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NATIONAL HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
34
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
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D
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
NATIONAL HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
35
Topical medications
Initiating treatment
There is general consensus that for most patients with glaucoma, initial topical
medication management should commence in one eye only, using the other
eye as a control to check for therapeutic response. The response to lowering
the IOP should be checked within two to six weeks, as should adherence to
the medication regimen and instillation method. Two to four weeks is generally
considered to be a suitable time frame for the medication to reach full effect
before extending treatment to the fellow eye.
Application of topical medications
Patient adherence to their medication regimen, and their capacity to self-instill
eye drops safely and effectively is of paramount importance when determining
the most appropriate medication regimen for the individual. Patients should
therefore be instructed carefully on how best to administer the medication
to ensure accurate, effective and appropriate instillation. The preferred
method for eye drop self-instillation includes holding the head horizontal
with punctual occlusion and eyelid closure for three minutes (DOUBLE
DOT: Digital Occlusion of Tear Duct and Dont Open Technique) as systemic
absorption can be reduced (by up to 70%) with this technique. If two or more
drops are being instilled to the same eye, there should be an interval of at
least ve minutes between drops.
Glaucoma Australia has produced a DVD on How to instill eye drops with
funding from the Department of Health and Ageing. Health care providers
are encouraged to become familiar with this resource, and to recommend it
to their patients.
POINT OF NOTE
Effective education on the instillation of eye drops includes:
demonstrating the technique to the patient and carers
observing patient and carers instilling the drops correctly
repeating education, demonstration and observation until the heath care
provider is satisfed that patient and carers are fully capable of instilling the
drops correctly.
NATIONAL HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
36
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
Changing medication regimens
Change in well-tolerated medication regimens, and the use of additional
medications are only supported in situations where target IOP has not been
reached, despite the patients adherence to the regimen.
Medication in acute angle closure crisis
When acute angle closure presents as a crisis, medication management is
usually initiated to lower IOP quickly, to reduce pain and to clear corneal
oedema in preparation for laser therapy. Medications that suppress aqueous
humor formation may be ineffective because they will have decreased capacity
to reduce aqueous formation if the ciliary body is ischemic.
45
Refer to the
Therapeutic Guidelines: Emergency Medicine 2008 for clear guidance on the
latest medications to be used in an emergency situation.
Managing glaucoma successfully within specifc
comorbid conditions
Glaucoma often occurs comorbidly to pre-existing health conditions. Primary
health care providers should consider the potential interaction of glaucoma
medications with medications for other conditions, as well as the effect of
glaucoma medications on the pathophysiology of the pre-existing health
conditions. Problematic pre-existing conditions include diabetes, depression,
hyperthyroidism, asthma, renal and hepatic disease, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, and cardiovascular disease. Further information is available
in the NHMRC Glaucoma Guidelines (p122-128).
Medication-induced glaucoma
Open angle glaucoma
Corticosteroids are the main culprits in medication-induced glaucoma.
46
Medication-induced glaucoma should be considered as secondary glaucoma
related to its external causation.
6
Corticosteroids raise the IOP when
administered in any form.
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
NATIONAL HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
37
POINT OF NOTE
Any patient taking steroids on a long-term basis is advised to undergo regular
ocular checks to monitor intraocular pressure.
Angle closure and angle closure glaucoma
Adrenergic, anticholinergics (many antidepressants) and sulpha-based
medications can precipitate an acute angle closure crisis. Further information is
available in the NHMRC Glaucoma Guidelines (p127-128).
POINT OF NOTE
A large number of over-the-counter and prescription medications have been linked with
acute angle closure crisis and/or raised intraocular pressure. Counseling could be offered
for individuals who are identifed as being at risk of angle closure glaucoma, regarding
medication use.
Specifc patient groups
When prescribing or monitoring glaucoma medications, health care providers
should consider the special needs of pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers,
children and other vulnerable groups of patients at risk of, or with, glaucoma.
Further information regarding these specic considerations are available in the
NHMRC Glaucoma Guidelines. (p129-135).
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
NATIONAL HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
39
Laser therapy and surgery
Laser therapy
Laser therapy is currently considered for patients who fail to maintain IOP
within the specied target range with medications.
13
Emerging evidence
suggests that laser therapy may become a rst choice strategy for IOP reduction
for some patients.
Laser iridotomy
Laser iridotomy is used to treat angle closure. This technique creates a hole
in the iris in order to break the pupil block, which is the most common cause
of angle closure. It is most frequently undertaken by Nd:YAG laser iridotomy,
however when this form is not available, an argon laser may be utilised.
25
Laser iridoplasty
Laser iridoplasty is used in angle closure following iridotomy when the angle
remains appositionally closed or occludable. Contraction burns are applied to
the peripheral iris to pull it away from the trabecular meshwork.
Laser trabculoplasty
Laser trabeculoplasty is used in OAG. Applications to the trabecular meshwork
alter the drainage tissue, generally increasing aqueous outow.
Combination laser surgery
Iridotomy is often combined with iridoplasty, where laser is applied to
shrink the peripheral iris away from the trabecular meshwork to improve the
aqueous ow.
Cyclodestructive procedures
Transcleral cyclophotocoagulation is a form of laser therapy which treats
glaucoma by damaging the ciliary body. The laser is aimed through the
sclera at the ciliary body, which secretes aqueous humor. This form of laser
NATIONAL HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
40
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
treatment lowers IOP by decreasing aqueous humor production. Currently,
cyclodestructive procedures are commonly performed using a transscleral laser
delivery system, however they can also be performed endoscopically.
11
Common surgical interventions
Trabeculectomy
Incisional ltering microsurgery involves surgically creating a drainage channel
between the anterior chamber and subconjunctival space (see Figure 4). This
is not a true stula because the subconjunctival space is only loose connective
tissue with a large capacity for brosis. The surgical dissection and subsequent
aqueous ow are believed to stimulate this brosis which reduces the outow
of aqueous over time. Standard trabeculectomy ve-year survival is reported to
be 80%.
35
Trabeculectomy may be undertaken as a primary procedure, or when laser
therapy does not successfully lower IOP, or if the IOP begins to rise.
Since excessive scarring in the operative area will lead to failure of ltering
surgery, anti-brotic medications such as 5-uorouracil and Mitomycin C are
frequently applied locally to retard healing.
Figure 4: Purpose of incisional fltering microsurgery
(Source: Members of the Working Committee)
Bleb
Fluid flows
through cut
channel
Optic nerve now under
less pressure
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Resources
Consumer-orientated organisations
Glaucoma Australia
http://www.glaucoma.org.au/
Glaucoma Australias (formerly The Glaucoma Foundation of Australia lnc.)
mission is to minimise visual disability from glaucoma. Their sole purpose is:
increasing community awareness and understanding of glaucoma and the
need for regular eye checks
supporting glaucoma patients and their families, especially with information
funding glaucoma research.
Vision Australia
http://www.visionaustralia.org/
Vision Australia is a living partnership between people who are blind, sighted
or have low vision. They are united by their passion that in the future people
who are blind or have low vision will have access to and fully participate in
every part of life they choose.
Royal Society for the Blind
http://www.rsb.org.au/
The Royal Society for the Blind (RSB) is the primary provider of services for
South Australians who have severe vision impairment. These services are
delivered by a professional, committed and highly qualied team supported
by volunteers, drawn from all age groups and walks of life. Blindness or vision
impairment can have a severe impact on a persons lifestyle. The RSB is here to
assist people to overcome their vision impairment and participate independently
in the community.
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Guide Dogs Australia
http://www.guidedogsaustralia.com/
Guide Dogs Australia is a brand that represents all of Australias state based
Guide Dog organisations. Together, as the nations leading providers of
orientation and mobility services, including Guide Dogs, they assist people who
are blind or have a vision impairment gain the freedom and independence to
move safely and condently around the community and to full their potential.
Association for the Blind of WA
http://www.abwa.asn.au/
Their mission is to maximise the quality of life of people who are blind
or vision impaired by building condence, promoting wellness, and
creating connection.
Health Insite
http://www.healthinsite.gov.au/topics/glaucoma
Through this site you will nd a wide range of up-to-date and quality assessed
information on important health topics such as glaucoma, diabetes, cancer,
mental health and asthma.
Profession-specifc organisations
Australian Ophthalmic Nurses Association
www.aonavic.com.au
www.aonansw.org.au
www.aona.org.au
The Australian Ophthalmic Nurses Association is the professional association for
Ophthalmic Nursing in Australia, with branches located NSW, QLD and VIC. The
association aims to provide and communicate current information from a variety
of clinical aspects, including nursing, medical and allied health professionals.
Royal Australian College of General Practitioners
http://www.racgp.org.au/
The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners is the professional
organisation that focuses on supporting general practitioners in improving
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health and wellbeing for all Australians and improving the safety and quality of
general practice.
The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners has branches across Australia.
Orthoptic Association of Australia
http://orthoptics.org.au
The Orthoptic Association of Australia Inc (OAA) is the national peak body for
Orthoptists in Australia. The role of the OAA is to:
promote and develop the profession of orthoptics
represent and support its members
contribute to excellence in eye health care in the community.
Optometrists Association Australia
http://www.optometrists.asn.au/
Optometrists Association Australia is the professional association for Australian
optometrists. The website includes a nd an optometrist function, enabling
consumers to nd an optometrist by location.
The Pharmacy Guild of Australia
http://www.guild.org.au
The Pharmacy Guild of Australia is the professional body representing
community pharmacies in Australia. The website includes a Find a Pharmacy
function, enabling consumers and health professionals to nd a pharmacy
by location.
The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of
Ophthalmologists (RANZCO)
http://www.ranzco.edu/
The Colleges mission is the improvement of the already high standard of eye
care in Australia and New Zealand. In pursuit of this mission, the College
provides a variety of services centered on its core roles as a higher educational
institution and learned society.
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Pregnancy-specifc information
New South Wales
Mother Safe
Phone (02) 9382 6539, Toll free (NSW) 1800 647 848
Queensland
Queensland Drug Information Centre
Phone (07) 3636 7098
Information for health professionals only.
South Australia
Womens and Childrens Hospital
Phone (08) 8161 7222
Victoria
Royal Womens Hospital
Phone (03) 9344 2277
Western Australia
Womens and Childrens Health Services
Phone (08) 9340 2723
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References
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8. Lee DA, Higginbotham EJ (2005): Glaucoma and its treatment: a review.
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9. Traverso CE, Walt JG, Kelly SP, Hommer AH, Bron AM, Denis P, Nordmann
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A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
11. American Academy of Ophthalmology [AAO] (2005b): Primary open-angle
glaucoma preferred practice pattern. San Francisco: American Academy of
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12. Sycha T, Vass C, Findl O, Bauer P, Groke I, Schmetterer L, Eichler H
(2003):Interventions for normal tension glaucoma. Cochrane Database of
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13. American Optometric Association [AOA] (2002): Optometric clinical practice
guideline: Care of the patient with open angle glaucoma (2nd edn.). St Louis:
American Optometric Association.
14. Japan Glaucoma Society [ JGS] (2004): Guidelines for glaucoma. Tokyo:
Japan Glaucoma Society.
15. Schmier JK, Halpern MT, Jones ML (2007): The economic implications of
glaucoma A literature review. PharmacoEconomics; 25(4): 287-308.
16. Adis International (2004): Corticosteroids are the main culprits in
drug-induced glaucoma. Drugs Therapy Perspective; 20(8): 19-22.
17. Tripathi RC, Tripathi BJ, Haggerty C (2003): Drug-Induced Glaucomas
Mechanism and Management. Drug Safety; 26(11): 749-767.
18. Bonovas S, Filioussi K, Tsantes A, Peponis V (2004a): Epidemiological
association between cigarette smoking and primary open-angle glaucoma:
a meta-analysis. Public Health 118(4): 256-261.
19. Bonovas S, Peponis V, Filioussi K (2004b): Diabetes mellitus as a risk factor
for primary open-angle glaucoma: a meta-analysis. Diabetic Medicine
21(6): 609-614.
20. Budenz DL, Anderson DR, Feuer WJ, Beiser JA, Schiffman J, Parrish RK,
Piltz-Seymour JR, Gordon MO, Kass MA (2006): Detection and Prognostic
Signicance of Optic Disc Hemorrhages during the Ocular Hypertension
Treatment Study. Ophthalmology; 113(12): 2137-2143.
21. Williams R (1999): Traumatic Eye Injury. Gleams Spring Issue. Glaucoma
research Foundation. http://www.glaucoma.org/learn/traumatic_glauc.php
22. Tielsch JM, Katz J, Singh K, Quigley HA, Gottsch JD, Javitt J, Sommer A
(1991): A Population-based Evaluation of Glaucoma Screening: The Baltimore
Eye Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology; 134(10): 1102-1110.
23. Hatt S, Wormald R, Burr J (2006): Screening for prevention of optic nerve
damage due to chronic open angle glaucoma. Cochrane Database of
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24. Sommer A, Katz J, Quigley HA, et al. Clinically detectable nerve ber
layer atrophy precedes the onset of glaucomatous eld loss. Archives of
Ophthalmology 1991; 109:77-83.
25. European Glaucoma Society [EGS] (2003): Terminology and guidelines for
glaucoma (2nd edn.). Savona, Italy: European Glaucoma Society.
26. Royal College of Ophthalmologists [RCO] (2004): Guidelines for the
management of open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension.
London: Royal College of Ophthalmologists.
27. Dueker DK, Singh K, Lin SC, Fechtner RD, Minckler DS, Samples JR,
Schuman JS (2007): Corneal Thickness Measurement in the Management
of Primary Open-angle Glaucoma. A Report by the American Academy of
Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology; 114(9):1779-1787.
28. Gordon MO, Beiser JA, Brandt JD, Heuer DK, Higginbotham EJ, Johnson CA,
Keltner JL, Miller JP, Parrish II RK, Wilson MR, Kass MA (2002): The Ocular
Hypertension Treatment Study: Baseline factors that predict the onset of
primary open-angle glaucoma. Archives of Ophthalmology 120: 714-720.
29. Miglior S, Guareschi M, Albe E, Gomarasca S, Vavassori M, Orzalesi N
(2003): Detection of glaucomatous visual eld changes using the moorelds
regression analysis of the heidelberg retina tomograph. American Journal of
Ophthalmology; 136:2633.
30. Burr J, Azuara-Blanco A, Avenell A (2004): Medical versus surgical
interventions for open angle glaucoma. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews; 1.
31. Leske MC, Heijl A, Hyman L, Bengtsson B, Komaroff E (2004): Factors for
progression and glaucoma treatment: The Early Manifest Glaucoma Trial. Current
Opinion in Ophthalmology; 15:102106.Heigl, Leske, Bengtsson et al 2002.
32. Heigl A, Leske C, Bengtsson B, Hyman L, Bengtsson B, Hussien M (2002):
Reduction of intraocular pressure and glaucoma progression: results from the
early manifest glaucoma trial. Archives of Ophthalmology; 120:1268-1279.
33. Canadian Glaucoma Study Group (2006): Canadian glaucoma study: 1. Study
design, baseline characteristics and preliminary analyses. Canadian Journal
of Ophthalmology; 41:566-75.
34. The AGIS Investigators (2000): The Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study
(AGIS): 7. The relationship between control of intraocular pressure and
visual eld deterioration. American Journal of Ophthalmology 130: 429-440.
35. The AGIS Investigators [AGIS] (2002): The Advanced Glaucoma Intervention
Study (AGIS) 11. Risk Factors for Failure of Trabeculectomy and Argon Laser
Trabeculoplasty. American Journal of Ophthalmology 134: 481-498.
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AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
36. Fleming C, Whitlock EP, Beil T, Smit B, Harris RP (2005): Screening for
primary open-angle glaucoma in the primary care setting: an update for the
US preventive services task force. Annals of Family Medicine; 3(2):167-170.
37. Friedman DS, Wilson MR, Liebmann JM, Fechtner RD, Weinreb RN (2004):
An evidence-based assessment of risk factors for the progression of
ocular hypertension and glaucoma. American Journal of Ophthalmology;
138(3):S19-31.
38. Maier PC, Funk J, Schwarzer G, Antes G, Falck-Ytter YT (2005): Treatment of
ocular hypertension and open angle glaucoma: meta-analysis of randomised
controlled trials. British Medical Journal; 331(7509):134.
39. Rolim de Moura RC, Paranhos Jr A, Wormald R (2007): Laser trabeculoplasty
for open angle glaucoma (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews; 4.
40. Oliver JE, Hattenhauer MJ, Herman D, Hodge DO, Kennedy R, Fang-Yen
M, Johnson DH, Hattenhauer MG (2002): Blindness and Glaucoma: A
comparison of patients progressing to blindness from glaucoma with patients
maintaining vision. American Journal of Ophthalmology; 133: 764772.
41. Tuulonen A, Airaksinen PJ, Erola E, Forsman E, Friberg K, Kaila M, Klemetti
A, Mkel M, Oskala P, Puska P, Suoranta L, Teir H, Uusitalo H, Vainio-Jylh
E, Vuori M (2003): The Finnish evidence-based guideline for open-angle
glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica; 81(1): 3-18.
42. South African Glaucoma Society [SAGS] (2006): Glaucoma algorithm and
guidelines for glaucoma. Hateld: South African Glaucoma Society.
43. Azuara-Blanco A, Burr J, Thomas R, Maclennan G, McPherson S (2007): The
accuracy of accredited glaucoma optometrists in the diagnosis and treatment
recommendations for glaucoma. British Journal of Ophthalmology; 91: 1639-1643.
44. American Academy of Ophthalmology [AAO] (2005c): Primary open-angle
glaucoma suspect preferred practice pattern. San Francisco: American
Academy of Ophthalmology.
45. American Academy of Ophthalmology [AAO] (2005a): Primary angle
closure preferred practice pattern. San Francisco: American Academy of
Ophthalmology.
46. Adis International (2004): Corticosteroids are the main culprits in drug-
induced glaucoma. Drugs and Therapy Perspectives; 20(8): 19-22.
47. Moore W, Nischal KK (2007): Pharmacologic management of glaucoma in
childhood. Pediatric Drugs; 9(2):71-79.
48. Papadopoulos M (2001): Whats New in Primary Open Angle Glaucoma?
Journal Community Eye Health; 14(39): 35-36.
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49. Minckler DS, Vedula SS, Li TJ, Mathew MC, Ayyala RS, Francis BA (2006):
Aqueous shunts for glaucoma. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; 2.
50. Sycha T, Vass C, Findl O, Bauer P, Groke I, Schmetterer L, Eichler H (2003):
Interventions for normal tension glaucoma. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews; 1.
51. Vass C, Hirn C, Sycha T, Findl O, Sacu S, Bauer P, Schmetterer L (2007):
Medical interventions for primary open angle glaucoma and ocular
hypertension. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; 4.
52. Foster PJ, Buhrmann R, Quigley HA, Johnson GJ (2002): The denition
and classication of glaucoma in prevalence surveys. British Journal of
Ophthalmology; 86(2):238-242.
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Appendix 1
Defnitions and anatomy of the eye
related to glaucoma
There is no denitive denition of glaucoma, largely due to the number of
separate classications of the disease. There is broad agreement that any
form of glaucoma can be described as a progressive optic neuropathy with
characteristic visual eld loss, optic disc and nerve bre degeneration. The
NHMRC Glaucoma Working Committee recommended the use of the denition
by Burr, Azuara-Blanco & Avenell
30
Glaucoma describes a group of eye diseases
in which there is progressive damage to the optic nerve characterised by specic
structural abnormalities of optic nerve head and associated patterns of visual
eld loss (p2). There are four main ways to classify glaucoma:
1. Mechanism of aqueous ow impairment leading to open angle glaucoma or
angle closure glaucoma.
2. Aetiology and presence of associated factors with the impairment (primary or
secondary glaucoma).
3. Age of the population (congenital, infantile, juvenile or adult). Glaucoma of
any age group may be classied within the above broad headings.
4. Temporal nature of symptoms i.e. acute/chronic or intermittent angle closure.
This is most often used in angle closure glaucoma.
The pathophysiology of IOP elevation in glaucoma is primarily related to
alteration in aqueous ow, although research is beginning to understand the
role of optic nerve vulnerability and particular mechanisms of injury, including
connective tissue and neural alteration, vascular dysfunction, genetic factors and
responses to local excitotoxic conditions.
Open angle glaucoma
OAG is a progressive optic neuropathy.
23
In the absence of other identiable
causes, it is classied as POAG. There is a characteristic acquired atrophy of
the optic nerve, and loss of retinal ganglion cells and their axons. POAG is a
disease in which elevated IOP is combined with a progressive optic neuropathy,
resulting in characteristic excavation of the optic nerve head and corresponding
visual eld defects.
50
This is associated with an open anterior chamber angle, by
gonioscopic appearance.
11
POAG is arbitrarily distinguished from NTG using an
IOP cut-off of 21mmHg.
51
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Secondary OAG can be caused by a variety of substances that mechanically
block the outow of aqueous through the anterior chamber angle, resulting
in an elevation of IOP. These substances include pigment, exfoliation material,
and red blood cells. Secondary OAG can also result from alterations in the
structure and function of the trabecular meshwork, due to insults such as
trauma, inammation, and ischemia.
11
In secondary OAG, elevated IOP causes
progressive typical glaucomatous optic neuropathy and visual eld loss. In
several forms of secondary glaucoma, pathomechanisms are combined, leading
to both secondary OAG and angle closure glaucoma.
42
Normal tension glaucoma
NTG is a subtype of POAG where IOP remains within the statistically
determined usual range, but progressive optic neuropathy and visual defects
typical of glaucoma occur. The criteria that are widely used to dene NTG
include:
a mean untreated IOP consistently equal to or less than 21mmHg or median
IOP equal to or less than 20mmHg on diurnal testing, with no single
measurement greater than 24mmHg
open drainage angles on gonioscopy
typical optic disc damage with glaucomatous cupping and loss of
neuroretinal rim
absence of any secondary cause for a glaucomatous optic neuropathy
(trauma, steroids, uveitis)
visual eld defect compatible with glaucomatous cupping (disc to eld
correlation).
51
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Angle closure glaucoma
Angle closure glaucoma can present in either primary or secondary forms, in
acute or chronic situations. Patients may have both, and present with acute
attacks superimposed on a chronic condition. In primary angle closure, the
eye is at risk of developing glaucomatous optic disc damage, particularly
when associated with elevated IOP. When optic disc damage occurs, the eye
is deemed to have progressed from primary angle closure to PACG.
45
If acute
angle closure is suspected, some components of the examination (optic disc
imaging, visual eld testing) may need to be postponed as patients may present
as medical emergencies. Providing appropriate and timely treatment becomes
the priority.
Primary angle closure is dened as appositional or synechial closure of
the anterior-chamber angle, the commonest mechanism of which is usually
pupillary block.
45
In pupillary block, the front lens surface is anterior to the
plane of the iris insertion into the ciliary body base, which causes resistance
to aqueous humor ow. The resistance increases as the lens position is further
forward, whether in primary angle closure or secondary angle closure. The
resultant pressure gradient between the posterior and anterior chambers
causes a forward bowing of the peripheral iris so that the iris covers all or
part of the ltering portion of the trabecular meshwork (appositional angle
closure), which can lead to elevation of IOP. Prolonged or repeated contact
of the peripheral iris with the trabecular meshwork may lead to adhesions
known as peripheral anterior synechiae and residual functional damage to the
trabecular meshwork. The angle closure may or may not be associated with
elevated IOP or glaucomatous optic neuropathy, and may occur in either an
acute or chronic form.
Acute angle closure has at least two of the following symptoms (ocular or
periocular pain, nausea and/or vomiting, history of intermittent blurring of
vision with halos) and at least three of the following signs (raised IOP 21mmHg,
conjunctival injection, corneal epithelial oedema, mid-dilated unreactive pupil,
or shallow anterior chamber in the presence of an occludable angle).
52
Secondary angle closure is associated with a closed anterior chamber as
identied on gonioscopy. The European Glaucoma Society
25
suggests that the
pathophysiology of secondary angle closure includes phakomorphic eyes and
cases of inammation.
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Figure 5: The anatomy of the eye
(Source: Members of the NHMRC Working Committee)
Ciliary Body
Lens
Sclera
Cornea
Trabecular
Meshin Angle
Anterior
Chamber
Posterior
Chamber
Zonules
Figure 6: An illustration of open angle and angle closure glaucoma with trabecular
meshwork (Source: www.angleclosureglaucoma.cn)
Lens
Lens
t
r
a
b
e
c
u
l
a
r
m
e
s
h
w
o
r
k
closed
angle
open angle
C
o
r
n
e
a
C
o
r
n
e
a
C
i
l
i
a
r
y
b
o
d
y C
i
l
i
a
r
y
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o
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Childhood glaucoma
Childhood glaucoma is a potentially blinding optic neuropathy invariably
associated with raised IOP, characteristic optic disc changes and associated
with specic visual eld defects.
47
Typically in infants, the signs of glaucoma
are corneal haze, tearing of the eye with striking photophobia, and enlargement
of the eyeball (buphthalmos). Childhood glaucoma is dened by age and
mechanism of onset.
Pigmentary glaucoma
Pigmentary glaucoma presents similarly to POAG, with additional key
signs including:
pigment on the anterior surface of the iris often as concentric rings
within the iris furrows
spoke-like transillumination defects in the midperiphery of the iris
pigment in the anterior and posterior chambers, and possibly
Krukenbergs spindles on the corneal endothelium
a dense, homogeneously pigmented trabecular meshwork,
especially posteriorly
an open, deep anterior chamber angle with possible posterior
bowing (concavity) of the iris
rise of the IOP to rather high levels, with dramatic uctuation
pigment release resulting from pupillary dilation or strenuous exercise
which requires assessment of the IOP after dilation.
Pseudoexfoliation glaucoma
Pseudoexfoliation glaucoma presents similarly to POAG, with additional key
signs of:
distribution of pseudoexfoliative material on the pupillary margin of the
iris and, on the surface of the lens, as a central translucent disc with curled
edges surrounded by an annular clear zone
a peripheral granular zone on the anterior surface of the lens, best viewed
through a dilated pupil
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transillumination defects in the iris near the pupil, and patchy pigmentation
of the trabecular meshwork located in the superior angle and anterior to
Schwalbes line. Pigment granules may form a whorled pattern over the
sphincter muscle on the surface of the iris
depigmentation of pupillary ruff
poor pupillary response to topical mydriatic medications
accelerated cataract formation
trabecular pigmentation which may precede the appearance of
pseudoexfoliative material on the surface of the lens, even though this
material is present in the conjunctiva.
Neovascular glaucoma
Neovascular glaucoma is a secondary glaucoma variously referred to as
hemorrhagic glaucoma, thrombotic glaucoma, congestive glaucoma, rubeotic
glaucoma, and diabetic hemorrhagic glaucoma. Causes of neovascular glaucoma
include numerous secondary ocular and systemic diseases that share one
common element, this being retinal ischemia/hypoxia and subsequent release
of an angiogenesis factor. This angiogenesis factor causes new blood vessel
growth from pre-existing vascular structures. Depending on the progression of
neovascular glaucoma, it can cause glaucoma either through secondary open
angle or secondary closed angle mechanisms. This is accomplished through
the growth of a brovascular membrane over the trabecular meshwork in
the anterior chamber angle, resulting in obstruction of the meshwork and/or
associated peripheral anterior synechiae.
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Appendix 2
Companion document details
Purpose of the companion document
This companion document presents a summary for primary health care
providers of the current best evidence presented in the NHMRC guideline for
Screening, Prognosis, Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Glaucoma.
The purpose of the guideline is to inform practice for Australian health care
providers, particularly utilising a multidisciplinary team approach.
Guideline development period
The systematic review of the literature underpinning these guidelines was
completed in September 2008 (available on www.nhmrc.gov.au). The guideline
was completed in June 2009, and public consultation occurred during
October-November 2009. This guideline was commissioned and funded
by NHMRC.
Centre for Allied Health Evidence
University of South Australia
(Technical Team)
Professor Karen Grimmer-Somers
Ms Janine Dizon
Ms Judith Lowe
Ms Anthea Worley
Ms Lucylynn Lizarondo
NHMRC Expert Working Committee
Professor William Morgan (Ophthalmologist)
Lions Eye Institute (CHAIR)
Associate Professor Ivan Goldberg (Ophthalmologist)
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A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
Eye Associates Glaucoma Services Sydney Eye Hospital
Professor Jonathon Crowston (Ophthalmologist)
Centre for Eye Research Australia
Associate Professor David Mackey (Epidemiologist/Ophthalmologist)
Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital
Professor Algis Vingrys (Optometrist)
Department of Optometry and Visual Sciences University of Melbourne
Dr Philip Anderton (Optometrist rural)
Associate Professor Amanda McBride (General Practitioner with interest in
Glaucoma)
Head of General Practice School of Medicine
The University of Notre Dame Australia, Sydney and GP in Woollahra
Dr Genevieve Napper (Optometrist, low-vision service provider)
Victorian College of Optometry
Mr Grant Martin (Director, Professional Services)
Pharmaceutical Society of Australia
Ms Jill Grasso (Ophthalmic Nurse)
Representing the Ophthalmic Nurses Association
Ms Beverly Lindsell (Glaucoma Australia Representative)
Glaucoma Australia
Ms Tania Straga (Orthoptist)
Representing the Orthoptic Association of Australia
Ms Helen Robbins
Representing the Optometrists Association Australia (Observer)
Internal reference group
Mr Luke Grzeskowiak, Pharmacist
University of South Australia
NHMRC project staff
Ms Vesna Cvjeticanin
Ms Carla Rodeghiero
Mr Fethon Ileris
Ms Tess Winslade
Ms Kay Currie
Ms Marion Hewitt
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
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Appendix 3
Abbreviations
IOP Intraocular pressure
mmHg Millimetres of mercury
NHMRC National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia)
nm Nanometre
NTG Normal tension glaucoma
OAG Open angle glaucoma
PACG Primary angle closure glaucoma
POAG Primary open angle glaucoma
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A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
Glossary of terms
Afferent pupillary defect A defect of the pupillary refex characterised by less constriction
of both pupils when the affected eye is stimulated by light
relative to that occurring when the unaffected eye is
stimulated, as with the swinging fashlight test. The defect
is also known as the Marcus Gunn pupil.
African The literature variably refers to the increased risk of glaucoma
occurring in people of African descent. This refers to people
who trace their ancestry to Africa, whether this be African-
Americans, African-Carribbeans, East Africans, Sub-Sarharan
Africans or West Africans.
Anterior chamber The space in the eye, flled with aqueous humor that is
bordered anteriorly by the cornea and a small portion of the
sclera and posteriorly by a small portion of the ciliary body,
the iris, and that portion of the lens which presents through
the pupil.
Argon laser
trabeculoplasty
Light stimulation of the trabecular meshwork of the angle
of the anterior chamber by an argon laser beam to facilitate
aqueous humor outfow.
Aqueous humor The clear, watery fuid that flls the anterior and posterior
chambers of the eye.
Biomicroscopy Examination of ocular tissue using a bright focal source of
light with a slit of variable width and height and a binocular
microscope with variable magnifcation.
Confocal scanning laser
ophthalmoscopy
The recording of two-dimensional sectional images for the
evaluation of ocular tissue, using a confocal laser imaging
system displayed digitally in real time.
Confocal scanning laser
tomography
The recording of a series of images along the axial axis of
the eye enabling the three-dimensional reconstruction of
the topography of the surface of the specifc tissue under
examination using a confocal laser imaging system.
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
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Cup:disc ratio The ratio of the diameter of the area of excavation of the
surface of the optic disc to that of the diameter of the optic
disc in any given meridian, often either the horizontal or
vertical meridian. Cup:disc ratio is a value obtained by dividing
the cup diameter by the disc diameter. The closer this value is
to 1, the greater the level of tissue loss and therefore damage
to the disc.
Excitotoxicity The stimulation of neurons to death by excessive levels of
excitatory neurotransmitters.
Filtration surgery Surgical procedures (e.g. thermal sclerostomy, posterior or
anterior lip sclerectomy, trephination, trabeculectomy) used
to create an alternative pathway for the outfow of aqueous
humor to lower intraocular pressure.
Fundus photography The use of a camera with optics and an illumination system
that permits photographing the fundus of the eye.
Genetic mutation The alteration of DNA sequencing by changes in the genome.
Glaucoma Glaucoma describes a group of eye diseases in which there
is progressive damage to the optic nerve characterised by
specifc structural abnormalities of optic nerve head and
associated patterns of visual feld loss.
Glaucoma suspect A person suspected of having glaucoma has some but not
all of the criteria required for a glaucoma diagnosis. They
may have one or more of the following: suspicious optic disc,
optic disc margin haemorrhage, occludable drainage angle,
peripheral anterior synechiae or elevated intraocular pressure.
Gonioscopy A diagnostic procedure to examine the angle of the anterior
chamber in which a specialised corneal contact lens and a
biomicroscope are used.
Health care provider Any member of the glaucoma team who provides input into
the patients glaucoma journey. Health care providers involved
with glaucoma in Australia may include, but are not limited to,
ophthalmologists, general medical practitioners, optometrists,
ophthalmic nurses and orthoptists.
Hypermetropia A defect of vision in which a person is able to focus on
objects in the distance, but not on close objects.
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A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
Intraocular pressure The pressure within the eye due to the balance between the
formation and drainage of the aqueous humor.
Multifactorial inheritance The determination of phenotype by multiple genetic and
environmental factors, each making a small contribution.
Myopia A vision condition in which close objects are seen clearly, but
objects farther away appear blurred.
Myocilin A protein believed to be associated with primary open
angle glaucoma found both extraocular and in the trabecular
meshwork, optic nerve, retina, cornea, iris, ciliary body, and sclera.
Nerve fbre layer The layer of the retina that comprises unmyelinated axons of
retinal ganglion cells.
Neuroprotection The use of pharmacological, genetic alteration, and other
means to attenuate a destructive cellular environment thereby
protecting neurons from secondary degeneration caused
by a variety of primary insults (ischemia/hypoxia, stroke,
trauma, degeneration).
Neuroretinal rim The tissue between the optic cup and disc margins.
Nocturnal dip The decrease in systemic blood pressure during sleep.
Optic nerve The cranial nerve (N II) that carries visual impulses from the
retina to the brain.
Perimetry Determination of the extent of the visual feld for various
types and intensities of stimuli for the purpose of diagnosing
and localising disturbances in the visual pathway.
Peripapillary area Tissue surrounding the optic nerve head.
Polygenic The traits or diseases caused by the impact of many genes,
each with a small additive effect on phenotype.
Posterior chamber The space in the eye delimited by the posterior surface of
the iris, the ciliary processes, and the valleys between them,
the zonule of Zinn, and the anterior surface of the crystalline
lens. It includes the canal of Hanover, the canal of Petit, and
the retrolental space of Berger.
A GUIDE FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
A COMPANION DOCUMENT TO NHMRC GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, PROGNOSIS, DIAGNOSIS, MANAGEMENT
AND PREVENTION OF GLAUCOMA
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Pulsatile ocular blood
fow
The indirect assessment of choroidal blood fow by estimating
the infux of blood into the eye during cardiac systole from an
evaluation of the continuous IOP pulse wave.
Puncta Puncta are tiny openings along the eyelid margin through
which tears drain.
Refraction Clinically, the determination of the refractive errors of an eye,
or eyes (e.g. myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, anisometropia).
Reverse pupillary block Blockage of the movement of aqueous from the anterior
to the posterior chamber leading to a concave anatomical
confguration of the peripheral iris.
Selective laser
trabeculoplasty
Use of a q-switched Nd:YAG laser to target trabecular
meshwork endothelial cells without provoking coagulative
necrosis, to improve aqueous outfow.
Short-wavelength
automated perimetry
A form of automated perimetry that isolates the blue cone
mechanism of the visual system by utilising a two-colour
incremental thresholding technique consisting of a large blue
target on a bright yellow background.
Tonometry A procedure for measurement of the pressure within the eye.
Clinically, tonometry measures the intraocular tension.
Trabecular meshwork The meshwork of connective tissue that is located between
the canal of Schlemm and the anterior chamber, and which is
involved in drainage of aqueous humor from the eye.
Trabeculectomy
Surgical creation of a fstula to allow aqueous outfow from
the anterior chamber to the subconjunctival tissue space,
bypassing the trabecular meshwork/Canal of Schlemm
outfow pathway.
Visual acuity The clearness of vision that depends on the sharpness of the
retinal image and the integrity of the retinal and visual pathway.
It is expressed as the angle subtended at the anterior focal point
of the eye by the detail of the letter or symbol recognised.
Visual feld The area or extent of space visible to an eye in a given position.
Notes
Notes
Notes