CHAPTER IX

TRA.CING OF CURVES.

Section I: Approximate Forms of Cwroee :

182. ANALYTICAL TRIANGLE: 'it

In order to determine approximate shapes of curves,

defined by given equations containing a finite Dumber of
terms, near particular points at a tinite or at an infinite
distance, a geometrical method, which consists in represent-
ing the equation on the Analytical T1'iangle, is often
very useful. This triangle is a modification of Newton's
parallelogram, which was an arrangement of squares, like
those on a chess-board, each square being allotted to one
term of the general equation of any degree. The fact that
all the terms of a complete equation of any degree 'are
contained in squares which occupy half of Newton's
Parallelogram, led De GUll. to replace the parallelogram
by a triangle containing one more square on each side
than the degree of the equation.

183. An equation is said to be placed upon the triangle

by making a definite mark (*) in the centre of each square,
which corresponds to a term of the equation. The use of the'
triangle as an analyser lies in the fact that, if the different
marks representing the terms be joined, so as to form a
polygon, no mark lying outside it, then the locus of the
equation, formed by retaining only the terms which corres-
pond to any Ride, is one or more simple parabolic curves 01'

'" For a complete discussion tile student is referred to Frost'! Curve

Tracing, Chap. IX, pp. 130.145.
 THEURY Ul' PLANE CURVES

right lines, each of which is a jint approximation to the

form of the curve-
either (1) at an infinite distance, if all the rejected marks
lie on the same side of the line as the right angle of the
triangle,
(2) near the origin, if they lie on the opposite side, in
01·,

which case the equation contains no constant term.

'I'he case when the sides of the polygon are parallel to, or
coincident with, the sides of the triangle is to be excepted.
Thus the equation-

a.c4 +b.c3y+c;cy' +d1)"Y +exy+ Joe3 +gy+h.~'y· =0

:~

is placed on the triangle, as shown in the figure. A, B, C, D,

E, F, G, H represent the different terms of the equation, so
that we have the polygon ABHCGF, no mark lying
outside it.
The equation corresponding to the side CG is-

CJJY' +yy=o or cxy+g=O,

which represents a hyperbola to which the curve approxi-
mate!'; at infinity, since all the rejected marks lie on the
same side as the right angle; with this relation between
;'1) and y (being very great) every other term will vanish
compared with the terms retained.
 APl'ROXUrA'l'E j.'OR]I(S OF CtJRV}<;S 22,9

The equation corresponding to the side G);' is gy+!,J;'=O,

and this represents a cubical parabola to which the curve
approximates at the origin, since the rejected marks lie on
the opposite side. With this relation between ;u and y,
every other term vanishes, compared with anyone of the
terms retained, when x and yare very small.
Lastly, the side FA is parallel to 0,1', and therefore it is
excepted,

184. PRACTICAL METHOD;

The following method of considering the triangle is

much more convenient in fixing more accurately the position
of the marks which correspond to fractional indices.
Take a right-angled isosceles triangle, whose sides are
in the directions of Oz and Oy. Divide the hypotenuse
into as many equal parts as the degree of the equation, and
through these points of section draw lines parallel to the
sides of the triangle. The triangle is then divided into a
number of smaller triangles, the vertices of which may
be appropriated to the terms of the equation. If a frac-
tional index OCellI'S in the equation, its appropriate position
is obtained by the intersection of the two lines parallel to
Oy, Ox drawn through the corresponding points on the sides
O,V and Oy respectively.

185. PROPERTIES OF THE ANALYTICAL TRIANGLE: *

When all the terms of the equation of a curve are re-
presented upon the triangle, the following properties hold r=-
(l) If all the terms be rejected, except the terms which
lie in a given line, the resulting equation gives 011eor more
constant values of the ratio ?I q: Xl', the values of p and q
. depending only on the direction of the line, and consequently
the same for all parallel lines .

• See Frost's Ourve 'l'racing-§§. 150, HiI, pp. 132.134.

230 -rin:URY oi!~ PLANE CURVES

(2) When the line meets both sides of the triangle or

those sides produced beyond the hypotenuse, with the
relation yq IxI' =constant, the terms of the original equation,
corresponding to the marks which lie on the same side of
the line as the right angle, will be less, and those corres-
ponding to the marks on the opposite side will be greater,
than any of the terms corresponding to the marks on the
line, when ~I: and yare indefinitely great. When ill and y
are indefinitely small, the reverse is the case, and there is
no mark at the right ungle.
(3) When the line is parallel to one side of the triangle,
the equation obtained gives one or more right lines parallel
to the other.
(4) If all the other terms be rejected, except those
which lie on a side of the triangle, the resulting equation
determines the points of intersection of the curve with the
corresponding axis.
All these properties of the analytical triangle lead
at once to the properties of the analytical polygon we have
mentioned before. 'l'hus it is seen that if any line gives
the first approximation to an asymptote, the terms to be
taken into account for the second approximation are obtained
by moving the line parallel to itself, until it passes through
another mark which corresponds to the additional term
tha.t,has to be taken into account.
Thus, in the figure of § 183, the side GF gives a first
approximation, while the second approximation is obtained
by moving the line GF parallel to itself until it passes
through another mark E, and the form is given by-
exy+f;v3 +gy=O, and so on.
Et:. l. Oonaider the cnrve (y~_;o2)2+2awy·-5a;l)'=O.

The homogeneous form of the equation iR-

(y' -w')' + 2ao:y'z-uaw'z=O.

Place the equation on the Analytical Triangle, as shown in the
tiguril. The polygon & ABODE.
 APPROXIMATE FORMS or erRVRS 231

The Hide AED gives at an infinite distance (y' -:.:")" =0, i.c.. the
points at infinity on the curve are in the direction of the lilies y ±:.: =0
and these points are double points on the curve.

n
·A

The next approximation to the curve at infinity will be obtained

by moving the line AED parallel to itself, until it passes through one
other term, i.e., it is given by

The side AB gives the shape at the origin (III), i.e., y2+2aw=0
whioh is a parabola.

The side BC gives the shape at the origin of another branch of the
curve, which is given by f/:.:(2y· -5:v') =0,

i.e., the origin is a triple point, the tangents at which am

The side CD gives for the points of intersection with the axis of
III the equation :v' -5a:v' =0 or :v'(:.:-!)((.) =0,

which gives three ooincident points at III and one point at af=5a.

The next approximation, at the point w=-5a., is obtained by moving

the line CD parallel toitself until it passes through another point .E.
232 THEORY OF PLANE CUR.VE~

Tho equation thus obtained is w'(w-5a) + 2awy' _2;02 y" =0,

which gives y'=- 25a ( w-5a) at the point :I1=5a.

8

E'lJ. 2. Find the approximate shape at infinity of the curve-

E'lJ. 3. Employ the analytical triangle to find the form of the

branches of the curve 'lJ' + 1/' - (w + y)w' =0, near the origin.

186. Us," or THE A;>ALYTICAT. TRIANGLE TN THREE

VARIABLES:

In the case of three variables we proceed as follows :-

The sides of the triangle, supposed equilateral, are
divided each into as many (n) equal parts as the degree
of the equation, and through the points of section lines are
drawn parallel to the sides. In this way we obtain
-Hn+l)(n+2) vertices of small triangles in which the
fundamental triangle is divided, each of the vertices being
associated with one term of the equation.
When an equation of the nth degree is to be placed on
the triangle, the highest powers of the variables x, y, z
are associated with the vertices of the original triangle.
The other terms are arranged successively in order. This, in
fact, is the same as given in the preceding article, since the
Cartesian is a special system of homogeneous co-ordinates,
when the third side is at infinity; and the system is
rectangular when the angle at the third vertex III is a
right angle, i.e., when we take a right-angled isosceles
triangle, as has been done.
'I'he aggregate of terms on a side gives the intersections
of the curve with the corresponding side of the fundamental
triangle.
If one vertex be free, the curve passes through that
vertex, which may be considered as one of the intersections
on the x axis or the y axis.
 APPROXIMATE FORMS OF ClJRVES 283

If the next following terms on both the sides be present,

the aggregate of these terms gives the tangent at this vertex.
If only one be present, one of tlle axes is a tangent.
If both the next following terms are absent, the vertex
is a double point on the curve, and the next three terms
lying on a line give the tangents at the double point.
The method will be best illustrated by the following
example :-

E~. Consider the equation lI'y+y'z-lIz'-2I1Y:J=0.

Place the equation on the Analytical Triangle, as shown in the !i~ur •.

Since all the vertices are free, the curve passes through the vertices
of the fundamental triangle. The tangents at these points are
respectively y=O (at I),
~=O (at II), 11=0 (at III). :n
In order to determine
approximate shapes of
curves at any of the ~
'" (tt~----.:~
vertices, we must first N
put that co-ordinate \

\
equal to unity, whose \
highest power stands at
the vertex. Now the first \
\
approximation to the \
curve at the vertex II is
the tangent given by
Y'z and Y'ai, but since Y'a:
is absent the tangent is given by y'z=O, -i.e., .=0, putting y=l.

To determine the approximate shape of the curve, we must turu

the line about the point y" till it passes through another term lI'y,
and the next approximation to the curve is y2. + a:'y=O, or aI' + ~=O,
obtained after putting s= 1.
Thus theshape of the curve at II is that of the parabola z' +.=0.
If we determine the three points in which this parabola intersect.
the curve hy putting the equation iu the Corm y(yz + II') -a:z(2y + ~)=O,
we see that two of these lie on the line 2y + z=O, while the third
coincides with the vertex II.
In the same way, for the vertex III, we have for the next
approximation the equation y'z-a:,.'=O or y·.,.III=O.

30
2340 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

Thia is a parabola to which the curve approximates near the t'ertex

III and the two finite points of intersection lie on '" = 2z.
For the approximation at the vertex I, we obtain the parabola y=c2•
The two finite points of intersection of this parabola with the curve
lie on the line y=2a>.

187. NEWTON'S METHOD OF ApPROXIMATION:

In order to determine the approximate forms of a curve

near the origin, we may conveniently make use of the
process given by Newton. >II<
When the curve passes through the origin, we have to
transform the curve so that one of the axes may be !I.
tangent, i.e., if the origin is an ordinary point on the curve,
we may assume the equation in the form

y=Aw+Bw' +...
or, if it be a multiple point, the form to be assumed is

where r, r1, r •... are positive.

In order to determine the nature of the ongm and the
form of the curve in its neighbourhood, it is convenient to
determine the first terms of this expansion. The form of
the curve near the origin resembles the curve y=A'llr.
In the equation of the curve, put y=Ax r, and determine
the positive quantity r by the condition that the indices of
two or more terms shall be equal and less than the index
of any other term. We may often do this by trial, by
equating the indices of each pair of terms, and observing
whether the resulting value of r is positive, and these equal
indices are not greater than the indices of some other
term .

• Newton-Methodus Fluxionnm et Serierum infinitarum, etc., nnder

the title De reductione aiIectarum equationum (opusc. ed., Castillon,
Vol. 1, p. 37) Newton giTeS the rule by means of a diagram of equaree.
 APPROXIMATE FORMS OF CURVES 235

Thus, having found r, we may obtain the value of A by

equa.ting to zero the quantity multiplying the terms with
eq~l indices. r and A being thus determined, the first
approximation is given by y=Ax'. The next approximation
is obtained from y=A,ll' +Bz"+1', , by finding the values of
r 1 and B by a similar process.

Ef1J. Consider the curve .,' -a.,y' + y' =0.

Evidently the origin is a triple point with the axes IUl tangent».
Writing '11= A.,' in the equation, it becomes :IO+-aA'.,,'+l +A'.,"=O.

First. let 4= Z,· + I, which gives 41-=6. Hence the equal indices
are less than the index of the other term. The equation then becomes

:IO'(I-aA') +A ':106 =0.

Now determine A so that the co-efficient of .,+ vanishes

i.e., pnt A = 1/ .•/a. The eqnation then becomes y '1 ,i'.!• +

= -::: higher
';a
terms, whose indices are greater than 3/2. We conclnde therefore that
the form of one branch of the curve near the origin resembles tha.t
of the curve ay'=.,> (semi-cubical parabola),

Next, make 4=41-, i.e., 1'= 1, and the remaining index is 3, which is
less than the equal indices. We must,
therefore, reject this case.

Finally, let us assume 2•. + 1 = 41-,

or r=·h tbe equation becomes

The equal indices are less than the

remaining index, and putting A'a=.II',

we have A' = a., or, A= .;;;

Thus the equation becomes v= ';;;/C, i.e., y' =a." which is a parabola.

Hence another branch of the curve resembles a parabola at the

origin.

Since it is sy mmet.rical about the axis of OIl, the form of the curve
is allow 11 as ill the ligure. (The vertical line representing the •••-axis.]
236 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

188. ApPLICATION OF NEWTON'S METHOD IN THREE

VARIABLES:

The above method is equally applicable to the study of

approximate forms of curves in the neighbourhood of
the vertices of the fundamental triangle, when the curve
is defined by its homogeneous equation. In this case we
have to put one of the variables equal to unity.
In fact, what we have said above is really equivalent to
finding the points of intersection of y=Ax with the given
T

curve and then determining those which lie very near the
origin. For this purpose, we have to consider those terms for
which the index is small as compared with those of the re-
maining terms. Thus, from the term xPy' we obtain A q;ep+q ".
We have now to put p+qr='\, where ,\ is less than any
of the indices, since for small values of ;v, higher powers
must be neglected. The terms which have this equal index
,\ give the geometrical representation.
Since p+q1' is constant for all these terms, they lie on a
right line, and X is proportional to the length of the perpen-
dicular drawn from the origin on to this line. Since X is
less than any other index, the line is nearest the origin, and
the terms which lie along this line give an approximate
form of the curve in the neighhourhood of the origin. Thus
appears the truth of the statement in §. 185.

189. INFINITE BRANCHES:

The method adopted by Newton can conveniently be

applied for determining the infinite branches of the curve as
well. In this case y is expanded in descending powers of .1',

i.e., in the form y=Ax'i'+Bx,·-r'+Cx'i'-1'·-r +,

2 ..
and the equal indices should be made greater than any of the
remaining indices. In fact, in this case p+q1'='\, where ,\ is
greater than any of the other indices, i.e., we have to consider
the terms which lie on a line furthest from the origin.
 APPROXIMATE FORMS OF CURVES 237

EIII. Consider the curve 11I6 + 2l11'y-y' =0.

Place the equation on the Analytical Triangle as shown in the figure.
The sides of the triangle ABC determine the approximate forms
of the curve. The curve passes through the origin (III) and the

II

vertex (II), and not through (I). The ori:'ill is a triple point. The
shape at the origin is given by AB and BC. AB gives a point of
inflexion and the side BO gives a semi-cubical parabola.
The side AC gives 0116 _y3 =0, or, OIl'=y, which is the form of
the curve at infinity in the direction of the axis of y. The same result
is obtained by applying Newton's method of approximation, namely,
putting y = A011 ' and proceeding as before. The next approximation
r "'-T
is obtained by putting y = Alii + BOIl " and so on.

190. BRANCHES WITH HIGHER SINGGLARITIES :

Consider the system of curves .c-'+y·-4.C·y+Ay"=O.

None of these curves have real points at infinity.
For x=O, we obtain Y'(Y' +A)=O.

At the points y= ± ";~, they are symmetrical with respect

to the horizontal tangent. Therefore, an essential distinction
must be made between the- curves for X>O and A<O
between which A=O lies. The adjoning diagram gives an
example of each.
238 THEORY OP PLANB CURVES

For y=O, we have x· =0. This point, however, cannot

be a point of undulation,
because for x=O, we have
also Y' =0. As an approxi-
mation we obtain the
aggregate of three terms
Ay'-4x"y+x"=0,
which breaks up into two
parabolas

These are no more intersected by the curves. Since the two

parabolas touch each other, the two branches of the curve
must also touch each other at the origin. Hence we have a iac-
node. From the two parabolas we can also see the distine-
tion between the curves for positive and negative values of A.

Since for A<O, we have -v'4-A >2, the parabolas have

external contact, one lying upward and the other downward.
(For instance A= -1).
1£ 4>A >0, the parabolas have internal contact, one
lying inside the other (for instance A= +1).
1£A=4, the origin is the only real point of the curve,
which now breaks up into two imaginary conics with four-
pointic contact at the origin:

(x' +iy' -2y)(x'-iy' -2y)=0

1£ A>4, the curve is wholly imaginary, when A=±oc.,

it reduces to the axis of x counted twice, whence for very
great negative values of A, the forms with external contact
follow again.
We have further to consider the case A=O. Here in
the analytical polygon, the term Y' is suppressed and
we have the dotted periphery. We obtain as above a
parabola x' -4y=O as an approximation for the branch,
which touches the x-axil!l, and the parabola y' -4:1:' =0
 APPItOXBI.l'l'l'; J<'ORM.5 O~' CllRVl:S

for the other branch, which therefore is perpendicular to

the first and has a cusp. In fact, each of the curves has a
triple point at the origin with the tangents x'y=O.
If, however, we consider the horizontal tangent, then
the curve is bounded by the two parabolas and the horizontal
tangent, and we are in a position to obtain their shapes for
each value of ,\.
If, again, of/0z=4xs-8.~y=4;c (x"-2y)=O,
we have besides X=O, as already found, points which lie
on the parabola xt =2y.
Putting this in the equation, y= -v' 4-,\ will be positive
for real contact, otherwise x= -v'2y becomes imaginary.
The line y= -v'4-,\ is a hi-tangent of the curve; and
y=- -v'4-,\ is a hi-tangent with imaginary points of
contact,

191. DETERMINATION OF THE ASBIPTO'rEs:

The aggregate of terms on a side of the Analytical
Triangle gives an equation which is obtained by putting the
corresponding variable to zero. This equation determines the
points of intersection of the corresponding side with the curve
and gives the equations of the lines joining the opposite
vertex with these points. When the third side is supposed
to lie at infinity, these give the directions of the
lines joining the origin to the points at infinity on the
curve. It is then necessary to determine the tangents at
these points, which are called the asym.ptotes o£ the curve.
If, £01'such a point at infinity, we put y/x=m., this gives
also the direction of the asymptote, i.e., an asymptote is of the
form y=7nx+c, where c is to be determined by the condition
that it passes through another consecutive point at infinity.
For this purpose, we put y=7nx+c in the equation of
the curve; the resulting equation must have two roots
infinite; (or in the homogeneous from y=7n;c+cz, one value
of z=O and two values of x=oo).
240 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

E",.1. Consider the cubic y'-:t'y+2y'z +4yz' +",z'=O (1)

Putting z=O in this equation, we obtain y' -""y=O, which gives

the directions of the lines joining the origin with the points at
infinity on the curve. These are the lines y=O, y±",=O.

If we put y=O in the equation (1), we see that all the terms vanish,
except ",z', which contains z' as a factor Hence y=O itself is an
asymptote.
Next put y=AI + cz in (1). We have then -

(OD+ cz)' -Al'('" + cz) + 2z(AI + cz)' + 4(OD+ cz)z' + ",z' =0,

or, (2e+2)AI'z+(3e' +4c+ 5)"'z' + (e3 +2c' +4c)z'=O (2)

This equation must have one root infinite, i.e .., we must have

2c+2=O or e= -1,

and the asymptote is y=OD-l.

Similarly, by putting y = - '"+ e, we obtain c = -1.

:. The other asymptote is y + '" + 1 =0.

EAI, 2. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

(i) ODS+y'=u' (ii) ",'y=OD' + AI+y

(iii) (OD+ y).(", + 2y + 2) ='" + 9y-2.

Elf. 3. Find the asymptotes of the curve-

at2 +a~
y="'--'a:r2_a2

192. SPECIAL METHODS:

In some cases the asymptotes of a curve can be deter-

mined by a simple inspection of its equation. For instance,
if the equation of the curve be written in the form

t1.t •. ts t; +z'<p=O,
where tu t~, are all linear functions of the variables,
and <p is of degree (n-2), then tl, t., ts, ... i, are the n
asymptotes of the curve and the points where they meet the
curve aga.in lie on the curve <p.
Thus we have the theorem: The n(n-2) points uihere
the asymptotes of an n-ic meet the CU1'velie on a CU1'veof
order (n-2).
 APPROXIMATF. f'ORMR Of' ClTRVF.R 241

The equation of a curve can always be put into the

form-

or (y-m1 w+ c1 z) (Y-'I1ts'c+ c, e) (y-m • .ll+c.z) =Zlq,.

The terms of the nth degree in x and yare the same

for both sides of the equation, and the n quantities c" c, ...
c. are determined by comparing the coefficients of the terms
of order (n-I), which must be the same in both.
The fol1owing illustrations will explain the process:

EIIJ. 1. Consider the curve:

(IIJ + 2y)(311J + 2Y)(IIJ-y) +z (211J2 -lOy' -7.ty) +t'(1IJ + y) + z~ =0.
or, (IIJ + 2y + c1z)(311J + 2y + c2z)(Q)-y + c.z) + z'(A:V + By + Cz)=O

whence 3c1 + C. + 3c3 =2, -c 1 + 8c. = -7. -2c1 -2c, + 4c. = -10.
c1=1, C3 = -1.

Thus the asymptotes a1'e-

:v+ 2y +z=o, 3:v + 2y + 2z=0, «J-y=Z.

Notice that the values of c" C" c3, satisfy the equation-

2:v2-7:vy-lOy2 =_C_1 __ +~ +~
(IIJ + 2y)(311J + 2y)(:c-y) IIJ+2y 3:v+2y 1lJ-y

and therefore, in general, the values of c" c2• c3 •.•. c, are determiued

by putting ~ into partial fractions. *

1£"

ErD. 2. The n asymptotes of an m-ic pass through a point O. Show

that 0 is the mean centre of the points where any line through 0
meets the curve,
Ew. 3. Show that the four asymptot~s of the cnrve
wY(IIJ'_y2) + (rD' +y')=a2
cut the curve agaiu in eight concyclic points.

* For a detailed account of the dill'erent methods for determining

the aeymptotes of a curve, tbe reader is referred to Edward's Dill'. Calc.
Chapter VIII, and Salmon's H. P. Curves, Chap. II, § 52.
:H
 TlJF.ORY OF PT.ANF. CURVES

ElJ. 4. Find the equation of a cnbio through (11, b) having the

Jines 11I-0, 1I~0, Y""''', as alymptotes which cut it in poiutslying on
the line III + lI=a.
EIII. 6. Prove that the 1It?t intersections of two curves uf the mth
and 'nth orders and the '/1t?t intersectiona of their asymptotes lie on a
curve of order (m + ",-2). (Math. Tripos. 1876).

193. ASYMPTOTIC CURVF.f>:

Suppose there are two curves which approach each other

continually, so that £01' the same value of tho abscissa, (01)
ordinate) the limit of the difference of the ordinates' (or
abscissae) is zero, when the common abscissa (or the
ordina.te) is infinite. These two curves are said to be
asymptotic to each other.
The two curves (I.,v· + b~!' -,lY+CX+U=O
and /l.,I"+h,r+c-y=O
are ·asymptotic.
For, these equations can be written ttS-

and y=ar' +b,c+c.

The difference of the ordinates at any point .e is df,«,

whose limit is zero, when .1,'=00.

ElJ. 1. Show that the curve 1JOy= ",,, +.,0 +., + 1 hRS !L hyperbolic
asymptote.

The equation can be written as

lIence, the equation of a curvc asymptotic to this is the hyperbola

whose rectilinear
y=:Il+1

asymptotes
+}

a,re
.' or, ""-:IlY+le+l=O,

y=., + 1 and z=O.

E.,.2. Show that the curve Y'-"y-I=O ha" a parabolic

asymptote.

The eqnation can be written as at = '!I'

-I =712
.,.--~---. -
1
__ •
Y '/1

:.The parabola z = y' is asymptotic to the curve.

E•. 3. Show tbat the curvo allly=y'-n' haa a parabolic asymptote.

 APPROXIMATE l"ORMS OJ.' CURVES 243

194. PARABOLIC BRANCHES: '*'

Suppose the equation of a curve is thrown into the form

(y-mc)'cp+zl/t+ ... =0

i,e., the terms of the highest degree in ,1) and '!I has a double
factor. It is evident from the equation that the line at
infinity touches the curve at a point in the direction of the
line Y=·II •.C.
The equation may be written as-

( Y-'lnX ).+zxl/t
--
+ •.. =0,
:rcp

If we put a f01' Lt. t , and b for Lt.!, when x and Y

,tCP 'I'

become infinite in the ratio 1 : 'In, the curve ultimately

approximates to the parabolic form-

(y-mx)' +al!z+bz' + ...=0 (1).

This parabola is a first approximation to the shape of the

curve, but IS not in general asymptotic to it, and serves
only to suggest the method of closely examining the
parabolic branches. In practice, it is found more convenient
to adopt a method of successive approximation to obtain
the ultimate form of the parabolic branch at an infinite dis-
tance. The method will be best illustrated by the following
examples :-

E», 1. Examine the form at infinity of the curve z"+ 211J'Y-y' =0.

There are no asymptotes parallel to the axes. The only infinite

branch is, where y : IIJ is large, of the form "t =u, where Il"Y varies &II

z', and may be neglected compared with the term." retained in the
first approximation.

* For a detailed discussion of ourvilinear asymptotes, the reader is

referred to Frost's Curve Tracing , Chapters VU and VIII.
244 'l'H]<;ORY 0:1<' PLANE CURVE:S

The parabola ",2 =Y is not a proper asymptote, but serves to suggest

the direction of the infinite branches. The proper asymptotes may
be obtained by approximation: Thus, from the equation we have-

Y="'2(1+~y

=al2 f 1+~~Y-l1C+ (
t ",3 a:D j

By putting ~2 = 1, the second approximation is y=wo( 1 + ~ )-

The third approximation is y=Ill' f 1+ ~ ( 1 + ~ )- ~ (

t 31ll 3il) 91ll' 5

The proper parabolic asymptote is y + ~-= (Ill + t)·.

Ef/I. 2. Show that the curve

is asymptotic to the Folium of Descartes ala+ Y 3 = 3allly.

E», 3. Examine the parabolic branch of the curve-

al' +aby-aIllY=O.

195. CIRCULAR ASYMPTOTE:>:

When the equation· of a curve IS given III polar co-

ordinates, it may happen that (}being increased indefinitely,
the value of r tends to a fixed limiting value, and the curve
approaches more and more nearly to the circular form at the
same time. The equation takes the form of one in r
representing one or more circles. Such a circle is called an
asymptotic circle of the curve.

EIll. 1. Consider the curve r=a9' /(82 -1)

The equation may be written as r=a/(1-1/9')
Now, when 8 becomes very large, 1/9' is very small, and the curve
approaches indefiuitely near the limiting circle r=a.

E~. 2. Find the asymptotic circles of the curves :

(i) r=a_9_ (ii) r= _a_+b (iii) r=~

9-1 9ain9 9+ain 9

EJl. 3. Find the circular asymptote to the curve 1'= a9 + b •

8+"
 CURVE TRACING 245

Section II: Tmcing of Curoes :

196. CURVE TI~ACING IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES:

If we give any value 'a', to iV, the resulting equation

in y can be solved and will determine the points in which
the line :c=a intersects the curve. By giving a set of values
to x, we determine a corresponding set of values of y, and
thereby obtain a number of points on the curve, sufficient
to give a fairly good idea of the shape of the curve.
In particular, we may easily determine the points where
the curve cuts the axes of co-ordinates, by putting :c=O,
and y=O respectively in the equation. Again, if y becomes
imaginary for any value of :1', we guess the existence
of an oval, or that the curve is limited in any direction.
The value of oy/o,u at any point gives the direction of the
tangent at that point, and where its value becomes zero or
infinite, the tangent, and consequently the direction of the
curve, is parallel or perpendicular to the axis of x. In Rome
cases the equation of the curve suggests simplifications and
taking advantage of these, we can more easily obtain a fairly
accurate shape of the curve .
•
For illustrations the student is referred to Frost's Curve
Tracing and to Cramer's Introduction to the Analysis of
Curves.

197. CURVE TRACING IN HOMOGENEOUS CO-ORDINATES:

In tracing curves whose equations are given in homo-

geneous co-ordinates, we have to determine the points in
which it intersects the sides of the fundamental triangle.
One advantage in this system is at once evident. Instead of
two lines we have three sides and three vertices, anyone
of which can lie on the curve. Hence the form of the
equation gives more information about the curve than ill
the Cartesian system. On the other hand, there is one
disadvantage that homogeneous co-ordinates cannot be used
in the measurement of actual lengths. Oonsequently, this
246 THEORY 01<' PLANE CURVES

system can be used in studying the general nature of a

curve, but it gives us no information about its metrical
properties. The process of tracing curves in homogeneous
co-ordinates may be illustrated by a few examples:

Ell. I. Trace the curve

Here .,=0 gives Y'z' =0. 'l'herefore the curve passes through the
vertices Band C. The vertex B is a double point, since the co-efficients
of y' and '.13 are absent. The tangents at this point are-
"'-z'=O,i.e, QI±z=O.
Similarly, there is a double point at 0, the tangent at this point
being '.1=0.
Since '.1=0 gives QI' =0, all the four points on AC are ooincident at
C; also z=O makes ""(",, + y")=O, and consequently two points on AB
are coincident at B and two other are imaginary on the Iines e ± iy=O.
To determine the shape of the curve, we place the equation on
the analytical triangle.
Cousider the vertex C (III). The equation after putting e= 1

(§I88)becomes oo*+oo'Y'-Y'=O, and the shape at C is given by

""·-1/'=0 i.e., by ",2 ±y=O.
 ClTRVE Tn.ACING 247

Hence at C there "I'e tw o parabolic brnuches 2:' + Y =0 forming

a. tacnode,1t and the tangent at C ball a four-pointic coataet.
Similarly, to determine the shape Ilt B, we put y= 1 and the
equation becomes 2:. + 2:' - z' = O. The tangents at Bare 2: ±; = ° and
the shape is given by" = z'(1 + 11:') or z=Z + !al' + ...
Z-:II is an inflexional tangent. Similarly, z + II: is also an
inflexional tangent.
Hence the point B is a biflecnode t on t.he curve. Again, since the
eqnation may he written as 2:+ = Y'(:C + 2:)(z-2:), it follows that z +:11
and z-z must always have the same sign. Thus the curve cannot lie
in the shaded parts of the plane, as shown in the adjoining diagram.

Ez. 2. Draw the CUrI't'.

The curve evidently passes through the varticss Band C. The

tangent at B is z=O, i.e., the side AB. The point C is a conjugate
point on the curve, the tangents being z ± iy = O.

Thecllrvemeets.,=O,where 1/'z=O i.c., y'=O nnd ~==O.

When !/=O, we have .,,(z-")=O.

,; A tacnode is formed by tho union of two nodes,

t See § 51l.
 THROllY Of' PLANR CURVRS

The side AC meets the curve at C and at the point ?I=O, Z=;lI,

When z=O, ",3 =0, or the side AB is an inflexional taugeut at B.

The first approximation to tbe shape at B is given by ""-y.z=O

i.e., a>'-z=O, which is a cnbical parabola. The point B is an inflexion.
Again, the equation can be written as 21'=z( ill' + yl)
Z and ill must always be of the same sign.

Also al2(a>-Z)=y2Z. :.iIl-Z and z mnst be of the same sign.

Hence the cnrve cannot lie in the shaded parts of the plane, and its
form is shown in the figure. The line Z-iIl=O is a tangent at the
point 1/=0, z-"'=O. The asymptote of the cubic is imaginary.

E», 3. Trace the folIowing curves:

(i) Y(iIl-az)'=a>(y-4az)2 (ii) iIl'-a"iIl"z'+y'=O

(iii) /l,Zill(1/-21)2_y+=0.

E21. 4. Trace the curve 211/=4a"(2a-III).

2

[This curve was discussed by Prof. Maria Gaetana of Bologna, 1748

and is called the Witch.]
E», 5. Indicate how a curve can be traced by points in polar
co.ordinates, and trace the Cllfve,'=a + b oos 9 (Limac;on of Pascal.)