nt external pressure,

po = external pressure,
pi = internal pressure,
and
?p = po pi.
To provide a more intuitive understanding of the sense of this relationship, Eq.
6 can be rewritten as
Vol2 page 0294 eq 001.png....................(7)
where
D = nominal outside diameter,
and
d = nominal inside diameter.
In Eq. 7, we can see the internal pressure applied to the internal diameter and
the external pressure applied to the external diameter. The "equivalent" pressur
e applied to the external diameter is the difference of these two terms.
Axial strength
The axial strength of the pipe body is determined by the pipe body yield strengt
h formula found in API Bull. 5C3, Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing,
Drillpipe, and Line Pipe Properties.[1]
Vol2 page 0294 eq 002.png....................(8)
where
Fy = pipe body axial strength (units of force),
Yp = minimum yield strength,
D = nominal outer diameter,
and
d = nominal inner diameter.
Axial strength is the product of the cross-sectional area (based on nominal dime
nsions) and the yield strength.
Combined stress effects
All the pipe-strength equations previously given are based on a uniaxial stress
state (i.e., a state in which only one of the three principal stresses is nonzer
o). This idealized situation never occurs in oilfield applications because pipe
in a wellbore is always subjected to combined loading conditions. The fundamenta
l basis of casing design is that if stresses in the pipe wall exceed the yield s
trength of the material, a failure condition exists. Hence, the yield strength i
s a measure of the maximum allowable stress. To evaluate the pipe strength under
combined loading conditions, the uniaxial yield strength is compared to the yie
lding condition. Perhaps the most widely accepted yielding criterion is based on
the maximum distortion energy theory, which is known as the Huber-Hencky-Mises
yield condition or simply the von Mises stress, triaxal stress, or equivalent st
ress.[3] Triaxial stress (equivalent stress) is not a true stress. It is a theor
etical value that allows a generalized three-dimensional (3D) stress state to be
compared with a uniaxial failure criterion (the yield strength). In other words
, if the triaxial stress exceeds the yield strength, a yield failure is indicate
d. The triaxial safety factor is the ratio of the materials yield strength to the
triaxial stress.
The yielding criterion is stated as
Vol2 page 0295 eq 001.png....................(9)
where
Yp = minimum yield stress, psi,
sVME = triaxial stress, psi,
sz = axial stress, psi,
s? = tangential or hoop stress, psi,
and
sr = radial stress, psi.
The calculated axial stress, sz, at any point along the cross-sectional area sho
uld include the effects of:
Self-weight
Buoyancy
Pressure loads
Bending
Shock loads
Frictional drag
Point loads
Temperature loads
Buckling loads
Except for bending/buckling loads, axial loads are normally considered to be con
stant over the entire cross-sectional area.
The tangential and radial stresses are calculated with the Lam equations for thic
k-wall cylinders.
Vol2 page 0295 eq 002.png....................(10)
and
Vol2 page 0295 eq 003.png....................(11)
where
pi = internal pressure,
po = external pressure,
ri = inner wall radius,
ro = outer wall radius,
and
r = radius at which the stress occurs.
The absolute value of s? is always greatest at the inner wall of the pipe and th
at for burst and collapse loads, where |pi po| >> 0, then |s?| >> |sr|. For any
pi and po combination, the sum of the tangential and radial stresses is constant
at all points in the casing wall. Substituting Eq. 10 and Eq. 11 into Eq. 9, af
ter rearrangements, yields
Vol2 page 0296 eq 001.png....................(12)
in which
Vol2 page 0296 eq 002.png
and
Vol2 page 0296 eq 003.png
where
D = outside pipe diameter,
and
t = wall thickness.
Eq. 12 calculates the equivalent stress at any point of the pipe body for any gi
ven pipe geometry and loading conditions. To illustrate these concepts, let us c
onsider a few particular cases.
Combined collapse and tension
Assuming that sz > 0 and s? >> sr and setting the triaxial stress equal to the y
ield strength results in the next equation of an ellipse.
Vol2 page 0296 eq 004.png....................(13)
This is the biaxial criterion used in API Bull. 5C3, Formulas and Calculations f
or Casing, Tubing, Drillpipe, and Line Pipe Properties,[1] to account for the ef
fect of tension on collapse.
Vol2 page 0296 eq 005.png....................(14)
where
Sa = axial stress based on the buoyant weight of pipe,
and
Yp = yield point.
It is clearly seen that as the axial stress Sa increases, the pipe collapse resi
stance decreases. Plotting this ellipse, Fig. 1 allows a direct comparison of th
e triaxial criterion with the API ratings. Loads that fall within the design env
elope meet the design criteria. The curved lower right corner is caused b