MATERI PROSES MANUFAKTUR Pengenalan Teori Permesinan (Compatibility Mode)

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
1. Overview of Machining Technology

2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature g p
2007 J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Material Removal Processes Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
f t f hi h i l f t i l f feature of which is removal of material from a
starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry g y
Machining material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Ab i i l l b Abrasive processes material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy Nontraditional processes various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to forma chip
g
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)
tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Why Machining is Important Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible such as: features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
Time consuming Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Machining in Manufacturing Sequence Machining in Manufacturing Sequence
Generally performed after other manufacturing
h ti f i d b processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
Other processes create the general shape Other processes create the general shape
of the starting workpart
Machining provides the final shape,
di i fi i h d i l i dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
Machining Operations Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milli Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and planing Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawingg
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
t ti k i t f li d i l h
g
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Fig re 21 3Three most common machining processes (a) t rning
Figure 21.3 Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
g
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
Figure 21.3 (b) drilling,
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
g
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Fig re 21 3 (c) peripheral milling and (d) face milling
Figure 21.3 (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.
Cutting Tool Classification Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius radius
Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools p g g
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools
Cutting Tools g
Figure 21.4 (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges.
Cutting Conditions in Machining
Three dimensions of a machining process:
C tti d i ti Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool Depth of cut d penetration of tool
below original work surface
For certain operations, material removal
rate can be computed as
R
MR
= v f d
h tti d f f d d where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d =
depth of cut
Top View
Side View
End View
Relief Angle Relief Angle
Relief angle semakinbesar jikabendakerjasemakin g j j
lunak
Contoh; jikamenggunakanpahat potongdari Carbida Contoh; jikamenggunakanpahat potongdari Carbida
maka:
Hard and Tough material : 5 7 derajat
Medium/mild steel cast iron : 5 10 derajat Medium/mild steel, cast iron : 5 10 derajat
Ductile material : 8 14 derajat j
Relief Angle g
Relief angle yang sangat besar
akanmenyebabkan: akanmenyebabkan:
Penyelesaianpermukaan yang
b ik baik, namun
Sisi potonglemahdan mudah
patahjika pemotonganberat
Relief angle yang sangat kecil akanmenyebabkan:
Umur pahat berkurangkarenakeausanpadasisi dibawah
sisi potongmeningkat
Rake Angel Rake Angel
Rake angle yang bergerakkearahpositiive akan
menyebabkan:
Umur pahat meningkat Umur pahat meningkat
Gaya dantemperatur pemotonganmenurun
Rake angle yang bergerakkearahnegative akan
menyebabkan:
menguatkansisi potong(side rake angle negative)
menguatkannose (back rake angle negative) menguatkannose (back rake angle negative)
End Cutting Edge Angle End Cutting Edge Angle
Mengurangi End cutting edge angle akanmenghambat Mengurangi End cutting edge angle akanmenghambat
rambatancratering (kawah)
Side Cutting and Lead Angle Side Cutting and Lead Angle
Lead angle meningkat makaakanmeningkatkan umur Lead angle meningkat makaakanmeningkatkan umur
pahat menghambat rambatancratering (kawah)
N jik l d l t l l b k k Namun, jikalead angle terlalubesar makaakan
menyebakanchatter (bunyi gemeretak)
Nose Radius
Nose yang tajamdapat menurunkanumur pahat
Nose Radius
Nose yang tajamdapat menurunkanumur pahat
Nose yang besar membuat laju pemakananbaik y g j p
cepat danpenyelesaian permukaanyang baik
Nose yang terlalubesar akanmenyebabkan chatter Nose yang terlalubesar akanmenyebabkan chatter
Cutting Conditions for Turning g g
Figure 21.5 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.
Roughing vs. Finishing Roughing vs. Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part followed by one or two taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material
f t ti k t from starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cuttingg
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Fi l di i t l d fi i h Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tools Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a
hi i ti i l di i di machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth p p , , p
that have been set
The term is also applied to machines that
f t l f i ti perform metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately
O ogo a Cu g ode
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.
Sudut apakah
d h t padapahat
potongyang
hi mempengaruhi
bentukchips dan
h t ? umur pahat ?
Chip Thickness Ratio Chip Thickness Ratio
o
t
t
r =
where r = chip thickness ratio; t
o
=
c
t
o
thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation; and t
c
= chip thickness after
separation separation
Chip thickness after cut always greater than
before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0
Determining Shear Plane Angle Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of the
th l d l th h l l orthogonal model, the shear plane angle can
be determined as:
cos r
sin
cos
tan
r
r
=
1
where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle
Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation
depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b)
one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain
triangle used to derive strain equation.
Shear Strain Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
fromthe following equation based on the from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
= tan( - ) + cot ( )
where = shear strain, = shear plane
angle, and = rake angle of cutting tool
Chip Formation C p o a o
Figure 21.8 More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear
zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool-chip friction.
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4 S t d hi 4. Serrated chip
Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work materials
L tti d Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth
of cut of cut
High tool-chip friction
Figure 21.9 Four types of
chip formation in metal
cutting: (a) discontinuous
Continuous Chip
Ductile work materials
p
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and
depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool-chip friction
Fi 21 9 (b) i Figure 21.9 (b) continuous
Continuous with BUE
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
Tool chip friction Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically
Figure 21.9 (c) continuous
with built-up edge
Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous -
sawtooth saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms y p
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain shear strain
Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds
Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
Forces Acting on Chip
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Sh f F d N l f t h F
g
Shear force F
s
and Normal force to shear F
n
Figure 21.10 Forces in
metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
Resultant Forces Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of F
s
and F
n
= resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' t b l i it d t R R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R R must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
N
F
=
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction
as follows:
tan =
Shear Stress Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
s
s
A
F
S =
w t
A
o
=
where A
s
= area of the shear plane
sin
A
o
s
=
Shear stress =shear strength of work material Shear stress = shear strength of work material
during cutting
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
F, N, F
s
, and F
n
cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
g
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
Cutting force F
c
and Thrust force F
t
Figure 21 10 Forces Figure 21.10 Forces
in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be tool that can be
measured
Forces in Metal Cutting Forces in Metal Cutting
Equations can be derived to relate the forces
th t t b d t th f th t that cannot be measured to the forces that can
be measured:
F = F sin + F
t
cos F F
c
sin F
t
cos
N = F
c
cos - F
t
sin
F
s
= F
c
cos - F
t
sin
s c t
F
n
= F
c
sin + F
t
cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress
d ffi i t f f i ti b d t i d and coefficient of friction can be determined
The Merchant Equation The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear
d f ti th k t i l ill deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle that minimizes
energy, given by gy g y
2 2
45

+ =
Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3 D machining extends to 3-D machining
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
45

T i h l l
2 2
45

+ =
To increase shear plane angle
Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force cutting
ec o g e S ea a e ge
plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Figure 21.12 Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a
resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding
larger shear plane area Note that the rake angle is larger in (a) which
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Power and Energy Relationships Power and Energy Relationships
A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
P =F v P
c
= F
c
v
where P
c
= cutting power; F
c
= cutting force;
and v = cutting speed
In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
d h (di idi ft lb/ i b expressed as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by
33,000)
000 33,
v F
HP
c
c
=
where HP
c
= cutting horsepower, hp
Gross power to operate the machine tool P
g
or
HP i i b HP
g
is given by
or
P
P
c
HP
HP
c
or
E
P
c
g
=
E
HP
c
g
=
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
Typical E for machine tools 90%
Unit Power in Machining Unit Power in Machining
Useful to convert power into power per unit
l t f t l t volume rate of metal cut
Called unit power, P
u
or unit horsepower, HP
u
or
MR
c
U
R
P
P =
MR
c
u
R
HP
HP =
where R
MR
= material removal rate
Specific Energy in Machining Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
w vt
v F
R
P
P U
o
c
MR
c
u
= = =
Units for specific energy are typically
o MR
Units for specific energy are typically
N-m/mm
3
or J /mm
3
(in-lb/in
3
)
Cutting Temperature Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
i t d i t h t is converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip the tool chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperatures are Important Cutting Temperatures are Important
High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material
Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook
fromdimensional analysis using from dimensional analysis using
experimental data for various work materials
333 0

333 0
4 0
.
.
=
K
vt
C
U
T
o
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip

interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
speed; t =chip thickness before cut; C = speed; t
o
= chip thickness before cut; C =
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
thermal diffusivity of work material
Cutting Temperature Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
t t i hi i temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the
tool-chip thermocouple tool chip thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the
fform:
T = K v
m
where T =measured tool chip interface where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed

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THEORY OF METAL MACHINING THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

1. Overview of Machining Technology

where T = temperature rise at tool-chip

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