) T T (
gk
943 . 0 h
(
12. Theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient

1 1 1
i
TH i o o
D
U h D h
(
= +
(

Nomenclature:
D
i
= Inner Dia of condenser, m
h
i
= Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient, W/m
2
K
T
S
= Temperature of steam, C.
T
W
= Temperature of condenser wall, C
Ms = Rate of steam condensation, Kg/s
Mw = Cold water flow rate, Kg/s
Cp = Specific heat of water, kJ/kgK
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2
L = Length of condenser, m
18
= Density of water, kg/m
3
v = Kinematics Viscosity, m
2
/sec.
k = Thermal conductivity, W/mK
P
r
= Prandtl number
T
1
= Surface Temperature of Plated Condenser,
o
C
T
2
= Surface Temperature of Plain Condenser,
o
C
T
3
= Temperature of steam in column,
o
C
T
4
= Water inlet temperature,
o
C
T
5
= Water outlet temperature,
o
C
Data:
Outer diameter of heat transfer surface, D
o
= 20 mm
Inner diameter of heat transfer surface, D
i
= 17 mm
Length of heat transfer surface, L = 160 mm
Inside heat transfer area, A
i
= 0.008549 m
2
Outside heat transfer area, A
o
= 0.010057 m
2
Calculation:
1. Heat transfer coefficient at inner surface
Properties of water at bulk mean temperature of water i.e. (T
5
+T
6)
/2 Where T
5
and T
6
are
water inlet and outlet temperatures.
Following properties are required. :
C
P
= Specific heat of water, kJ/kgK

1
= Density of water kg/m
3
v
1
= Kinematics Viscosity m
2
/sec
= Viscosity of water, N.s/m
2
k
1
= Thermal conductivity, W /m K
Now calculate
Reynoldss number
1 1 i
w
d
D
m 4
Re
v t
=
19
Prandtl Number
K
C
P
P
r

=
Nusselt Number Nu
l
= 0.023 (R
ed
)
0.8
(P
r
)
0.4
Calculated heat transfer coefficient at inside surface
2
1
W/m K
i
Nu K
hcal
L
=
Experimental heat transfer coefficient at inside surface hiexp =
) 6 5 ( T T Ai
m
S
2
W/m K
2. Heat transfer coefficient at outer surface
Calculated value
Now calculate heat transfer coefficient on outer surface of the condenser (h
o
). For this
properties of water are taken at bulk mean temperature of condensate i.e.

2
4 3
T T +
C = T
c
C
Properties needed at T
c
C are
i)
2
= Density of water, Kg/m
3
ii) K
2
= Thermal Conductivity, W/ m K
iii) = Viscosity of condensate, N.s/m
2
iv) = Heat of evaporation kJ/Kg. (2257 kJ/kg)

0.25
2 3
2 2
3 4
0.943
( )
o
gk
h cal
T T L
(
=
(

2
W/m K
From these values overall Heat Transfer coefficient (U) can be calculated.

1 1 1
i
i o o
D
Ucal hcal D h
(
= +
(

2
1
W/m K
and
Experimental heat transfer coefficient at outer surface

3 4
3 4
Heat Flux ( - )
Condensation flux for a length L ( 3 - 4) /

exp
( - )
o
s
o
o o
h T T
h T T
Q h AT
Q m
h
A T A T T
=
=
=
= =
A
20
Observed heat transfer coefficient = exp
o
h =
2
W/m K
Condensation Flux =
exp( )
o S
h T T

1 1 1
exp exp exp
i
i o o
D
U h D h
(
= +
(

Compare the observed heat transfer coefficient with that calculated.
Exercises:
1. Calculate transfer coefficient at inner surface.
2. Calculate transfer coefficient at outer surface.
3. Find out the overall heat transfer coefficient
4. Same procedure can be repeated for other condenser. Except for some exceptional
cases overall heat transfer coefficient for Dropwise condensation will be higher than
that of Filmwise condensation. Results may vary from theory in some degree due to
unavoidable heat losses.
Precautions and Maintenance instructions:
volts.
7. Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the test unit.
21
Experiment 6
HEAT TRANSFER FROM A PIN FIN
Objective:
To study the temperature distribution along the length of a pin fin under free and
forced convection heat transfer and find the fin efficiency.
Theory:
It is obvious that a fin surface stick out from primary heat transfer surface. The
temperature difference with surrounding fluid will steadily diminish as one moves out along
the fin. The design of the fins therefore requires knowledge of the temperature distribution
in the fin. The main object of this experimental set up is to study the temperature
distribution in a simple pin fin.
Fin efficiency =
tanh with fin
without fin
C
f
C
mL q
q mL
q = =
The temperature profile within a pin fin is given by:

0
[ ]
[cosh ( - ) sinh ( - ) ]

[ ] [cosh sinh ]
f
b f
T T
m L x H m L x
T T mL H mL
u
u

+
= =
+
Where T
f
is the free stream temperature of air; T
b
is the temperature of fin at its base;
T is the temperature within the fin at any x; L is the length of the fin, D is the fin diameter
and m is the fin parameter.
Fin parameter m = /
b
h P k A
The volume coefficient of expansion,
( )
1/ 273.15
mf
T | = + , 1/K
Velocity of air = V
= Q / cross-sectional area of duct

2
4
2
4
1
o o
C d g H
Q
t
k
| |
A
|
\ .
=
m
3
/s (at temperature = T
f
)
22
where
o
p
d
d
k =
Velocity of air at T
mf
may be calculated from: V = V
[T
mf
+ 273.15] / [T
f
+ 273.15]
Description:
A brass fin of circular cross section is fitted across a long rectangular duct. The
other end of the duct is connected to the suction side of a blower and the air flows past the
fin perpendicular to its axis. One end of the fin projects outside the duct and is heat by a
heater. RTD PT-100 type temperature sensors measure temperatures at five points along the
length of the fin. An orifice meter, fitted on the delivery side of the blower, measures the
flow rate of air.
Natural Convection:
1. Start heating the fin by switching on the heater element and adjust the voltage on
dimmerstat to say 80 volts (Increase slowly from 0 onwards).
Note down the temperature sensors readings no.1 to 5.
2. When steady state is reached, record the final readings of temperature sensor no.1 to
5 and also the ambient temperature reading temperature sensor No 6.
3. Repeat the same experiment with voltage. = 100 volts and 120 volts.
Forced Convection:
1. Start heating the fin by switching on the heater and adjust dimmerstat voltage equal
to 100 volts.
2. Start the blower and adjust the difference of level in the manometer H = cm with the
help of fly valve provided on the pipe.
3. Note down the Temperature Sensor readings (1) to (5) at a time interval of 5
minutes.
4. When the steady state is reached, record the final readings (1) to (5) and also record
the ambient temperature readings by (6)
23
5. Repeat the same experiment with another H = cm etc.
Specification:
Duct size = 150 mm 100 mm 1000 mm
Diameter of the fin (D) = 12.7 mm
Length of the fin (L) = 125 mm
Diameter of the Orifice (d
o
) = 39 mm
Inner diameter of the delivery pipe (d
P
) = 52 mm
Coefficient of discharge (Orifice meter) C
o
= 0.64
Temperature Indicator = 0-200
o
C, RTD PT-100 type
RTD PT-100 type Sensors = 6 Nos.
Temperature Sensor no.6 reads ambient temperature in the inside of the duct.
Thermal conductivity of fin material (Brass) = 110 W/ m K
Centrifugal blower with Single-phase motor.
Dimmerstat for heat input control 230 V, 2 Amps.
Heater suitable for mounting at the fin end outside the duct.
Voltmeter 0- 250 V.
Ammeter 0- 2 A.
Free Convection:
Mean temperature of the fin , T
m
=
1 2 3 4 5
( ) / 5 T T T T T + + + +
T
mf
(Mean film temperature) = ( ) / 2
m f
T T +
The volume coefficient of expansion, | = 1/( 273.15)
mf
T +
Grashof number, G
r
=
3 2
( ) / g D T | v A
Using the correlation for free convection:
Nusselt number, Nu =
1/ 4
0.53( Pr) /
air
Gr h D k =
Free convective heat transfer coefficient, h = /
air
Nu k D
Fin parameter, m = /
f
hP k A
Perimeter, P = tD
24
Cross-sectional area of fin, A = tD
2
/ 4
Fin diameter, D = 12.7 10
-3
m
Fin length, L = 125 10
-3
m
Fin efficiency,
tanh
C
f
C
mL
mL
q =
Fin effectiveness =
with fin
tanh
without fin
f
c
c
k P
q
mL
q hA
=
Corrective length, L
C
= ( / 4) L D +
Parameter, H = /
f
h k m
Theoretical temperature profile within the fin =

0
[ ]
[cosh ( - ) sinh ( - ) ]

[ ] [cosh sinh ]
f
b f
T T
m L x H m L x
T T mL H mL
u
u

+
= =
+
Taking base temperature, T
b
= T
1
Forced convection:
Orifice coefficient, C
o
= 0.64
Volumetric flow rate of air, Q =
2
4
2
4
1
o o
C d g H
t
k
| |
A
|
\ .
AH = [ ( / -1)] /100
w a
h
Velocity of air, V = Q / a (at ambient fluid temp.)
Velocity of air at mean film temperature,
1
( 273.15 ) /( +273.15)
mf f
V V T T = +
Reynolds number, R
e
=
( )
1
/ D V
Using the correlation for force convection:
Nusselt Number, Nu = 0.615 (R
e
)
0.466
=
( ) /
air
h D k
Heat transfer coefficient, h =
( ) /
air
Nu k D
25
Fin parameter, m = /
f
hC k A
Nomenclature:
K
f
= thermal conductivity of brass fin, W/ m K
C = perimeter, m
T
m
= fin mean temperature,
o
C
T
f
= surrounding fluid temperature,
o
C
x = distance of the sensor at base of the fin, cm
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2
D = fin diameter, m
Gr = Grashoffs number
Pr = Prandtl number
Nu = Nusselt number
K
air
= air conductivity at mean temperature, W/ m K
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/ m
2
K
m = fin parameter, m
A = x-sectional area of fin, m
2
L = fin length, m
f
= fin efficiency
= the density of air, kg/m
3
= the dynamic viscosity of air, kg/m.s
v = the kinematic viscosity of air, m
2
/s
C
p
= the specific heat of air, kJ/kg.K
k = the thermal conductivity of air, W/ m.K
Q = volumetric flow rate of air through the duct, m
3
/s
C
o
= the orifice coefficient = 0.64
D = the orifice diameter, m
w
= the density of water (manometer fluid = 1000 kg/m
3
)
AH = the orifice manometer reading, m
V = velocity of air at T
mf
, m/s
T
mf
= fluid mean temperature,
o
C
26
Exercises:
1. Find the fin efficiency
2. Calculate the fin effectiveness
3. Plot the temperature profile within the fin T Vs x
provided.
volts.
27
Experiment 7
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS
Objective:
To determine the thermal conductivity of a liquid
Theory:
For thermal conductivity of liquids using Fouriers law, the heat flow through the
liquid from hot fluid to cold fluid is the heat transfer through conductive fluid medium.
Fouriers equation:

( )
2 1
T T
Q kA
X
=
A
Fouriers law for the case of liquid
At steady state, the average face temperatures are recorded (T
h
and T
c
) along with
the rate of heat transfer (Q). Knowing, the heat transfer area (A
h
) and the thickness of the
sample (AX) across which the heat transfer takes place, the thermal conductivity of the
sample can be calculated using Fouriers Law of heat conduction.

( )
X
T T
kA
X
T
kA Q
C h
h h
A
=
A
A
=
heat transfer area = A
h
(area to direction of heat flow)
Description:
The apparatus is based on well-established Guarded Hot Plate method. It is a
steady state absolute method suitable for materials, which can be fixed between two parallel
plates and can also be extended to liquids that fill the gap between the plates.
The essential components of the set-up are the hot plate, the cold plate, and heater to
heat the hot plate, cold water supply for the cold plate, RTD PT-100 Sensors and the liquid
specimen holder. In the set-up, a unidirectional heat flow takes plate across the liquid whose
28
two faces are maintained at different temperatures by the hot plate on one end and by the
cold plate at the other end.
A heater heats hot plate and voltage to the heater is varied with the help of Variac to
conduct the experiment on different voltages as well as different heat inputs. Temperatures
are measured by RTD PT-100 sensors attached at three different places on the hot plate as
well as on the cold plate. These sensors are provided on the inner surface facing the liquid
sample. An average of these sensor readings are used as T
h
and T
c
at steady state condition.
Heat is supplied by an electric heater for which, we have to record the voltmeter
reading (V) and ammeter reading (A) after attaining the steady state condition. The
temperature of the cold surface is maintained by circulating cold water at high velocity. The
gap between hot plate and cold plate forms the liquid cell, in which liquid sample is filled.
The depth of the liquid in the direction of flow must be small to ensure the absence
of convection currents and a liquid sample of high viscosity and density shall further ensure
the absence of convection and the heat transfer can be safely assumed to take place by
conduction alone.
Fill the liquid cell with the sample liquid (glycerol) through the inlet port, keeping the
apparatus tilted towards upper side so that there is complete removal of air through the outlet
port. Liquid filling should be continued till there is complete removal of air and also liquid
glycerol comes out of the outlet port. Close the outlet port followed by inlet port.
1. Allow cold water to flow through the cold-water inlet.
2. Start the electric heater to heat hot plate. Adjust the voltage of hot plate heater in the
range of 10 to 50 volts.
3. Adjust the cold-water flow rate such that there is no appreciable change the outlet
temperature of cold water (there should be minimum change).
4. Go on recording the thermocouple readings on hot side as well as on cold side, and
once steady state is achieved (may be after 30-60 min); (steady state is reached when
there no appreciable change in the thermocouple readings, 0.1
o
C), record the three
thermocouple readings (T
h1
,T
h2
,T
h3
i.e. T
1
, T
2
T
3
on Temperature Indicator) on the hot
29
side and three thermocouple readings ( T
c1
, T
c2
, T
c3
i.e. T
4
, T
5
, T
6
on Temperature
Indicator) on the cold side along with the voltmeter (V) and ammeter (A) readings.
5. Stop the electric supply to the heater, and continue with the supply of cold water till
there is decrease in temperature of hot plate (may be for another 30-40 min).
6. Open the liquid outlet valve slightly in the downward tilt position and drain the
sample liquid in a receiver, keeping liquid inlet port open.
Specification:
1. Hot Plate
Material = Copper
Diameter = 160 mm
2. Cold Plate
Material = Copper
Diameter = 160 mm
3. Sample Liquid depth = 20 mm
4. Temp. Sensors = RTD PT-100 type.
Type = RTD PT-100 type
Quantity = 6 Nos.
No. 1 to No. 3 mounted on hot plate.
No. 4 to No. 6 mounted on cold plate.
5. Digital Temperature indicator
Range = 0C to 199.9C
Least Count = 0.1
o
C
6. Variac = 2 Amp, 230VAC
7. Digital Voltmeter = 0 to 250 Volts
8. Digital Ammeter = 0 to 2.5 Amp.
9. Heater = Nichrome heater 440 Watt
30
Formulae:
1. Heat input Q V I =
2. Thermal conductivity of liquid,

( )
h c
X
K Q
A T T
A
=
Hot face average temperature, T

h
= (T
h1
+ T
h2
+T
h3
) / 3
Cold face temperature, T
c
= (T
c1
+ T
c2
+ T
c3
) / 3
Temperature difference, T = (T
h
- T
c
)
Nomenclature:
Q = Heat supplied by heater, W
A = Heat transfer area, m
2
T
h
= Hot face average temperature,
O
C
T
c
= Cold face average temperature,
O
C
T = Temperature difference,
O
C
K = Thermal conductivity of liquid, w/mK
X = Thickness of liquid, m
Exercises:
1. Determine the thermal conductivity of a liquid
1. Use the stabilize A.C. single phase supply only.
volts.
8. Testing liquid should be fully filled.
31
Experiment 8
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATIING POWDER
Objective:
To determine thermal conductivity of insulating powder
Theory:
Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of hollow sphere
formed by the insulating powdered layer packed between two thin copper spheres.
Let r
i
= radius of inner sphere, meter
r
o
= radius of outer sphere, meter
T
i
= average temperature of the inner surface, C
T
o
= average temperature of the outer surface, C
Where,
1 2 3 4
4
i
T T T T
T
+ + +
=
and
5 6 7 8 9 10
0
6
T T T T T T
T
+ + + + +
=
From the experimental values of Q, T
i
and T
o
, the unknown thermal conductivity k can be
determined as:
( )
( ) 4
o i
o i i o
Q r r
k
r r T T t

=
Description:
The apparatus consists of two thin walled concentric spheres of copper of different
size. The small inner copper sphere houses the heating coil. The insulating Powder (Plaster
of Paris) is packed between the two spheres. The power given to the heating coil is
measured by voltmeter and ammeter and can be varied by using dimmerstat. There are ten
(T
1
to T
10
) thermocouples embedded on the copper spheres, T
1
to T
4
(4 nos.) are embedded
on the inner sphere and rest T
5
to T
10
(6 nos.) on the outer sphere. Thermal conductivity of
insulating powder can be found out by taking the temperature reading of these
32
thermocouples. Assume that insulating powder is an isotropic material and the value of
thermal conductivity to be constant. The apparatus assumes one-dimensional radial heat
conduction across the powder and thermal conductivity can be determined.
1. Switch on the main power supply 220 AC single phase, 50 Hz.
2. Increase slowly the input to heater by the dimmerstat starting from zero volt position.
3. Adjust input equal to any value between 20 to 60 Watt maximum by voltmeter and
ammeter.
4. Thermocouple readings are taken at frequent intervals (say once in 10 minutes) till
consecutive readings are same indicating that steady state has been reached.
5. Note down the readings in the observation table.
Specification:
Radius of the inner copper sphere, r
i
= 50 mm
Radius of the outer copper sphere, r
o
= 100 mm
Voltmeter = 0-300 V
Ammeter = 0-2 A
Temperature Indicator = 0-300 C.
Dimmerstat = 0-2A, 0-230 V
Heater coil-strip heating element sandwiched between mica sheets
Thermocouples of numbers T
1
to T
4
are embedded on the inner sphere to measure T
i
Thermocouples of numbers T
5
to T
10
are embedded on the outer sphere to measure T
o
Insulating powder-plaster of paris commercially available powder and packed between the
two spheres.
Formulae:
1. Heat input, Q V I =
2. Thermal conductivity of insulating power:
33
( )
( )
(W/m.K)
4
o i
o i i o
Q r r
k
r r T T t

=

the input is not adjusted till the satisfactory steady state condition reached.
Nomenclature:
r
i
= Inner Radius, meters
r
o
= Outer Radius, meters
T
i
= Inside surface temperature, C
T
o
= Outside surface temperature, C
Q = Heat Input.
V = Voltmeter reading.
I = Ammeter reading
Exercises:
1. Determine the thermal conductivity of an insulating powder
provided.
volts.
34
Experiment 9
HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION
Objective:
To find surface heat transfer coefficient between a heated pipe and air flowing
through it by forced convection, for different air flow rates and heat flow rates.
Theory:
Air flowing in to the heated pipe with very high velocity the heat transfer rate
increases. The heat is taken by the cold air from the heat source and rises its temperature.
Thus, for the tube the total energy added can be expressed in terms of a bulk-temperature
difference by

2 1
( )
P b b
q mC T T =
Bulk temperature difference in terms of heat transfer coefficient
q hA T = A
A traditional expression for calculation of heat transfer in fully developed turbulent flow in
smooth tubes is that recommended by Dittus and Boelter

0.8
0.023Re Pr
n
d d
Nu =

if n = 0.4 for heatingof thefluid
0.3 for coolingof thefluid
Description:
The apparatus consists of blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is
surrounding by nichrome heater. Four Temperature Sensors are embedded on the test
section and two temperature sensors are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of
the test section to measure the air temperature. Test Pipe is connected to the delivery side of
the blower along with the Orifice to measure flow of air through the pipe. Input to the
heater is given through a dimmerstat and measured by meters. It is to be noted that only a
35
part of the total heat supplied is utilized in heating the air. A temperature indicator is
provided to measure temperature of pipe wall in the test section. Airflow is measured with
the help of Orifice meter and the water manometer fitted on the board.
Temperature sensors:
T
1
= Air inlet temp.
T
2
, T
3
, T
4
, T
5
= Surface temp. of test section
T
6
= Air outlet temp.
1. Clean the apparatus and make it free from Dust.
2. Put Manometer Fluid (Water) in Manometer connected to Orificemeter.
3. Ensure that all On/Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF position.
4. Ensure that Variac Knob is at ZERO position, given on the panel.
5. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
6. Switch on the Panel with the help of Mains On/Off Switch given on the Panel.
7. Fix the Power Input to the Heater with the help of Variac, Voltmeter and Ammeter
provided.
8. Switch on Blower by operating Rotary Switch given on the Panel.
9. Adjust Air Flow Rate with the help of Air Flow Control Valve given in the Air
Line.
10. After 30 Minutes record the temperature of Test Section at various points in each 5
Minutes interval.
11. If Temperatures readings are same for three times, assume that steady state is
achieved.
12. Record the final temperatures.
13. Record manometer reading.
36
Formulae:
1.
exp.
( )
a
s a
Q
h
A T T
=
2. 1
W
a
H H

| |
A =
|
\ .
3.
4
2
o o
1
H g 2 d
4
C
Q
|
A
t
= Where
dp
do
= |
4. Q
a
= m C
p
AT
5. m = Q
a
6. A = t D
i
L
7. T
a
=
1 6
2
T T +
8. T
s
=
2 3 4 5
4
T T T T + + +
Nomenclature:
m = mass flow rate of air, Kg/ sec.
C
p
= Specific heat of air, J/ Kg C.
AT = Temp. rise in air C. (T
6
- T
1
)
a
= Density of air, kg/ m
3
w
= Density of water, kg/m
3
Q = Vol. flow rate, m
3
/ sec.
Q
a
= Heat carried away by air, W
h
exp.
= experimental value of heat transfer coefficient, W/ m
2 0
C
C
o
= Coefficient of discharge
H = Difference of water level in manometer, m.
d
0
= Diameter of Orifice, m
A = Test section area, m
2
T
a
= Average temperature of air, C
T
s
= Average surface temperature, C
37
L = Length of test section, m
D
i
= I.D. of Test section, m
Exercises:
1. Calculate experimental value of heat transfer coefficient.
2. Calculate theoretical value of heat transfer coefficient.
3. Write your comments on above calculations.
1. Use the stabilize A.C. Single phase supply only.
volts.
38
Experiment 10
HEAT PUMP TRAINER
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of heat pump trainer
Theory:
Mechanical Heat Pump is defined as an assembly of different parts of the system
used to produce a specified condition of air within a required space or building. An ideal
system should maintain correct temperature, humidity, air-purity, air-movement and noise
level. Always, it is not possible to maintain all the above factors mentioned and a
compromise should be made to make the system economic.
The main function of the heat pump is to maintain body at a temperature that is
higher than the atmosphere. Though the body may be insulated some heat, say Q
H
is flowing
out of the body to the atmosphere. Such heat Q
H
is supplied to the body so that its
temperature is maintained. For this work W is supplied which removes heat Q
L
from
atmosphere which is at temperature T
L
and supplies heat Q
H
to the body.
Q
L
+ W = Q
L
Here the heat pump maintains the body at a temperature T
H
which is higher than
atmospheric temperature T
L
. For this it does work W.
Description:
The compressor is used for pumping the refrigerant through the system. The
condenser is the forced water-cooled type for which heat exchanger has been provided.
Capillary Tube is provided as an expansion device for evaporator. A temperature indicator
with multi-point selection switch has been provided to get the various temperatures viz.
T
1
= Refrigerant Temperature at Suction,
0
C
39
T
2
= Refrigerant Temperature at Discharge,
0
C
T
3
= Refrigerant Temperature before Expansion,
0
C
T
4
= Refrigerant Temperature after Expansion,
0
C
T
5
= Temperature of Water in evaporator tank,
0
C
T
6
= Temperature of Water out evaporator tank,
0
C
T
7
= Temperature of Water inlet to Condenser,
0
C
T
8
= Temperature of Water outlet of Condenser,
0
C
The selection of any of the temperature can be made by rotating the selection switch
to the respective channel. We have provided four pressure gauges for indicating R-134(a)
pressures at compressor suction P
1
, compressor discharge P
2
, after condenser P
3
, after
Capillary Tube P
4
. Energy-meter is provided for measuring power input to the compressor.
1. Switch on mains supply.
2. Switch "ON" the condenser motor and then switch "ON" the compressor.
3. Please do not start the compressor when condenser motor is "OFF". First switch "ON"
the condenser motor and then switch "ON" the compressor.
4. By using selector switch on temperature indicator, note the temperature T
1
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4,
T
5
,
T
6
, T
7
and T
8
in the observation table.
5. Note the pressures of R-134(a) gas in the circuit by noting pressures P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, and P4 in
the observation table.
6. Note down the energy-meter reading (i.e., time taken in seconds for the wheel to
complete one revolution)
7. Repeat the above procedure to get different sets of readings every 10 minutes till you get
fairly constant temperatures of the consecutive readings. Confirm this by taking one
more set of readings
8. Calculate the COP as per the procedure of calculations given below.
9. Switch off all the switches after you complete the experiment
40
Formulae:
1. COP
(Carnot refri)

1
2 1
T
T T
'
=
' '
COP
(Carnot heat pump)
= COP
(refri)
+ 1
Convert the pressure in psi to pressure in Bar (Absolute)
14.8 psi 1 atm =
Absolute pressure
( )
1 1
/14.8 1 P P '= +
By taking
1
P' from the chart find the corresponding value of
1
T'

1
T'= Saturation temperature at suction pressure
Refer table (Saturated properties of R-134a liquid and vapour)
Similarly find
2
P' and
2
T'

2
T' = Saturation temperature at condenser pressure
2. C.O.P. (Theoretical)
2 3
2 1
h h
h h
Where
h
1
= enthalpy for gas at temperature T
1
h
2
= enthalpy for gas at temperature T
2
h
3
= enthalpy for liquid of at temperature T
3
3. C.O.P (actual)
Desired output
Required input
=

C.O.P (actual)
Heat transferred to water
Power consumed by the compressor
=

power consumed by the compressor
p
mc T
t
A
=
Where
m
= mass flow rate of water passing through the condenser

41

( )
( ) ( )
2
lph Density of water sec
m kg/sec
3600 1000
F t
=
c
p
= specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
AT = temperature difference between T
7
and T
8
in K.
F
1
= refrigerant flow, LPH
F
2
= water flow through the condenser, LPH
F
3
= water flow through the evaporator, LPH
We can calculate power consumed by the compressor as follows:
Power Consumed (kW)
| |
1
3600 no. of blinks per second
3200
=
Exercises:
1. Determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of heat pump trainer
1. Before operating the system, check the level of water inside the water tank.
2. Do not change settings of LP-HP cut off Valve.
3. Do not touch the charging valve. If this valve gets opened slightly, all refrigerant
will escape leading to non-performance of the instrument.
4. Once the experiment is over, remove water from the water tank.
5. Please do not start the compressor when condenser motor is "OFF". First switch
"ON" the condenser motor and then switch "ON" the compressor.
42
Experiment 11
TO DETERMINE THE COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP) OF
A VAPOUR COMPRESSOR TRAINER
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigeration trainer
Theory:
In general, refrigeration is defined as any process of heat removal. More specifically,
refrigeration is defined as the branch of science that deals with the process of reducing and
maintaining the temperature of a space or material below the temperature of the
surroundings. The system maintained at the lower temperature is known as refrigerated
system while the equipment used to maintain this lower temperature is known as
refrigerating system.
In accordance with the Clausiuss statement of second law of thermodynamics, heat
does not flow from a low temperature region to high temperature region without the aid of
external energy. This transfer of heat against a reverse temperature gradient can be
accomplished if mechanical energy is supplied to the machine. A machine which maintains
a space at a lower temperature than the surrounding is known as a refrigerator and the
process is known as refrigeration. Refrigeration therefore implies the cooling or removal of
heat from a system. Such cooling may be obtained by any one of the following principles.
i. By chemical means, in which chemical reaction is carried out which absorbs
heat for its completion. The heat required for the purpose is taken from the substance
or space to be cooled.
ii. By bringing the substance to be cooled directly or indirectly in contact with
some cooling medium such as chilled water or ice.
43
iii. By using mechanical or heat energy to operate a heat pump by which heat
may be abstracted from a low temperature region and rejected to high
temperature region.
Description:
The refrigeration trainer consists of compressor, condenser, capillary, heater and
water container. The compressor is used for pumping the refrigerant through the system. The
condenser is the forced air-cooled type for which condenser fan and motor has been
provided. Capillary is provided as an expansion device for evaporator. Heater is provided to
change the load on the system. A temperature indicator with multi-point selection switch has
been provided to get the various temperatures viz.
T
1
Refrigerant temperature at suction
T
2
Refrigerant temperature at discharge
T
3
Refrigerant temperature before expansion
T
4
Refrigerant temperature after expansion
T
5
Temperature of water
The selection of any of the temperature can be made by rotating the selection switch to the
respective channel. Four pressure gauges are provided for indicating R-134a pressures at
compressor suction P
1
2
, after condenser P
3
, after thermostatic
expansion P
4
.
1. Switch on Mains Supply. Switch on the trainer.
1
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4
and
T
5
3. Note the pressures of R-134a gas in the circuit by noting pressures P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
in the
observation table.
44
4. Repeat the above procedure to get different sets of readings for different loads every 10
minutes till you get fairly constant temperatures of the consecutive readings. Confirm
this by taking one more set of readings
6. Switch off all the switches after you complete the experiment.
7. Remove water from the water tank.
Formulae:
1. COP (Reversed Carnot)
1
2 1
T
T T
'
=
' '
Convert the pressure in psi to pressure in Bar (Absolute) 14.8 psi 1 atm =
Absolute pressure
( )
1 1
/14.8 1 P P '= +
By taking
1
1
T'
1
Similarly find
2
P' and
2
T'

2
2. C.O.P (Theoretical)
1 4
2 1
h h
h h
Where,
h
1
= enthalpy (for gas) at temperature T
1
h
2 =
enthalpy (for gas) at temperature T
2
h
4
= enthalpy (for liquid) at temperature T
4

3. C.O.P (Actual)
desired output
required input
=

heat transferred by wate
=

p
mc T
t
A
=

45
Where
m = mass of water
c
p
= specific heat of water = 4.18 KJ/Kg.K
AT = temperature difference in T
5
over a period of time t (sec)
We can calculate power consumed by the compressor as follows:
Power Consumed (Kw)
| |
1
3600 no. of blinks per second
3200
=
Exercises:
1. Determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigeration trainer
1. Before operating the system, check the level of water inside the Water Tank (i.e. the
Refrigerated Space). Water should be filled up to the marked level.
2. Do not start the compressor when condenser motor is "OFF". First switch "ON" the
condenser motor and then switch "ON" the compressor.
3. Do not change settings of LP-HP cut off Valve.
4. Do not run agitator motor for a period more than 15 min continuously. Turn it off for
a few minutes and then start it again. This allows proper cooling of the agitator
motor.
5. Do not touch the charging valve. If this valve is opened slightly, the entire
refrigerant will leak leading to non-performance of the instrument.
6. Once the experiment is over, remove water from the water tank so as to prevent
rusting of any parts inside the test chamber.
46
Experiment 12
VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION TRAINER
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of vapor absorption refrigeration trainer
Theory:
The function of the compressor in the vapor-compression system is to continuously withdraw
the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator and to raise its temperature and pressure so that the heat
absorbed in the evaporator, along with the work of compression may be rejected in the condenser.
In the vapor-absorption system the function of the compressor is accomplished in a three
step process by the use of the absorber, pump and generator as follows
(i) Absorber: Absorption of the refrigerant vapor by its weak or poor solution in a suitable
absorbent or adsorbent, forming a strong or rich solution.
(ii) Pump: Pumping of the rich solution raising its pressure to the condenser pressure.
(iii) Generator: Distillation of the vapor from the rich solution leaving the poor solution for
recycling.
Description:
The simple vapor absorption trainer consists of a condenser as an expansion device and an
evaporator as in the vapor-compression system. In addition, absorber, pump, generator and a
pressure reducing valve to replace the compressor.
The flow of fluids in the system is described as follows
1. Vertical boiler in which an aqua solution of ammonia can range itself from distilled water at
the bottom of the boiler to strong ammonia vapor at the surface of the liquid.
2. A water separator which is provided to remove water vapor so that they should not enter the
condenser, get condensed there and pass on to evaporator where chocking might occur due to
its freezing. The water vapor is formed in the boiler as some of the water may evaporate on
47
application of heat to the boiler. The separator is jacketed with liquid ammonia at a pressure
of about 14 bar gauge for which the saturation temperature is about 40C.
3. The dehydrated ammonia gas gets condensed to liquid in the condenser and gravitates to U
tube which acts as seal for a gas to enter the evaporator, or any gas passing from evaporator to
the condenser.
4. In the evaporator, the ammonia liquid comes across an atmosphere of hydrogen at about 12
bar gauge. The plant is charged to a pressure of about 14 bar. Hence due to Daltons law of
partial pressure, the pressure of ammonia gas should fall to about 2 bar gauge and the
saturation temperature corresponding to about 2 bar is about 10C. The temperature
surrounding the evaporator is much higher than this. Thus ammonia evaporates and produces
the refrigerating effect i.e. absorbs the latent heat of vaporization at 2 bar gauge and about -
10C from the space to be refrigerated.
5. In order to ensure continuous action, hydrogen gas has to be removed from ammonia vapor.
This is done in the absorber where a descending spray of very dilute ammonia liquid meets
the ascending mixture of ammonia vapor and hydrogen. Ammonia vapor is readily absorbed
with evaluation of heat so that absorber has to be water jacketed or air cooled, otherwise
evaporation may take place in this unit and the absorption may cease.
6. Heat exchanger: liquid heat exchanger is placed in between absorber and the generator. This
week liquid gets cooled and strong liquid gets heated. Thus heat is economized and better
thermal efficiency obtained. This heat exchanger is counter-flow type. The strong solution
from the absorber is preheated on its way to generator or boiler, and the dilute solution on its
way to absorber is cooled. This cooling of weak liquid also helps absorption and reduces the
cooling of absorber by external source.
A gas heat exchanger is used between the absorber and the evaporator. The hydrogen gas
going to the evaporator gets cooled by the cool ammonia vapor and hydrogen gas mixture.
7. It may be noted that the circulation is effected by gravity and thus no moving part in the
system is necessary.
48
For electrical input to the system
1. Connect water supply and drain pipes.
2. Switch on the supply to the refrigeration circuit.
3. Take the Selector switch on the panel to Electrical position.
4. Take the Fuel Selector switch to I position.
5. Ensure that Thermostat is set to 3.
6. Note all the readings of the temperatures T
1
, T
2
, T
3
.T
6
on the temperature indicators
and power on the power indicator.
7. Wait for approximately 45 min and start the water supply. Adjust the supply to be
between 2 to 3 lph. To set the water flow rate, there is a valve provided near the point
where there is water inlet connection.
8. Note the readings in the observation table every 10 min.
9. Take the readings till the system stabilizes. This is indicated by constant reading of the
outlet water over two subsequent readings.
For LPG input to the system
1. Connect water supply and drain pipes.
2. Switch on the supply to the refrigeration circuit.
3. Take the Selector switch on the panel to LPG position.
4. Take the fuel selector switch to LPG position. (There is an icon of flame to indicate
LPG).
5. Ensure that thermostat is set to 3.
6. Ensure that the flow control knob on the LPG rotameter is fully open.
7. Note all the readings of the temperatures T
1
, T
2
, T
3,
T
4,
T
5
and T6 on the
temperature indicators and power on the power indicator.
8. Fire the refrigerator. To fire the refrigerator,
- Ensure that the LPG is properly and correctly connected to the kit.
- Ensure that the LPG rotameter knob is fully open.
49
- At the bottom panel of the trainer there are two buttons, next to the Thermostat
knob. Keep the button marked PUSH1 pressed. While keeping this pressed,
press the button marked PUSH2.
- Observe the flame in the window provided for this.
- Once you observe the flame, leave the button PUSH1
- You may have to press the button PUSH2 multiple times in succession to
obtain flame.
9. Wait for approximately 45 min and start the water supply. Adjust the supply to be
between 2 to 3 lph. To set the water flow rate, there is a valve provided near the
point where there is water inlet connection.
10. Note the readings in the observation table every 10 min. Refer sample observation
table enclosed.
11. Take the readings till the system stabilizes. This is indicated by constant reading of
the outlet water over two subsequent readings.
Formulae:
For electrical input to the system
1. To find COP
actual

( )
( ) ( ) lph Density of water sec
m kg/sec
3600 1000
V t
=

( )
5 6
kg kJ
(W) ( - ) K 1000
s KgK
Q m Cp T T
| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.186 KJ/ kg-K

Actual
(W)
COP
(W)
in
Q
P
=
2. To find COP
ideal

ideal
COP
g a
e
c e g
T T
T
T T T
| | | |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
50
For LPG input to the system
1. To find COPactual
( )
( ) ( ) lph Density of water sec
m kg/sec
3600 1000
V t
=
( )
5 6
kg kJ
(W) ( - ) K 1000
s KgK
Q m Cp T T
| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.186 KJ/ kg-K

Actual
(W)
COP
(W)
in
Q
P
=
( )
( )
in
kg hr KJ
P W Calorific Value of LPG
3600 kg
in
G | |
=
|
\ .
Calorific Value of LPG = 50000 KJ/kg
2. To find COPideal
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
g
a g
e c
e
Ideal
T
T T
T T
T
COP
Nomenclature:
T
1
= evaporator temperature (T
e
)
T
2
= chamber temperature
T
3
= condenser temperature (T
c
)
T
4
= absorber temperature (T
a
)
T
5
= temperature of water inlet (T
ci
)
T
6
= temperature of water outlet (T
co
)
T
7
= generator temperature (T
g
)
Exercises:
51
1. Determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of vapor absorption refrigeration
trainer
1. Ensure that the vapor absorber trainer is installed on plane rigid and horizontal surface
away from the wall.
2. Connect 230 V A. C. supply to the trainer by connecting 3 pin connector to the power
supply socket in the laboratory.
3. Ensure that the LPG is properly and correctly connected to the kit.
52
Experiment 13
AIR CONDITIONING TRAINER
Theory:
An Air Conditioning System is defined as an assembly of different parts of the
system used to produce a specified condition of air within a required space or building. An
ideal air-conditioning system should maintain correct temperature, humidity, air-purity, air
movement and noise level. Always, it is not possible to maintain all the above factors
mentioned and a compromise should be made to make the system economic.
The air-conditioning systems are mainly classified as:
1. Central station air-conditioning system.
2. Unitary air-conditioning system.
3. Self-contained air-conditioned units.
Central Station Air-Conditioning System
In a central air-conditioning system, all the components of the system are grouped
together in one central room and conditioned air is distributed from the central room to the
required places through extensive duct work.
The central air-conditioning system is generally used for the load above 25 tons of
refrigeration and 2500 m3/min. of conditioned air.
Unitary Air-Conditioning System
All the components of the unitary air-conditioned system are assembled in the
factory itself. These assembled units are usually installed in or immediately adjacent to a
zone or space to be conditioned. It is commonly preferred for 15 tons capacity or above or
around 200 m
3
/min. of air flow. Recently even 100 tons capacity units are also
manufactured.
Self-contained Air-conditioning Units
Self-contained units are available in wide variety of sizes and for many specific
purposes. The following three types are commonly available in the market.
a. Room cooler
53
b. Store-coolers
c. Residential Air-conditioning Unit.
The air-conditioning systems on the basis of application groups are:
a. Comfort air-conditioning and
b. Industrial air conditioning.
The essential feature of comfort air-conditioning system is to provide an
environment which is comfortable to the majority of the occupants.
The comfort air-conditioning systems are sub divided into three groups.
1. Summer air conditioning
The problem encountered in summer air-conditioning is to reduce the sensible heat
and the water vapor content of the air by cooling and dehumidifying.
2. Winter air-conditioning
The problem encountered in winter air-conditioning is to increase the sensible heat
and the water vapors= content of the air by heating and humidification.
3. Year-round air-conditioning
This system assures the control of temperature and humidity of air in an enclosed
space throughout the year when the atmospheric conditions are changing as per
season. Industrial air-conditioning provides air at required temperature and humidity
to perform a specific industrial process successfully. The design conditions are not
based on the feeling of the human beings but purely on the requirement of the
industrial process.
Description:
- The compressor is used for pumping the refrigerant through the system.
- The condenser is the forced air-cooled type for which condenser fan and motor has
been provided.
- Capillary is provided as an expansion device for evaporator.
- A temperature indicator with eight point selection switch has been provided to get
the various temperatures viz.
54
T
1
Refrigerant temperature at suction.
T
2
Refrigerant temperature at discharge.
T
3
Refrigerant temperature before expansion.
T
4
Refrigerant temperature after expansion.
T
5
Dry bulb temperature of air at suction.
T
6
Dry bulb temperature in chamber.
T
7
Wet bulb temperature in chamber
- The selection of any of the temperature can be made by rotating the selection switch
to the respective channel.
- We have provided pressure gauges for indicating gas pressures at compressor suction
P
1
2
, after condenser P
3
, after thermostatic expansion valve
P
4
.
- An energy meter provided for measuring power input to compressor.
- We have supplied a steamer to generate the steam or hot water as per the
requirements of the experiment. Steam piping has been done to enable the user to
inject steam in air inlet duct and / or test cabin.
55
Experiment No: 13a
Objective:
To determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of air conditioning system in open
type ducting
Air Damper Position:
Air inlet damper Open 100%
Air outlet damper Open 100%
Air circulation damper Closed 100%
Experimental Procedure:-
1. Keep the status of air damper positions and expansion device selection as given
above.
2. Switch on mains supply and compressor supply.
3. By using selector switch on temperature Indicator, note the temperature T
1
, T
2
, T
3
,
T
4
,T
5
, T
6
, T
7
4. Note the pressures of gas in the circuit by noting P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
pressures in the
observation table.
5. Note down the energy-meter reading for compressor.
6. Repeat the above procedure to get different sets of readings till you get fairly
constant pressures of the consecutive readings. Confirm this by taking one more set
of readings.
56
Formulae:
1. C.O.P (Reversed Carnot)
1
2 1
T
T T
'
=
' '
Absolute pressure
( )
1 1
/14.8 1 P P '= +
By taking
1
1
T'
1
Similarly find
2
P' and
2
T'

2
1 4
2 1
h h
h h
Where,
h
1
1
h
2 =
2
h
4
4
Exercises:
1. Determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of air conditioning system in open
type ducting
57
Experiment No: 13b
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of air conditioning system in air
re-circulation type ducting.
Air inlet damper Closed 100%
Air outlet damper Closed 100%
Air circulation damper Open 100%
1. Keep the status of air damper positions and expansion device status as given above.
2. Switch on mains switch and compressor supply.
1
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4
,
T
5
, T
6
, and T
7
4. Note the pressures of refrigerant gas in the circuit by noting P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
pressures in the
observation table.
5. Repeat the above procedure to get different sets of readings till you get fairly constant
pressures of the consecutive readings. Confirm this by taking one more set of readings.
Formulae:
1. C.O.P (Reversed Carnot)
1
2 1
T
T T
'
=
' '
Absolute pressure
( )
1 1
/14.8 1 P P '= +
58
By taking
1
1
T'
1
Similarly find
2
P' and
2
T'

2
1 4
2 1
h h
h h
Where,
h
1
1
h
2 =
2
h
4
4

Exercises:
1. Determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of air conditioning system in air re-
circulation type ducting.
59
Experiment No: 13c
Objective:
To study the humidification process
Air re-circulation damper Open 100%
1. Keep the status of the damper and expansion device selection as given above.
2. Switch on mains switch and compressor.
3. Note the initial reading of WBT & DBT in the test cabin that is, T
6
and T
7
respectively.
4. Switch on the supply to the steamer.
5. Go on taking the readings every 5 minutes till you get no appreciable change in the
WBT.
6. Study the observation Table and note that the air is humidified due to steam injection.
7. Switch off all the supply after you complete the experiment.
Exercises:
1. Study the humidification process and write the remarks
60
Experiment No: 13d
Objective:
Study of dehumidification
2. Switch on Mains switch.
3. Note the initial reading of WBT & DBT in the test cabin that is T
6
and T
7
respectively.
4. Switch on the Steamer. Observe that the wet bulb temperature changes as the steam is
introduced. Note the readings.
5. Switch on the compressor. Switch off the steamer.
6. The temperature T
6
will start dropping.
7. Start noting the WBT/DBT in the test chamber when the DBT or T
6
drops down by, say
10
0
C
8. Note the DBT and WBT of the test-chamber, that is, T
6
and T
7
respectively, every 5
minutes.
10. Study the observation table & note that the air is dehumidified due to due point cooling.
Exercises:
1. Study the dehumidification process and write the remarks
61
Experiment No: 13e
Objective:
To study the summer air conditioning
Air inlet damper Open partially
Air outlet damper Open partially
Air re-circulation damper Closed partially
Experimental Procedure: -
2. Switch on mains switch and heater.
3. Note the temperature of DBT/WBT in the controlled cabin that is, T
6
and T
7
respectively.
4. Take DBT/WBT readings every 5 minutes.
5. See that the T
6
increases. Adjust this to 35
0
C approximately.
6. Switch on the compressor.
7. Observe the temperature T
6
and T
7
till T
6
goes to 28
0
C.
8. Switch off all the switches after you complete the experiment
Exercises:
1. Study the summer air conditioning and write the remarks
62
Experiment 14
PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
Objective:
To determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD), overall heat transfer
coefficient based on inner tube diameter and effectiveness of the heat exchanger for different
flow rates of hot and cold water.
Theory:
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures
and separated by a solid wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to
implement this exchange is termed a heat exchanger, and specific applications may be found
in space heating and air-conditioning, power production, waste heat recovery, and chemical
processing.
The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different
diameters, called the double-pipe heat exchanger. One fluid in a pipe heat exchanger flows
through the smaller pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular space between the
two pipes. Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat exchanger: in
parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same end and move
in the same direction. In counter flow, on the other hand, the hot and cold fluids enter the
heat exchanger at opposite ends and flow in opposite directions.
The exchange of heat takes places in between hot water which coming from geyser
and cold water. Inlet and outlet temperature is measured from temperature sensor, which
directly shows on temperature indicator. In this heat exchanger it is require to take discharge
at outlet from heat exchanger less than or equals to the rotameter reading.
Description:
Experimental setup consist of following parts
Heat exchanger (tube-in-tube type):
1500mm length, outer tube diameter 41 mm, inner copper tube diameter 10.7 mm
Geyser:
Capacity 3 lit, Wattage 3 KW, automatically trip at 80
O
C, make- OSHAM
63
Rotameter:
60 to 600 LPH.
Pump:
1900 LPH for this head, 0.25 HP.
Temperature indicator:
Digital temperature indicator having range 0 to 400
O
C, make- EUTECH
Electronic energy meter:
Energy meter constant- 3200 imp/ KWh.
Before starting the trainer, follow the following start up procedure.
1. Ensure that supply voltage is 230 V in your laboratory.
2. On the main supply so that temperature indicator becomes ON.
3. ON the hot water pump so that water starts flowing through the geyser.
4. ON the geyser so that it start to heat water.
5. Now start cold water supply.
6. Adjust the flow of cold and hot water supply by valves.
7. Ensure rotameter shows the constant reading (flow in LPH).
8. Wait until steady state temperature will reach.
9. After steady state temperature reaches, take the readings as per observation table.
10. During first step, copper matrix absorbs the heat from hot water and during next step;
it gives heat to the cold water.
11. Measure the temperature as per observation table given.
Formulae:
1. The log mean temperature difference (LMTD),
lm
T A , for the counter-flow heat
exchanger

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
, , , ,
1 3 2 4
1 3 , ,
2 4
, ,
ln
ln
h i c o h o c i
lm
h i c o
h o c i
T T T T
T T T T
T
T T T T
T T
T T

A = =
| | | |
| |
|
\ .
\ .
Where,

64
For counter flow:
T
1
= inlet temperature of hot water,
O
C
T
2
= outlet temperature of hot water,
O
C
T
4
= inlet temperature of cold water,
O
C
T
3
= outlet temperature of cold water,
O
C
2. Effectiveness of the heat exchanger,

( )
( )
( )
( )
, ,
3 4
max min 1 4 min , ,
c c o c i
c
h i c i
C T T
C T T
q
q C T T C T T

= = =

Where,
q = actual heat transfer rate for a heat exchanger
q
max
= maximum possible heat transfer possible

min
heat capacity rate of hot fluid
heat capacity rate of cold fluid
h h ph
c c pc
h c
C m c
C m c
C C or C
= =
= =
=
3. The overall convection coefficient based on inner tube diameter, U

i

( )
( )
ln /
1 1 1 1 1
2
ln /
1 1 1
2 2
o i
i i o o i i t o o
o i i i
i i t t o o
D D
UA U A U A h A k L h A
D D D D
U h k k L h D
= = = + +
| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .

For hot water flow through the tube of diameter, D
i

If the Reynolds number,
4
Re 2300
h
D
i
m
D
= s
then the flow is laminar.

For laminar flow, 3.66
i i
D
h D
Nu
k
= =

For the cold water flow through the annulus of hydraulic diameter D
h

If
( )
( )
( )
,
2 2
4 4
Re 2300
o i m h c c
D h
o i o i
D D u D m m
D D D D

= = = s
+

then the
flow is laminar.
For laminar flow through the annulus,
( )
6.6
o o i o h
D
h D D h D
Nu
k k
= = =
65

, , , ,
, , , , 1 2
( ) or ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
h p h h i h o i i lm CF i i lm
h p h h i h o h p h
i
i lm i lm
q m c T T q U A T U D L T
m c T T m c T T
U
D L T D L T

= = A = A

= =
A A

Where,
q = heat transfer rate, W/m
2

k
t
= thermal conductivity of copper tube, W/m
2
.K
k = thermal conductivity of water, W/m
2
.K

h
m = mass flow rate of hot water, kg/s

h
m = mass flow rate of cold water, Kg/s
U
i
= overall convection coefficient based on inner tube diameter, W/m
2
.K
D
i
= diameter of the inner tube (copper)
D
o
= diameter of the outer tube
L = length of the pipe
Exercises:
1. Determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD).
2. Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner tube diameter.
3. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger for different flow rates of hot and cold
water.

1. Dont hold or play with red painted tube.
2. Dont start the pump without water in the sump.
3. Dont start the geyser without water supply.
4. Keep all the experimental set up undisturbed.
5. Dont pull out the thermocouple connections.
66
Experiment 15
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Objective:
To determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD), average convection
coefficient based up on the outside area of the tube and the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger for different flow rates of hot and cold water.
Theory:
Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids
that are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat
exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and
air-conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in
large plants. Heat exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two
fluids involved to mix.
Perhaps the most common type of heat exchanger in industrial applications is the
shell-and-tube heat exchanger. It contain a large number of tubes packed in a shell with their
axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside the tubes
while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
Baffles are usually installed to increase the convection coefficient of the shell-side
fluid by inducing turbulence and a cross-flow velocity components. In addition, the baffles
physically support the tubes, reducing flow-induced tube vibration.
Description:
Experimental setup consist of following parts
Shell and tube type heat exchanger:
300mm length and 150 mm diameter, copper tubes- 55 numbers of size 9.6 mm (ID)
and 12 mm (OD).
67
Geyser:
Capacity 3 lit, Wattage 3 kW, automatically trip at 80
O
C, make- OSHAM
Rotameter:
60 to 600 LPH.
Pump:
1900 LPH for this head, 0.25 HP.
Temperature indicator:
Digital temperature indicator having range 0 to 400
O
C, make- EUTECH
Electronic energy meter:
Energy meter constant- 3200 imp/ kWh.
Before starting the trainer, follow the following start up procedure
1. Ensure that supply voltage is 230 V in your laboratory.
2. On the main supply so that temperature indicator becomes ON.
3. ON the hot water pump so that water starts flowing through the geyser.
4. ON the geyser so that it start to heat water.
5. Now start cold water supply.
6. Adjust the flow of cold and hot water supply by valves.
7. Ensure rotameter shows the constant reading (flow in LPH).
8. Wait until steady state temperature will reach.
9. After steady state temperature reaches, take the readings as per observation table.
10. During first step, copper matrix absorbs the heat from hot water and during next step;
it gives heat to the cold water.
11. Measure the temperature as per observation table given.
Formulae:
1. Shell and tube exchanger with one shell and one tube pass approximates a parallel flow
heat exchanger. The log mean temperature difference (LMTD),
lm
T A , for the parallel
flow heat exchanger
68

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
, , , ,
1 3 2 4
1 3 , ,
2 4
, ,
ln
ln
h i c i h o c o
lm
h i c i
h o c o
T T T T
T T T T
T
T T T T
T T
T T

A = =
| | | |
| |
|
\ .
\ .
Where,
For parallel flow:
T
1
= inlet temperature of hot water,
O
C
T
2
= outlet temperature of hot water,
O
C
T
3
= inlet temperature of cold water,
O
C
T
4
= outlet temperature of cold water,
O
C
2. Effectiveness of the heat exchanger,

( )
( )
( )
( )
, ,
4 3
max min 1 3 min , ,
c c o c i
c
h i c i
C T T
C T T
q
q C T T C T T

= = =

Where,
q = actual heat transfer rate for a heat exchanger
q
max
= maximum possible heat transfer possible

min
heat capacity rate of hot fluid
heat capacity rate of cold fluid
h h ph
c c pc
h c
C m c
C m c
C C or C
= =
= =
=
3. Average convection coefficient based up on the outside area of the tube, h

o
The heat transfer rate, q

, , ,
, , , , 1 2
( ) or ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
h p h h i h o i i lm i lm
h p h h i h o h p h
i
i lm i lm
q m c T T q U A T U N D L T
m c T T m c T T
U
N D L T N D L T

= = A = A

= =
A A

The overall convection coefficient, U
i
based on inner tube diameter

( )
( )
ln /
1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1
ln /
2
= = = + +
| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .
o i
i i o o i i t o o
i i
o i
i i t o o
D D
UA U A U A h A k L h A
D D
D D
U h k h D

For hot water flow through the tube of diameter, D
i
69

If the Reynolds number,
( ) 4 /
Re 2300
h
D
i
m N
D
= s
then the flow is laminar.

For laminar flow, 3.66
i i
D
h D
Nu
k
= =
( )
1
1 1
ln /
2
( | | | |

=
` ( | |
\ . \ . )
i o
o o i
i i t i
D D
h D D
U h k D

Where,

( )
mass flow rate of hot water
length of the pipe
inner diameter of the tube
outer diameter of the tube
number of copper tubes
log mean temperature difference LMTD for
h
i
o
lm
m
L
D
D
N
T
=
=
=
=
=
A =
2
2
the parallel flow
thermal conductivity of copper tube, W/ m .K
thermal conductivity of water, W/ m .K
dynamic viscosity of water, kg/s.m
t
k
k
=
=
=

Exercises:
1. Determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD).
2. Average convection coefficient based up on the outside area of the tube.
3. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger for different flow rates of hot and cold
water.
1. Dont hold or play with red painted tube.
2. Dont start the pump without water in the sump.
3. Dont start the geyser without water supply.
4. Keep all the experimental set up undisturbed.
5. Dont pull out the thermocouple connections.
Tear- off
Sheets
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 1
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH LAGGED PIPE
Objective:
To determine heat flow rate through the lagged pipe for known value of thermal
conductivity of lagging material and get the combined thermal conductivity of lagging
material. Plot the temperature distribution across the lagging material.
Observations:
1. Radius of innermost pipe, r
i
= 25 mm
2. Radius of middle pipe , r
m
= 50 mm
3. Radius of outermost pipe, r
0
= 75 mm
4. Material filled in inner annulus = asbestos
5. Material filled in outer annulus = sawdust
6. Thermal conductivity of asbestos, k
1
= 0.26 W/m
o
C
7. Thermal conductivity of sawdust, k
2
= 0.069 W/m
o
C
8. Length of the lagged pipe, L = 1000 mm
Observation Table:
Sr.
No.
V(V) I (A)
Heat Supplied
Q =V I
(W)
Thermocouple Readings (
0
C)
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
Results:
1. The heat input, Q
Exp
=
2. The value of combined thermal conductivity of lagging material, k
eff.
=
Graph: Plot temperature profile.
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 2
STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
Objective:
To study radiation heat transfer by a black body hence finds the Stefan
Boltzmann constant.
Observations:
1. Mass of test disc = 0.0051 kg
2. Specific heat of disc material = 0.418 kJ/kg C
3. Hemispherical enclosure dia = 200 mm
4. Base plate, Bakelite diameter = 250 mm.
5. Test disc dia (d
D
) = 20 mm
6. Temp. Hemisphere (T
h
) = _______ K
7. Temp. Of disc at time t= 0 (T
D
) = _______ K
8. From the graph (dT/dt) at t = 0 = _______ C/sec.
Observation Table:
Time t (sec.) Temperature (T) of disc in C
Results:
1. =
2. Comments:
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 3
EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS
Objective:
To find out the emissivity of a test plate.
Observations:
1. Test plate dia = 160 mm
2. Black plate = 160 mm
3. Stefan Boltzmann Constant, = 5.670 10
-8
W/ m K
4
Observation Table:
Black plate:
Voltage, V Amperage, I Power input, W
b
= V I
(W)
Black plate temp, T
b
(
o
C)
Test plate:
Voltage, V Amperage, I Power input, W
s
= V I
(W)
Test plate
temperature
T
t
(
o
C)
Ambient
temperature
T
s
(
o
C)
Results:
Emissivity of the test plate,
t
=
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 4
HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION
Objective:
To find out the heat transfer co-efficient of vertical cylinder in natural
convection.
Observations:
1. Outer diameter of Cylinder, d = 35 mm.
2. Length of Cylinder, L = 500 mm.
3. Input to heater = V I (W)
Where
V = Volts.
I = Amps.
Observation Table:
Run No. V
(Volts)
I
(Amp)
T
1
(
o
C)
T
2
(
o
C)
T
3
(
o
C)
T
4
(
o
C)
T
5
(
o
C)
T
6
(
o
C)
T
7
(
o
C)
T
8
(
o
C)
Results:
The heat transfer coefficient, h =
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 5
DROPWISE AND FILM CONDENSATION
Objective:
To find the heat transfer coefficient for drop wise condensation and film
condensation process.
Observations:
1. Outer diameter of heat transfer surface, D
o
= 20 mm
2. Inner diameter of heat transfer surface, D
i
= 17 mm
3. Length of heat transfer surface, L = 160 mm
4. Inside heat transfer area, A
i
= 0.008549 m
2
5. Outside heat transfer area, A
o
= 0.010057 m
2
6. Heat of evaporation, = 2257 kJ/kg
Observation Table:
Condenser under Test
S.N. Water flow
rate (LPH)
Steam
condensed (ml)
Time
(min)
Temperature
T1
(
o
C)
T2
(
o
C)
T3
(
o
C)
T4
(
o
C)
T5
(
o
C)
5
+T
6)
/2
7. Specific heat of water, C
P
= __________ kJ/kgK
8. Density of water,
1 =
__________ kg/m
3
9. Kinematics Viscosity,
1 =
__________ m
2
/sec
10. Viscosity of water, = __________ N.s/m
2
Tear off sheet: 2
11. Thermal conductivity, k
1 =
__________ W /m K
3
+T
4)
/2
12. Density of water,
2 =
__________ kg/m
3
13. Viscosity of water, = __________ N.s/m
2
14. Thermal conductivity, k
2 =
__________ W /m K
Results:
Mass flow
rate of water
M
w
(Kg/s)
Rate of Steam
condensed
M
s
(Kg/s)
Calculated heat transfer
coefficient (
2
W/m K)
Experimental heat
transfer coefficient
(
2
W/m K)
ho hi U ho hi U
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 6
HEAT TRANSFER FROM A PIN FIN
Objective:
To study the temperature distribution along the length of a pin fin under free and
forced convection heat transfer and find the fin efficiency.
Observations:
1. Diameter of the fin, D = 12.7 mm
2. Length of the fin, L = 125 mm
3. Diameter of the orifice, d
o
= 39 mm
4. Inner diameter of the delivery pipe, d
P
= 52 mm
5. Coefficient of discharge (Orifice meter), C
o
= 0.64
6. Thermal conductivity of fin material (Brass), k
f
= 110 W/ m K
Observation Table:
Experiment Power
input
V I
Fin temperature,
o
C Ambient
air temp,
o
C
T
f
= T
6
Manometer
Reading,
h
m of water
T
1
(x
=2.5
cm)
T
2
(x = 5
cm)
T
3
(x =
7.5
cm)
T
4
(x =
10
cm)
T
5
(x =
12.5
cm)
Free
convection
Forced
convection
Results:
1. Fin efficiency,
f
=
2. Fin effectiveness =
Graph:
Plot the temperature profile within the fin T Vs x
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 7
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS
Objective:
To determine the thermal conductivity of a liquid
Observations:
1. Diameter of the hot plate = 160 mm
2. Diameter of the cold plate = 160 mm
3. Sample Liquid depth, X = 20 mm
Observation Table:
S.
No.
V
(Volt)
I
(amp)
T
h1
(
o
C)
T
h2
(
o
C)
T
h3
(
o
C)
T
C1
(
o
C)
T
C2
(
o
C)
T
C3
(
o
C)
Cold water
flow rate
Results:
1. Sample liquid = _________
2. Heat input, Q = _________ W
3. Thermal conductivity of liquid, K = _________W/m.K
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 8
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATIING POWDER
Objective:
To determine thermal conductivity of insulating powder
Observations:
1. Radius of the inner copper sphere, r
i
= 50 mm
2. Radius of the outer copper sphere, r
o
= 100 mm
Observation Table:
Inner Sphere:
S. No. Voltmeter
(V)
Ammeter
(I)
Temperature corresponding to
each thermocouple (C)
Mean
temperature(C)
1 2 3 4
4
i
T T T T
T

T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4

Outer Sphere:
Temperature corresponding to each
thermocouple (C)
Mean temperature, (C)
5 6 7 8 9 10
0
6
T T T T T T
T

T
5
T
6
T
7
T
8
T
9
T
10
Results:
1. Heat input, Q =
2. Thermal conductivity of insulating power, k =
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 9
HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION
Objective:
To find surface heat transfer coefficient between a heated pipe and air flowing through it
by forced convection, for different air flow rates and heat flow rates.
Observations:
1. Length of test section (L) = 0.412 m
2. I.D. of Test section (D
i
) = 0.032 m
3. O.D. of Test Section (D
0
) = 0.038 m
4. Orifice Diameter (d
0
) = 0.014 m
5. Orifice pipe inside diameter (d
P
) = 0.028 m
6. Coefficient of discharge (C
0
) = 0.6
7. Density of water (
W
) = 1000 kg/m
3
8. Density of air (
a
) = 1.205 kg/m
3
9. Manometer reading (H) = ________ m
Observation Table:
Results:
1. h
exp.
=
2. h
the
=
3. Comments:
Sr. No.
V
(VOLT)
I
(AMPS)
T
1
(
0
C)
T
2
(
0
C)
T
3
(
0
C)
T
4
(
0
C)
T
5
(
0
C)
T
6

(
0
C)
Manometer
Reading (m.)
h
1
h
2
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 10
HEAT PUMP TRAINER
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of heat pump trainer
Observations:
p
= 4.18 kJ/kg.K
Observation Table:
No T
1
0
C
T
2
0
C
T
3
0
C
T
4
0
C
T
5
0
C
T
6
0
C
T
7
0
C
T
8
0
C
P
1
P.S.I
P
2
P.S.I
P
3
P.S.I
P
4
P.S.I
F
1
LPH
F
2
LPH
F
3
LPH
1 400 300
2 450 350
3 500 400
4 550 450
5 600 500
Results:
F
2
LPH
F
3
LPH
C.O.P (Reversed Carnot) C.O.P (Theoretical) C.O.P (Actual)
400 300
450 350
500 400
550 450
600 500
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 11
TO DETERMINE THE COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP)
OF A VAPOUR COMPRESSOR TRAINER
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigeration trainer
Observations:
p
= 4.18 kJ/kg.K
Observation Table:
Obs
no.
T
1
0
C
T
2
0
C
T
3
0
C
T
4
0
C
T
5
0
C
P
1
P.S.I
P
2
P.S.I
P
3
P.S.I
P
4
P.S.I
Energy meter
No. of blinks
per minute
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Results:
T
C.O.P (Reversed Carnot) C.O.P (Theoretical) C.O.P (Actual)
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 12
VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION TRAINER
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of vapor absorption
refrigeration trainer
Observations:
p
= 4.18 kJ/kg.K
2. Calorific Value of LPG = 50000 KJ/kg
Observation Table:
Temp. of
evaporator
T
e
(C)
Temp. of
water inlet
T
ci
(C)
Temp.
water out
T
co
(C)
Temp. of
absorber
T
a
(C)
Temp.
generator
T
g
(C)
Temp. of
condenser
T
c
(C)
Volume
V (lph)
Time
t (sec)
Power output
P
in
(W)
Gas consumption
G
in
(kg/hr)
Results:
COP
actual
COP
ideal
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 13
AIR CONDITIONING TRAINER
Experiment No: 13a
Objective:
To determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of air conditioning system in
open type Ducting
Air inlet damper Open 100%
Air outlet damper Open 100%
Air circulation damper Closed 100%
Observation Table:
Ob
No.
T
1
0
C
T
2
0
C
T
3
0
C
T
4
0
C
T
5
0
C
T
6
0
C
T
7
0
C
P
1
P.S.
I
P
2
P.S.
I
P
3
P.S.
I
P
4
P.S.
I
Load
kw
Ref.
Flow
1
2
3
4
5
Observation No. C.O.P (reversed Carnot) C.O.P (Theoretical)
1
2
3
4
5
Remarks:
Tear off sheet: 2
Experiment No: 13b
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of performance (COP) of air conditioning system in
air re-circulation type ducting.
Air circulation damper Open 100%
Observation Table:
Ob
No.
T
1
0
C
T
2
0
C
T
3
0
C
T
4
0
C
T
5
0
C
T
6
0
C
T
7
0
C
P
1
P.S.
I
P
2
P.S.
I
P
3
P.S.
I
P
4
P.S.
I
Load
kw
Ref.
Flow
1
2
3
4
5
Observation No. C.O.P (reversed Carnot) C.O.P (Theoretical)
1
2
3
4
5
Remarks:
Tear off sheet: 3
Experiment No: 13c
Objective:
To study the humidification process
Air outlet damper
Closed 100%
Observation Table:
Observation
No.
Time
hh : mm
T
6
O
C
T
7
O
C
Relative
Humidity
1
2
3
4
5
Remarks:
Tear off sheet: 4
Experiment No: 13d
Objective:
Study of dehumidification
Air outlet damper
Closed 100%
Observation Table:
Observation
No.
Time
hh : mm
T
6
O
C
T
7
O
C
Relative
Humidity
1
2
3
4
5
Remarks:
Tear off sheet: 5
Experiment No: 13e
Objective:
To study the summer air conditioning
Air inlet damper Open partially
Air outlet damper
Open partially
Air re-circulation damper Closed partially
Observation Table:
Observation
No.
Time
hh : mm
T
6
O
C
T
7
O
C
1
2
3
4
5
Remarks:
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 14
PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
Objective:
To determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD), overall heat transfer
coefficient based on inner tube diameter and effectiveness of the heat exchanger for
different flow rates of hot and cold water.
Data:
1. diameter of outer tube (D
o
) = 41 mm
2. diameter of inner tube (D
i
) = 10.7 mm
3. length of the tube (L) = 1500 mm
4. thermal conductivity of the inner tube (k
t
) = 400 W/m.K
Observation Table:
1. Cold water flow rate (
C
m ):_______LPH
Hot water flow rate (
h
m ):_______LPH
SR
NO.
T
1
O
C
T
2
O
C
T
3
O
C
T
4
O
C
LMTD
lm
T
Effectiveness
Overall heat transfer

coefficient
U
i
1 46
2 49
3 52
4 55
C
m ):_______LPH
h
m ):_______LPH
Tear off sheet: 2
SR
NO.
T
1
O
C
T
2
O
C
T
3
O
C
T
4
O
C
LMTD
lm
T
Effectiveness

coefficient
U
i
1 46
2 49
3 52
4 55
C
m ):_______LPH
h
m ):_______LPH
SR
NO.
T
1
O
C
T
2
O
C
T
3
O
C
T
4
O
C
LMTD
lm
T
Effectiveness

coefficient
U
i
1 46
2 49
3 52
4 55
Results:
Remarks:
Tear off sheet: 1
Experiment 15
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Objective:
To determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD), average convection
coefficient based up on the outside area of the tube and the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger for different flow rates of hot and cold water.
Data:
1. diameter of the shell (D) = 150 mm
2. inner diameter of the tube (D
i
) = 9.6 mm
3. outer diameter of the tube (D
o
) = 12 mm
4. length of the tube (L) = 1500 mm
5. number of tubes (N) = 55
6. thermal conductivity of the tube (k
t
) = 400 W/m.K
Observation Table:
C
m ):_______LPH
h
m ) :_______LPH
SR
NO.
T
1
O
C
T
2
O
C
T
3
O
C
T
4
O
C
LMTD
lm
T
Effectiveness
Average convection
coefficient
h
o
1 46
2 49
3 52
4 55
Tear off sheet: 2
C
m ):_______LPH
h
m ):_______LPH
SR
NO.
T
1
O
C
T
2
O
C
T
3
O
C
T
4
O
C
LMTD
lm
T
Effectiveness
Average convection
coefficient
h
o
1 46
2 49
3 52
4 55
C
m ):_______LPH
h
m ):_______LPH
SR
NO.
T
1
O
C
T
2
O
C
T
3
O
C
T
4
O
C
LMTD
lm
T
Effectiveness
Average convection
coefficient
h
o
1 46
2 49
3 52
4 55
Results:
Remarks:

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Laboratory Manual

3. To plot the temperature distribution use formula:-

Thus the plot of T Vs r (thickness) can be made for different values of r.

12. Theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient

= Q / cross-sectional area of duct

Hot face average temperature, T

= mass flow rate of water passing through the condenser

Heat Transfer Lab Manual

Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.186 KJ/ kg-K

Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.186 KJ/ kg-K

3. The overall convection coefficient based on inner tube diameter, U

then the flow is laminar.

3. Average convection coefficient based up on the outside area of the tube, h

then the flow is laminar.

Overall heat transfer

Overall heat transfer

Overall heat transfer

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