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Page 1


Angle Modulation
There are three parameters of a carrier that may carry
information:
Amplitude : displacement of an oscillation from an equilibrium(zero
level) position, the difference between the zero level and peak or trough of a
wave.

Frequency: Number of cycle completed in per unit of time.

Phase : - Phase denotes the particular point in the cycle of a waveform,
measured as an angle in degrees.


Angle Modulation - Angle Modulation is modulation in which the angle of a sine-
wave carrier is varied by a modulating wave.

Frequency Modulation - The frequency of the carrier is changed in direct proportion
to the modulation signal.

Phase Modulation - The phase of the carrier is changed in direct proportion to the
modulation signal



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Frequency Modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated
carrier is kept constant, while its frequency and rate of change varied by the
modulating signal.


Deviation Ratio the deviation of the carrier wave is proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating wave. The shift in the carrier frequency from its resting point compare
to the amplitude of the modulating voltage is called deviation ratio.(Max 5 deviation
ratio is allowed in commercial broadcasting FM).

Deviation Ratio = f
dev
(Max) / f
Af
(max)
If the deviation of the carrier is know and the freq of modulating voltage is know we
can establish the modulation index.
Modulation Index (MI) = f
dev(Max)
/ f
Af
The general Equation for un-modulated wave can be written as
X = A Sin(t+)


X ----------------------- instantaneous Value(Voltage or current)

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A ----------------------- Amplitude
----------------------- angular velocity
----------------------- Phase angle
If any one of these three parameters varied in accordance with other low
frequency signal , then the resultant signal called as modulated single. And
process is refer as frequency modulation.




The Index of Modulation

M
f
= / F
m
(Frequency Deviation (max) / Modulating frequency)


A few more comments about the index of modulation, mf, are
appropriate.
As can be seen from the equation, mf is equal to the peak deviation
caused
When the signal is modulated by the frequency of the modulating signal;

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Therefore, mf is a function of both the modulating signal amplitude and
frequency.
Furthermore, mf can take on any value from 0 to infinity. Its range
is not limited as it is for AM.
Definition in frequency modulation, the amount by which the carrier frequency is
varied from its un-modulated value, called the deviation, is made proportional to
instantaneous amplitude of modulating voltage.
Summary of Frequency Spectrum of FM-
For a sinusoid modulating signal, its spectrum contains carrier frequency
theoretically infinite number of sidebands at (F
c
+ - n*f
m
). Its Bandwidth is
theoretically infinite.
A rule of thumb has been developed for estimating the Bandwidth of a FM
signal (carsions rule- modulation index the bandwidth approaches, and is
only slightly greater than 2 f )
Modulation index determine how many sideband components have significant
amplitude.
The sidebands at equal distance have equal amplitude.
Increase of depth of modulation, increases power of sideband and therefore,
total power also increase in AM. But in FM total powers always remain
constant, but it increase bandwidth requirement.
It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear complete.
This happens for certain value of the modulation index, called
EIGENVALUES. Approx 2.4 ,5.5 ,8.6 , 11.8 etc.
Carson Rule a rule of thumb that state that the band width requirement to pass an
FM wave is twice the sum of the deviation and the highest frequency modulation.
An approximation for the bandwidth of an FM signal is given by BW = 2(Maximum
frequency deviation + highest modulated frequency)





Phase Modulation - In phase modulation, the phase shift is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
) ( 2 Bandwidth
m c
f f

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Strictly speaking , there are only two type of continues wave modulation , Amplitude
modulation & Angle Modulation.FM & PM both are closely allied to each other and
we can obtain FM form PM and PM from FM(Armstrong system).
If the in the equation ,v = A Sin(t+) is varied so that its magnitude of is
proportional to instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage , resulting wave is
phase modulated wave.
V = A Sin(t +
m
sin
m
t)
Where
m
is modulation index of phase modulation.
In phase modulation, the phase deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal and therefore independent of its frequency.




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Co channel interference -
The amplitude limiter works on the principal of passing the stronger signal and
eliminate weaker. This was the reason that noise reduction is obtained only when the
signal is at least twice the noise peak amplitude.
Co channel interference is happened , when there is two transmitters operates in
same frequencies & traveling from one transmitter to other transmitter. This
phenomena is refers as CAPTURE effect & interference known as Co-channel
interference.




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Intersystem Comparison-
Characteristics
Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation
Definition
Amplitude modulation is the
process of modulation in
which the amplitude of carrier
(i.e. High frequency wave) is
made proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage.

is a system in which the
amplitude of the modulated
carrier is kept constant,
while its frequency and rate
of change varied by the
modulating signal.

Modulation
Index
MI= V
m
/

V
c
(from 0 to 1) (MI) = f
dev(Max)
/ f
Af
(from 0 to
infinite)
Sideband
Each modulating wave creates
its own two side band.
Infinite no. of side band,
significant sideband
depends on Modulation
Index.
Noise
Less noise immune FM signals are less
susceptible to atmospheric
and impulse noise ,which
tend to cause rapid
fluctuations in the amplitude
of the received radio signal.

Operating
frequency range
MF & HF Upper VHF & UHF
Propagation
Space wave used Line of sight
Bandwidth
Lesser then FM(only two
significant Side band)
Need higher
bandwidth(Reason- Infinite
no of bandwidth)
Co-channel
Interference
Effect with the AM is very
straight forward. Near the
transmitter always
predominant.
If two signals in the same
frequency band are available
at an FM receiver, the one
appearing at the higher
received signal level is
accepted and demodulated,
while the weaker one is
rejected.

FM systems are very
resistant to co-channel

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interference and provides
excellent subjective received
quality.

Adjacent-
channel
interference
Less immune to adjacent
channel interference.
More immune to adjacent
channel interference.
Power
In AM increase of depth
modulation, increase the
sideband power, therefore the
transmitted power.
The total power of FM wave
is always constant , but with
the increase of depth of
modulation, the required
bandwidth will be increase.
Power
An AM signal is a does not
have constant envelope signal,
and so the transmitted power
of an AM signal is varied with
respect to amplitude variation.
An FM signal is a constant
envelope signal, and so the
transmitted power of an FM
signal is constant regardless
of the amplitude of the
message signal





Disadvantages of FM over AM
FM systems require wider frequency band in the transmitting media,in order to
obtain the advantages of reduced noise and capture effect.
FM transmitter and receiver equipment is more complex than that of AM
systems.
In FM systems special attention must be given to phase characteristics.
Use line of sight propagation & thus range is lesser then AM wave.

Basically there is 2 types of FM:
NBFM (Narrow Band Frequency Modulation)
WBFM (Wide Band Frequency Modulation)
NBFM- is used for voice transmissions. NBFM is used by the so called FM mobile
communication. Modulation index in NBFM is near unity. Maximum deviation is 5-
10Khz are permitted. NBFM is is used in Police radio controllable appliances & short
range ship to ship communication.

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WBFM- is used for most other transmissions except voice communication. WBFM is
defined where MI exceeds more than unity. Maximum permissible deviation is
75KHz and modulating frequency range is 30Hz to 15Khz , so the MI range from 5-
2500.
Generation of frequency Modulated Wave
The prime requirement of a FM system is a variable output frequency, with the
variation proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.
If either the capacitance or inductance of LC oscillator is varied, some form of FM
wave will be generated. If the variation can be made directly proportional to voltage
supplied by the modulation ckt, true FM wave can be obtain.
There are a number of devices whose reactance can be varied by the application of
voltage.
These include FET and BJT, varactor diode etc.
If such a device is placed across the tank circuit of the L-C oscillator, then FM will
be produced
when the reactance of the device is varied by the modulating voltage.
At the carrier frequency, the oscillator inductance is tuned by its own capacitance in
parallel with the average reactance to the variable reactance device.
1.A first method of direct FM generation is to use a reactance modulator.
A reactance modulator is a circuit in which a transistor is made to act like
a variable reactance. The reactance modulator is placed across the LC
circuit of the oscillator and as the modulators reactance varies in
response to an applied audio signal, the oscillator frequency varies as
well.

Basic FET reactance modulator- The reactance of the FET is
dependent on its transconductance, which is dependent on the gate
bias. The FET acts like a variable reactance load to the LC tank circuit
(An LC circuit, also called a resonant circuit, tank circuit, or tuned circuit, consists of
an inductor, represented by the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the letter C. When
connected together, they can act as an electrical resonator.) FET reactance modulator,
which behaves as a three terminal that may be connected across the
tank ckt of the oscillator to be frequency modulated.

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It can be made inductive or capacitive by a simple change of component. The value
of reactance is proportional to the trans-conductance of device.
Type
Varactor diode modulator-. A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode
whose junction capacitance varies linearly with the applied voltage when
diode is reverse biased. It may also be used to produce frequency
modulation. Varactor diode are certain frequently, together with a reactance
modulator to provide automatic frequency correction for FM transmitter.
The simplest method for generating FM directly is to vary the frequency of
an oscillator. A capacitance microphone or a varactor diode may be used
as part of the oscillators frequency determining network. The capacitor
microphones capacitance varies in response to the intensity of the sound
waves striking it, making the oscillators frequency vary as the amplitude of
the sound varies. The varactor diode's capacitance depends on the voltage
across it. Audio signals placed across the diode cause its capacitance to
change, which in turn, causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary.
Disadvantage of Direct method-
If the main oscillator is LC oscillator, the direct-modulation scheme
does not meet frequency stability regulations.
Stability is improved by an AFC circuit.
A sample of the final output signal is mixed with the signal from a
stable crystal oscillator.
The IF produced contains the difference frequency between the carrier
and the fixed oscillator.
A discriminator circuit generates a voltage which is proportional to this
difference frequency.
It also contains the modulation signal, and a low-pass filter is used to
remove this,

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This leaves a varying dc level which is proportional to the difference
between the carrier frequency and the oscillator.
This voltage is added to the modulating audio signal and applied to the
reactance modulator in a manner so as to correct any drift in the main
oscillator frequency.


Indirect method- the crystal oscillator cannot be successfully frequency
modulated, the direct method have the disadvantage of being based on
LC oscillator which is not stable enough to for communication or
broadcast purpose.
While it is not possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator directly, it
is possible to vary its phase. The resulting PM signal can be used to create
FM. This is the basis of the Armstrong modulation system.
An audio signal is passed through a pre-emphasis network and then an
integrator, a special network whose output is the time integral of the input
signal. The pre-emphasized integrated signal is used to phase modulate a
crystal oscillator. Mathematically, it can be shown that PM using the
integral of the audio signal is identical to FM using the audio signal itself. In
this way an FM signal is generated.
The Armstrong modulation system cannot produce much deviation, so
combination of multipliers and mixers are used to raise the carrier
frequency and the deviation. The multipliers are used to multiply the carrier
and the deviation. The mixers are used to decrease the carrier, while
keeping the deviation constant so that additional multiplier stages can be
used to obtain more deviation.
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