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w,uls
.
For a force-displacement curve obtained from a fastener
experimental test,
t,uls
is defined as the displacement
corresponding to failure of the connection.
t,uls
should
be obtained from the average of the envelopes of the
negative and positive quadrants of the cyclic force-
displacement test curve of the sheathing-to-framing
fastener connection.
Therefore, the displacement corresponding to the
maximum strength of the wall, which is also considered
to be the displacement of the wall at the ULS, can be
estimated from Equation (1) as:
(2)
3.2 DAMAGE LIMITATION LIMIT STATE, DL
LS:
Displacement at the wall corner fastener,
t
, for the
damage limitation (DL) limit state (LS),
t,DL,
is defined
here as the displacement corresponding to maximum
strength of the single fastener connection, f
u
, that should
be obtained from the average of the peak force envelope
from the positive and negative quadrants of the force-
displacement curve obtained from cyclic test of a
fastener connection. As such, the wall displacement at
the DL LS is determined from Equation (1) as:
(3)
Figure 3: Envelope of load-displacement curve cyclic test
no. 38, Okasha [9]
3.3 THE WALL (INITIAL) YIELD
DISPLACEMENT:
Unlike steel structures, a precise yield point is not
distinguishable in CFSFWP shear wall systems.
However, it is important to have a consistent method of
defining the yield point of the walls for seismic design
since most seismic design methodologies require
estimates of ductility demand to relate elastic spectral
ordinates to inelastic response.
The point in which a major decline in stiffness is
observed in a load-displacement curve of CFSFWP shear
walls is considered as the (initial) yield point here. It will
be the first pivot point, out of three pivots, that define the
tri-linear load-displacement curve of the wall.
To obtain this point it is assumed that the displacement,
t
, of the corner fastener is equal to the yield
displacement of the idealized bilinear load-displacement
curve of the sheathing fastener connection tests,
ty
, that
is obtained based on EEEP method, which approximates
the nonlinear load-displacement curve of the connection
by an idealised bilinear equivalent energy elastic-plastic
(EEEP) curve [13]. This fastener yield displacement is
then inserted into Equation (1) to determine the yield
displacement of the wall,
w,y
.
(4)
3.4 Predicting the wall resistance at the limit states
By knowing the wall displacement at each limit state
from Equation (1) the geometrical parameters of the
distorted wall demonstrated in Figure 2 can be
determined and then the relative displacement between
the panel and the frame for each screw of the wall is
determined as shown in Equation (5).
(5)
From the load-displacement curve of the relevant
fastener experimental test the connection forces can also
be found. Subsequently, an energy approach is used to
determine the wall resistance corresponding to the wall
drift of
w
as explained next.
The envelope curve of the force-displacement hysteresis
loops of a sheathing-to-framing fastener connection
cyclic test is linearized into 4 or 5 lines (as deemed
necessary to obtain a good fit of the hysteresis loops
envelope) and the average area of this linearized
envelope curve in both the positive and negative
quadrants should be considered as the energy absorbed
by the single fastener, I
s
which is determined from
Equation (6):
. (6)
F, the wall resistance at wall displacement of
w
is then
determined from Equation (7):
(7)
where n is the number of the screws in the wall, N is
number of panels in the shear wall,
s_i
is the
displacement in the i
th
screw, calculated from Equation
(5), and F
s
is the force at displacement s, determined
from the force-displacement curve of the fastener
connection test. The internal work is determined from
the numerical integration of the average of positive and
negative quadrants area of force-displacement curve of
all of the screws.
4 PERFORMANCE OF THE PROPOSED
METHOD
The three points defined in the previous section for the
wall displacement at yield, the displacement at the
damage limitation state and the displacement at the
ultimate limit state are considered as pivot points that
can be used to predict the load-displacement curve of a
shear wall. This section compares values predicted by
the simplified approach described in the previous
section, with values obtained from experimental data.
Table 2 compares the ratio of values predicted by the
proposed model and the displacement and resistances
obtained from experimental test data (obtained from
various sources cited at the foot of the table).
Table 2: Ratio of the predicted parameter by the model
to the corresponding experimental tests results
Test
Disp. Ratio
At Wall
Peak
Resistance
Wall
resistance
Ratio
DL LS
Wall
resistance
Ratio
ULS
4 M* 0.89 0.99 0.92
8 M* 0.90 0.99 0.94
10 M* 0.97 0.97 0.80
16 M* 0.99 1.00 0.94
20 M* 0.95 0.97 0.94
22 M* 0.96 0.93 0.96
24 M* 1.13 0.87 0.94
26 M* 1.17 0.86 0.89
28 M* 0.97 0.87 0.83
30 M* 0.88 0.97 0.85
32 M* 0.93 0.94 0.79
34 M* 0.88 0.87 0.73
1 F* 1.02 0.91 0.99
14 C* 1.13 0.84 0.84
16 C* 1.09 1.10 1.00
17 C* 1.20 1.00 0.98
19 C* 1.08 1.21 1.04
A1&A2 S* 0.80 0.92 0.76
A3&A4 S* 0.82 1.16 0.94
A5&A6 S* 1.00 0.98 0.87
A7&A8 S* 0.76 1.21 0.88
B1&B2 S* 0.91 0.85 0.78
OSBI FD* 1.22 0.90 0.87
Average 0.98 0.96 0.88
STD. DEV. 0.13 0.12 0.08
M*: Tests carried out at McGill University by Branston, Boudreault,
Chen, Rogers, [4] F*: Tests carried out by Fiorino et al., [7] C*:
CoLA/UCI Tests, [5] S* Tests carried out by Serrette et al., [8] FD*:
Tests carried out by Fulop and Dubina [6].
The results presented in Table 2 indicate that the
proposed analytical model predicts the experimentally
observed forces and displacements well. In making
comparisons with experimental data, care was taken to
ensure that the experimental fastener connection test that
has similar characteristics of the wall used in full-scale
test, in terms of panel type and thickness, screw type and
size, edge distance, etc. More discussion of this point can
be found in Moayed Alaee et al. [14]. In Table 2, the
higher deviation of the ratios for the tests carried out by
Serrette et al. [8] and Fulop et al. [6] can be attributed to
the fact that there were some differences for sheathing
type and test protocol between the fastener test used for
the model and the actual full-scale test, due to the limited
number of existing fastener connection tests for
CFSFWP walls.
Figure 4 compares the experimental test results of test
no. 8, carried out in McGill University, with the
predicted tri-linear load-displacement curve, developed
using Okasha no. 38 fastener connection test data. The
test characteristics of the full-scale and fastener test were
similar. In both tests the CSP plywood is 12.5mm thick
and the steel is of grade 230 having 1.1mm thickness.
Figure 2: Superimposed experimental test result (McGill
University test no. 8) and predicted tri-linear load-
deflection curve
From the results presented above, and further presented
in Moayed Alaee [14] it can be seen that this method can
successfully predict not only the force and displacements
at pivot points but also the post yield behaviour of the
shear walls up to their peak resistance.
5 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR
DISPLACEMENT-BASED SEISMIC
DESIGN
For what regards seismic design, the importance of
deformation, rather than strength, in assessing seismic
performance is apparent. As argued by Priestley et al.
[15] if the design objective is to control the damage
under a given level of seismic attack, it would be more
reasonable to design the structures to meet a desired
displacement under the design seismic intensity, and this
has motivated the development of the Direct
Displacement-Based Design approach (DDBD) [15].
To develop the DDBD procedure for cold-formed steel-
frame / wood-panel shear wall structures, three important
parameters are needed: (i) a means of determining the
displacement corresponding to important limit states for
different wall configurations; (ii) expressions for the
equivalent viscous damping, EVD, of CFSFWP shear
walls and (iii) expressions for the design displacement
profile and general design procedure for CFSFWP shear
wall systems. In this work, significant progress has been
made towards satisfaction of the first of these tasks.
In particular, note that within the DDBD procedure the
design displacement,
d
, for the performance level under
consideration, can usually be based either on code-
specific drift limits or material strain limits. In a
structure composed of CFSFWP shear walls, due to the
very complicated response at the level of sheathing-to-
frame fastener connections, it is not easy to define a
material strain limit. However, as it was proposed here, it
is possible to estimate important drift limits of the walls
and the yield displacement,
y
, using the relative
displacement between the frame and the sheathing-to-
frame corner fasteners and the associated fastener
connection test load-displacement data and consequently
determine the design displacement.
Semi-Empirical Model
6 CONCLUSIONS
A simple analytical approach has been proposed for the
prediction of the displacements corresponding to
important limit states of CFSFWP shear walls. The
proposed approach uses sheathing-to-framing fastener
connection test results and relates the wall displacement
to the displacement of the corner fastener connection.
The analytical procedure has been developed to predict
critical pivot points of the CFSFWP wall force-
displacement curve, using cyclic tests on corresponding
sheathing-to-framing screw connections. The critical
points were taken to be the yield, damage limitation and
ultimate limit state of the shear walls. The wall yield
displacement is assumed to correspond to the
displacement at which the corner connection yields,
obtained using an Equivalent Energy Elastic Plastic
(EEEP) bilinear representation of the load-displacement
curve of the fasteners. The displacement when the
maximum resistance of the fastener is reached was taken
as the fastener pivot displacement for determining the
displacement at the damage limitation state of the walls.
The displacement when the fastener resistance falls to
2/3 of the peak value was considered as the pivot
displacement corresponding to the displacement at the
wall peak resistance. These pivot points were used to
predict the tri-linear idealized load-displacement curve
of the wall. Good agreement was observed between the
experimentally obtained displacements at the peak
resistance of CFSFWP walls and the displacements
predicted by the proposed method. Based on an energy
approach the resistance of the wall corresponding to each
limit state was obtained and predictions were found to
correlate well with experimental results.
The proposed method for the calculation of critical force
and displacement points can be used to determine the
behaviour of shear walls with different configurations,
i.e. aspect ratio and fastener spacing, and even other less
influential aspects such as steel thickness and grade,
because the effect of these aspects on displacement
capacity and resistance of the wall is reflected in the
fastener connection tests. A benefit of this approach is
that the need for extensive full scale shear wall
experiments can be significantly reduced. Conducting
fastener connection tests is much less expensive;
furthermore it is possible to use existing fastener test
results.
In closing, it is considered that the presented method
could be very useful for the Direct Displacement Based
design of CFSFWP shear walls by offering a means of
determining the displacement corresponding to
important limit states for different wall configurations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their appreciation to
Prof. Pardoen and Dr. Fiorino for providing the needed
experimental data.
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