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ECONOMIC VIEWS OF IBN TAIMIYAH

THESIS SUBMI TTED TO


THE ALlGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALlGARH
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BY
ABDUL AZIM ISLAHI
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
DR. MUHAMMAD NEJATULLAH SlDDlQl
Professor of Economics, K ~ n g Abdul Azi z University. Jeddah
( Forn~erl y Reader, Departmenl of Economics A MU Al i yar h)
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
Al i garh Musl i m University Aligarh
1980
i i n .
l l i s c ont r i l ~ u t ion i r r t l i e f i r l d o i 1'11l) 1 i c 1:in;inc.c was a l s o consi-
t l r : i l ~ l c . As a g a i n s t many o t h e r c c o n o ~n i s t s hc pai d 111c1r.e a t t o l i t ion
t o t l ~ c 11r1est ion o f p u b l i c c x p c >~i J i t u r r ( Cl i npt er V i 11) .
We Iiope o t ~ r s t u d y w i l l ninkc :I s i g r r i f i c ; i n t c o n t ~ . i l , u t i t r n t o t h e
h i ! ; t or y o f e c onomi c t l i ougl i t . I t i:; ~ ~ o t c wo r t l i y t l i : i t ; ~d c * q t i : ~t c ~
a t t c n t i nn h a s n o t l e i I : t o the c:unt r i h i r t i on ol ' bl t ~. ; I i n i
t h i n k e r s i n t h i s i j e l d . Our s t t ~ d y w i 1 I , we I L ~ I I ) I ~ , C O I I I r i l ~ c ~ t c
t ow: i r ds f i 1 I irig t h i s g a p . Wc m;ty a l s o n o t e t l i : rt c r i s t i n g s t ~ ~ d i c s
o f tlir 1 i l'c arid wor ks o f I h ~ i ' l' ;ii~niy:ili 11;ivc l a i l e d t o a d c q t ~ a t c l y
f o c ~ ~ s on h i s economi c. v i e ws . Rc h a v e t r i c d i n t h i s s t ~ i d y t o
r c s l ~ u r ~ d t o t l i i s n c c d .
'The p r e s e n t wor k i s I ~ ; i s i c ; i l l y :I s t u i l y i n t l i c h i s t o r y t > f e c o ~ i o l i ~ i c
t h o u g h t l r ut we hope i t w i l l 11r ovi de some i l i s i g l r t s t o t l i r ~ s c c c o -
n o mi s t s and t h i n k e r s who a r c c~ng; ~l : c~t l i n t h e s t u d y ol - 1 1 1 ~ . 11robl c11rs
r e l a t i n ) ; t o t h e c s t ; i l ~ l i s h ~ ~ i e r i t oi' a j t ~ s t cconor ni c s y s t e m o f l s l a ~ n .
T h i s work was s t ; ~ r t c ~ l i n t h e I ) ~ ~ l ~ ; ~ r . t i ~ ~ c ~ i t ol ' l i conomi cs a t t l i c Alig:i!'I
Musl i n 1 l h ~ i vc r - s i t y i n 15175 ; i nd compl ctc, d a t tltr Ki ng Abt l ~i I Ar i r
Un i v e r s i t y Jcr l cl al ~ whe r e I l i ; ~vc l , ~. cn t c a c h i ~ i ~ f o r t l i ~ . ~ I : I ~ I . 1 1 1 1 ~ c
y e a r s .
I am a 1 s o j i ra t c f n l t o Or. l::~;,. I l l r I<alini:~n I:;! r i J I wliu rc:id ~ O I I I C 01.
t h e c l i : ~ p t e r s ;ind g a v c h i s v a l u a b l e , collllrlcnts; t o 111.. SyccL Z . Al ~ c d i n
1)r. M~rli:~~nmnd Anas a1 Zar q; i , I . Il a~ni dducl d i n AlrmaJ 1-or t 1ic.i I. I i cl p
i n s o v c , r ; ~l wa y s ; t o my c o l l c : ~ g u v s : I I I ~ :11 1 t hos e? I'rorn W ~ L O I I I 1
r o c c i v e d r ncour : i gcment anrl ioc, l, cr' ;lt i on : I T ( I i r l ' c r c n t s t : ~ g c i CI f t h i s
wor k.
My t h; ~nks ;Ire a l s o d l ~ c t t o my t c: l cl ~er I ' ~ ~ o l ' c s s o ~ ~ Moh~l. Sh;ihl)ir-
Khan, Ilcsad I l c pnr t ~nc ~~t of liconumicr;, t l ~c, A 1 i g ; ~ r . l ~ MI I S I i n1 lln i vcl - s i t y ,
I'or h i s cnc-ouragemcnt anel s11ppo1. 1 .
In thc' cnd, I woul d llke to thank Mr.Muhd. Yusui fucl l n wt~o d l d an
.J e el el ah
August 5 , 1980/
~ I I 4 , 140011.
C . A i ; l <l : A' l ' I<l~l~OKMI~K . . .
I . 'I'hc mai n a s p e c t s nt ' h i s r c>Snr . m p. 4 7 .
1. Met l ~od o f t e ; ~c I i i n g 1). 5 2 ; 2 . S t y l e o f wr i t i n g p. 5 2 ;
3. l l i s J i s c i p l c 11. 5.1.
(;. ECONOMI C VI EWS I N IIIS WRITINGS .r) 0
v i i
1. I ' r o p c r t y r i g h t i n I(o111a1l l aw p. I ; L. I ' r o p c r t y r.i!:ht
i n Gr e e k p h i l o s o p h y p . ' 1 2 ; 3 . Cl1ri31 i . ~ n i t v : t n~I
S c h o l a s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s 1,. !)4.
I . Sir l l e n t f c > ; l t u r c s oT ~ l ~ c l n i c T I I t n ~ , r ~ o l ~ c r t y
r i g h t p. 9 7 .
I . l n t l i v i d u a l 1 1 r o p e r t y r i i : l l t s O. I ; 2 . S o c i a l o r
c o l l c c t i v c p r o p e r t y 1 1 . 103; 3 . S t a t e p r o l j c r t y
1). 1 0 4 ; 4 . I h n 'i'a i mi y ; ~ l r ' s v i e ws c o n i p ; ~ r c d w i t h those
o f o t l ~ c r s p . 1 0 5 ; 5 . l l i s I V ( ~ ; I ~ I I I C I I ~ 0 1 - w v : ~ l ~ h a n d
p o v e r t y p. 106.
B. I S I A MI C TBACIIINGS 1 1 5
v i i i
r i b 3 a I nas i ' ah p. 1 2 1 ; 3 . i \ s c r r t ; ~ i n n r c n t o f :I corlrmon
. -- .. . -
econonr i c a n d j u r i s t i c c a l l s a t i o n ( ' i l l a l r ) i n c o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ( ~ i l i t i c s
0 1 ' . r i h 5 - a 1 .. r a J l a I : s i h 1 . 1 2 2 ; 4 . ' I ' c c h ~l i q u c s
~. - ~p .~
t o c i r c umve r r t I s l a mi c t c ; r c hi r r gs 011 r i l , ; ~ p. I L i ; 5. T r a n s -
f c r o f money a n d i n t e r e s t I,. ~ L O ; ( I . C o n t r a s t L1etwec.n
i n t e r e s t a nd zakRh p. 127.
-- - .....
I). I H N 7'AIMIYAtI'S I<I~FLKCTIONS O N FI ONCY I 2: )
I B N TAIMIYAII'S VlliWS O N I'Al<'l'NI~l<SIIIl' ANL)
OTHER FOI<MS OF l i ( : ONo M I (: O R G A N I ZA' I ' IONS
A . IlCONVMIC ACTIVITIES IN ISLAM
1. Di v i n e guidance a b o u t economi c. n c t i v i t i c s p . 14U
(:. ' I ' WO 'l'Y1'11S 01' ECONOMIC AC'1'IVlTI 11s TIISTI N(TI1 IS11111) I \ Y I l \ N
TAIhlIYAII . . . 1 .I 1;
1 . J u s t i c e i n p a r t n e r s h i p 11. 1 4 8 ; 2 . P i ~ r t n c r s h i p i n
l a n d c u l t i v a t j o n o r s t r a r c c r o p p i n g ( mu z 3 r a ' a I r l ~ . ~ . ~~ 1 ) . 1 5 0 .
i x
1). A1)MTNIS' I' RATIVE GRANTING 01' LAND (TYr8')
-
E. REBATE DUE TO NATURAL CALAMITY ( W A L T 1L -~ .. Z ~ j \ l i l l )
F. PI<OII I H I'I'ELI CONTRACTS
ROLE OF STATE IN IiCONOMIC 1. I FE
1. G o a l s o f I s l a m i c S t a t e 1 ) . 1 0 8 ; 2 . : l a t e a n d just^
11. 1 7 0 .
B. IIOWEl< OF 'I'IIE STATIi TO SECIJICE I T S GOA1.S - - - YI'A'I'I: V!;
I NDI V l DUAL FREEDOM 1 7 2
1 . E r a d i c a t i o n o f F ' o v c r t y p. 1 7 4 ; 2 . I < c g t ~ l n t i o n ol- t h e
M a r k e t p. 1 7 6 ; 3 . M o n e t a r y P o l i c y 17. 1 7 8 ; 4 . C c o n o ~ ~ ~ i c
P l a n n i n g p. 1 7 9 .
C. I NSTI TLI TI ON 01: I I I SI ~AI I
L~--
1 8 2
-
1. O r i g i n a n d 13rief l l i s t o r y p. 1 8 2 ; L . Wo r k s on l . l i s l i ; i h , ~ . ~. . ..
p. 1 8 4 ; 3. E c o n o m i c F u n c t i o n s o f t h e - M u l ~ t n s i h p. 1 Hh .
D. A Wlil.1:Allll STATE . . . 1 ! I 0
I R N TAI MI YAl l ANL) I'IIl31.1C Fl NANCl i
1. S o u r c e s o f I J u h l i c Rc vc l ~ue p. I ; L . 1 ' ~ p , i n s i o n i l l t l ~ c
s o u r c e s o f ~nc onl e p . 195; 3 . F i n a n c i a l 4 d r 1 1 i n i s t r a t i o n
p. 196.
B. PUBLIC FINANCI I I UR I NG I B N TAIPIIYAII'S I I 1 1
1. S o u r c e s o f I ncome p. 1 8 2 . I ~ I I I : , 1 ; $ I , i n i s t r a t i o n
p. 200; 3 . P a t t e r n o f I I x p ~ ~ l d i t ~ i r ~ ~ 1). , 110.
I ) . 113N TAIMIYAH'S ACCOUNT 01: l (IIVl i NI1I:
1. ' Three Vi ews a b o u t I l ~ ~ h l i c 1:in;iilce p. 0 ; 2. 'I'lrrcc
k i n d s of I'uhl i c l l cvcnue p. 2 0 7 ; 3 . C o l l e c t i o ~ l ; I , ;
s d l n i n i s t r a t i on p. 2 1 2 .
E. IllN TAIMIYAH'S ACCOUNT OF I ' UHI . I ( : liXPtNl)l'I'lllIli L I 2
1:. ANA1, Y' I ' I CAL INS1 CII'I' ? LO
AN AI'PIIAI SAI, AN11 l i VAI . I I A' I ' I ON 01: I H N
' I ' Al l YAI l ' S TICONt l MI I: V I CWS
I . Fundi i went al - Pr i ma r y arid Sc c ondnr y - s ol l ! . r cs [I. 2:s;
2 . . " uppl ement ar y s o u r c e r 11. 2 2 8 .
B. SOME ASPI;CTS OF ISLAMIC ECONOPII (: 'TIIOU(;ll'l
1 . R e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n c c ~~n c : ~n d wr ; i l t l l p. ' 2 9 ;
2. I.and a n d agriculture 1). 2 3 9 ; 3 . I n c l ~ l s t r y 1). 2 3 0 ; 4 . T r a d e
p. 2 3 0 ; 5 . 1. ahour ;and S o c i a l S t c ~ l r i t y p. 2 7 1 ; . I ' r ol ~i -
. -
h i t c c l Hconor ni c p r a c t i c e s 1,. ; ' 3 2 ; 7 . I n t ~ . r . ~ s t p. ?..I?; 8 .
I l oa r d i n g p. 2 3 2 ; 9 . ~ I I I I t ; I I I C! ~ ~ s u r ' i o ~ ~ s h115 i n c * s s c s
P . 2 3 2 ; 10. P l a c c o r s l i c h l i t > r ; ~ t u r e p . 233.
I ) . T IbN ' I ' AI MTYAI I COMPARIID W 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 t I I S CI ~N'I'I:MI'OIMI( I liS
1 . Thn Qayyi m a n d I n t e r e s t 11. 24 :.
1 . A r i s t o t l e - Th e b a s i s o f C h r ~ s t i a n ( l o ~ . t o r s p. 2 4 5 ;
2. S x i n 'l'liornas Aq u i n a s a n d I n ' 1 1 1 i y 1 1 i p. 24b.
1. Thn l ' ni mi ynh a n d l h n Kh a l d l l ~i p. 2 4 9 ; 2 . l b n ' l ' a i l ni y; ~l l ' s
i n f ' l u c n c c on Tl)n K h a l d ~ ~ n 1) 2 5 4 ; 1 . I i r unnl ni ~' t h i n Li n g -
among Mus l i nl s i n t h e l n t c i p e r i o d p. 250.
. SIGN11:TCANCE 01' 1'HE ECONOMIC 1'1 I(WS Or' I B N 'I'A I M I YAII 2 5 8
CIIAP'IK I
' THE AGE OF IBN l',\IMlYAll
The a g e 0 1 - I b n Ta i mi y a h i s c h a r a c t t r i s c d by g r e a t u p l i c a v a l s a nd
p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e s . Onl y f i v e y e u r t b e f o r c h i s b i r t h , t h e c c n t u -
r i e s o l d Ab b a s i d c a l i p h a t e a t Haghclnd was a h o l i s h c d a nd d e s t r o y e d
by MongDl s. And t h r e e y e a r s h e i o n : h i s b i r t h , T a t a r s e n t e r e d
Damascus and Al c ppo a s c o n q u e r o r s . When he was s c v c n y e a r s o l d ,
h i s n a t i v e p l a c e I l a r r a n -- s i t u a t e l i l l t h e No r t h O F I r a q i n t h e
b a s i n O F E i ~ p h r a t c s a nd T i g r i s - - was a t t a c k e d and p l u n d e r e d by
T a t a r s . A l a r g e numher o i t h e i nl a b i t a n t s o i t h a t a r e a wc r e
f o r c e d t o mi g r a t e t o S y r i a a n d Eg l p t . The h o u s e o f I hn l ' ai mi ynh
a l s o mi g r a t e d t o I ) amas cc~s t o s e e k r c f l ~ g e and l e a d a n a c a d e mi c l i f e ,
a s t h e y we r e l e a r n c d p e o p l e .
I
T h i r t e e n y e a r s b e f o r c t h e h i r t h , f I b n Ta i mi y a h , t h e Mamluk
d y n a s t y had bc c n e s t a b l i s h c d i n ! ; y r i a a nd Egypt . 'She Ar a b i c word
mamluk means s l a v e . Th e s e r u l e , s we r e s l a v e s o f t h e Ayyuhi d
-
S u l t a n s h e n c e t h e y we r e c a l l e d rnamluks. They we r e o r i g i n a l l y
s e t t l e d by t h e i r o wn e r s i n a n , ~ s l a n d i n t h e N i l c , s o t h e y we r e
c a l l e d Hn l j r i t e s (13ahr -- meani ng i l ~ e r i v e r ) . Thc r u l e r s i n t h e f i r s t
Mamllik d y n a s t y ( 1260- 1382 Al l ) wt brc dr awn f r om t h i s g r o u p and s o
t h e y wcr e c a l l e d B a h r i t e Mmw.iiks.
2
I b n l ' ni mi yah ( 1263- 1328) 1 A e d i n t h e rigc o f t h e s e Maml i i hs, mo s t l k
i n Dan~os cus a nd s omct i111es
(-' . .
n i ~ o . I t s eems wo r t h wh i l e t o t r a c e
t h e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and o n o m~ c c o n d i t i o n s of Egypt and S y r i a
u n d e r t h e Maml uks.
' c i . , I bn Abdul 1l;ldl: A 1 ' l ~@d -- a 1 ~ u r r i ~ a l i - ( Be i r u t : U . I ~ a 1 Kutuli
a l - ' I l mi y a h , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 7 -
2 ~ ~ ~ i r , S . ( London:
S mi t h , E l d e r &
1. MAML ~ KS CAPTURE POWER
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e MamlGks i nc l - e a s e d da y by da y i n t h e Ayyulvid
S u l t a n a t e o f Egypt . I n t h e y c a r 1250, t h e Ayyuhi d Sul T5n '[firan
( 1249- 1250) was s l a i n by t h e B a h r i t e Mamluks who s e i z e d t h e
Govcr r i n~ent . The a mi r Ai hnk ( 1 2 5 0 - 5 7 ) , a s . l a ue o f 1' ~l r; i n became
he a d o f t h e Ad mi n i s t r a t i o n , a n d l a t e r on p r o c l a i me d h i n ~ s e l i a s
t h e S u l t a n . Ai ha k was a s s a s s i n a t e d i l l 1257 and h i s i ni nor s o n was
r a i s e d t o t h e t i t u l a r S u l t a n a t e , and Qut uz (125' 4-b0) a d i s t i n -
g u i s h e d nlarnlCik as s umed t h e p o s t ol ' v i c c g e r c n t . Af t e r t wo y e a r s
Qur uz t o o k t h e power i n h i s hand. Ile g a v e , f o r t h e S i r s t t i me , o
c r u s h i n g d e f e a t t o t h e MongiSls. Ilut t h e v e r y n c x t y c a r , h e was
s t a h b e d t o d e a t h by a n o t h e r s l a v e l 3; l i l )ars ( 1260- 77) who b e c a ~n c
t h e S u l t S n o f Egypt and S y r i a . l\y h i s wi s e a d mi n i s t r ; l t i o n , h c
s uc c e e de d i n e s t a h l i s h i n g h i s p p u l a r i t y a n d power . Ile r e duc e d
t h e t a x e s whi ch hail made h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s ' r u l e u n p o p u l a r . Ile
f o s t e r e d p u b l i c wo r k s , i mpr oved c a n a l s , l i a r l >our s a nd f o r t i f i c a -
t i o n s .
a . Re e s t a b l ~ .~ - i s hme nt o f Abb: i si d Ca l i_ph:itc. Af t e r c a p t u r i n g t h c
Eg y p t i a n t h r o n e , Ba i b a r s c o n c e i v e d t h e i dc n o f reestablishing t h e
Abba s i d c a l i p h a t e whi c h, t wo o r t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e , had b e e n
-
s wept away and t h e whol e Abha s i d hous e was d e s t r o y e d by l l ol a gu
( 1256- 1265) a t Raghdad. lle h e a r d t h a t a n Al l bas i d had s u r v i v e d
t h e Mongol ma s s a c r e . So he b r o u g h t him From S y r i a t o C a i r o , and
i n s t a l l e d hi m 35 c a l i p h . I l a i h a r s a nd o f f i c e r s o f s t a t e s wor e
f e a l t y t o hi m, wh i l e he i n t u r n c o n f e r r e d on Ha i h a r s t h e s o v e r e i g n
t i t l e . ' Thus he s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s r u l e , o b t a i n i n g n r e 1 i g i o u s
a p p r o v a l i r om t h e c a l i p h .
Dur i ng t h e Mamlfik d y n a s t y , t h e p o s ~ t i o n o f t h e Abba s i d
v a r i e d u n d e r d i f f e r e t s u l t a n s ; t h e o r S l c c r e ma i ne d h u t
and a name. The c a l i p h was l 1r ought on i mp o r t a n t s l a t ?
c a l i p h
a shadow
o c c a s 1011s
s u c h a s e v e r y f r e s h s u c c e s s i o n t o t h e s u l t a n a t e , a s t h e r c l i g i o u s
h e a d , t o g r a n t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o r t h e t i t l e ; a nd t h a t was a l l .
Ne v e r t h e l e s s , due t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e Ahha s i d c a l i p h i n Ca i r o ,
-
Egypt became t h e c e n t r e o f t h e t h c n l s l a n ~ i c wo r l d . ' Ularna, . J u r i s t s
a nd S c h o l a r s a s s e mb l c d i n Ca i r o f r om a l l o v c r t h e wo r l d . The
c o u n t r y t u r n e d i n t o a r e s j d c n c c o f %lama ancl a s c; i r 0 1 ' I ~' : ~r ~l t . , l
p e o p l e .
- -
b. -A S u l t d n Nd s i r --- Mul!ammnd Bi n (l al awun. Af t c r l i a i h a r s ' d e a t h ,
- - - .-
i n a p c ~ . i u d o f 3 3 y e a r s ( f r om 1277 t o 1309) . u i n e s u l t f i n s canlc on
- -
t h e t h r o n e o f Eg y p t , h u t no o n e c o u l d s t a y Long e x c e p t (Jal awun
( 1279- 90) who was a wi s e a n d s t r o n g monar ch. llis r e i g n l a s t e d 12
y e a r s . Ile d e f e a t e d a l l h i s cnemi eh . ~ n d opponents, a11d mdde Egypt
s t r o n g e r , p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o ml c a l l y.
I n t h e y e a r 1309 AD, N6yi r Mut>;~inmad ( 1293- 94, 1298- 1 3 0 8 , 1309- 41)
s o n o f QalBwun r e s t o r c d power f o r t h c t h i r d t i mc a n 3 r u l e d f o r
t h e n e x t 32 y e a r s . llis r e i g n i s considered t o b e t h e g o l d e n a ge
i n Mamluk d y n a s t y . Ile introduced a number o f p o 1 i t i c : l l and
economi c reforms,' a nd e x t e n d e d d i p l o ma t i c r e l a t i o n s wi t h t h e
n e i g h h o u r i n y c o u n t r i e s . Ile respected t h c ' ul am; and t h e l e a r n e d
men.
I bn Ta i mi y a h ' s g r e a t per f or r n; i ncc i n t h e a c a de mi c f i e l d a s well a s
i n t h e p o l i t i c a l and economi c s l , h e r c camc o u t i n t h i s a g c . N55i r
-
gave him t h e h i g h c s t r a n k among t h c ' ul ama, t hough i n h i s l a s t
d a y s Na s i r p u t hi m i n p r i s o n d u c t o t h e mi s u n d e r s t a n d i n g c r c i ~ t c d
2
by r i v a l j u r i s t s a g a i n s t I hn ' l ' ai mi yah a nd h i s t h i n k i n g s .
NBsir d i e d i n 1341. AI t er hi m t h c I < a h r i t e MmnlGk d y n a s t y l a s t e d
up t o 1382 and many s u l t z n s came t o t h e t h r o n c o f Egypt h u t t h e y
wer e n o t a s s u c c e s s f u l a nd s t r o n g a s t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s .
l l . , a n e - ~ o o l e ,. S t a n l e y : A l I i ~ t o r y ~ y ( ~ ~ ~ y p t i n ,tJ>cc Mi d ~l l ? Ages
( London: Met huen & Co,70nj , p. 3 2 .
c . F o r e i g n Pol icy_ a nd R e l a t i o n s wi t h ot he r ' Co u n t r i e s o f t h e Wor l d.
~- -- . - ~ ~ - . ~ .~~ - - . ~ . .~ . . ~ ~p~p
The r e wer e v e r y c l o s e t i e s be t we e n t h e 1i gyl ) t i an S u l t a n s and t h c
I n d i a n k i n g s . Ki ng Mubanmad 'l'11g11l;iq a113 a f t c r him lVYr6z Sh311
o b t a i n e d t l i r t i t l e o f s o v e r c i g ~ ~ t y I'rc~m t h e Al ) l >; r s i d c a l ip11 i n
1
Egypt . l ' hcy s e n t t h c i r c n v u y s t o l i gyl )t t o r e q u e s t l ~ e l p a g a i n s t
"
t h e i r cornmon enemy - t h e Mol ~gdl s . TI . ; I J C was t h e a n~t l l c ' l . i mp o r t a n t
r e a s o n t h a t f o s t c r c d f i r m relations ht!twccn l g y p t and I n d i a . I' gypt
was t h c n ~ c e t i n g p o i n t be t wc c n l i a s t ancl Wes t . AI cxal i ~11- i a was o n c
3
o f t h e few g r e a t h a r b o u r s o f t h e WOI - I d a t t h a t t i me .
The g r c a t c s t d a n g e r t o tltc Mantluk dyn: i s t y i n i t s c a r l y d a y s was
1-rorn t h c MongGlsoT ' l ' r a ns ox; ~ni a who c x t c n d c d t h c i r domi r t : ~t i on up t o
I r a q and a t t a c h c d S y r i a s c v e r ; ~ l t i me s . I t was o n l y t l l c Ma~nliik
Su l TZr ~s who h r o k c t h e i r p r i ~ l r 0 1 ' u n c o n q u c r a h i l i t y . A l t hougl i some-
times t h c MamlCiks had t o s t c p ha c kwa r d, but . i l l 1302 N;lsir g a v e
t h e Mongol g o v e r n o r s u c h a c l - us hi ng ~ I ~ f e a t t l ~ i ~ t no Mongijl d a r e d
t o l ook t owa r d Egypt a f t c r t h a t . I n 1304, I l l j i y t C~ Khu~l5h;111cl5
( 1304- 1310) s o n 01 Ar ghon ( 1284- 1291) s u c c c c d c d Gh5zcln ( 1 29.5-1 304) ;
he c s t a h l i s l i ed d i p l o ~ n a t i c r e l a t i o n . ; w i t l i Na s i r 1>11t r ; ~r - r i e ~l h i s
e nmi t y ; I S Iic t r i c t l t o g a i ~ ~ t l ~c. I i el p o f I ~ I I I . O ~ ( - ; I I I Ki t t g~. : ~ f i ; ~ i n s t I I ~ I I I .
His successor Abu ~;:ld i l l k h a l ~ ( 1310- 13353 was s i n c c r c a nd t o some
e x t c n t u r r a i d o f Na s i r . Hc d i d not l i i nf i a g a i n s t t h e Eg y p t i a n
S u l t 3 n .
4
The o t h c r Mong6l ki ngdom o f t h a t p v r i o d was t h a t o f C l i i ~ ~ ~ ; z KIt;in's
d y n a s t y . T h c i r Ki ng was t hc3 Kh:ir~ o f t l ~ c ( ; o l ~ l c ~ ~ l l o r ~ l ~ ~ , w h o s c rei j i rl
s p r c a d o v e r S i b e r i a and s o u r h c r n p ; l r t o f Ru s s i a . 'l'hc t wo blon!:ol
Ki ngs a l wa y s [ ought t o s c t h c r . The Ki ng o f Go l ~ l c n Ho~' r l c c xt e nt l c d
ha nds o f f r i e n d s h i p t owa r d t l r c S u l t a n of Llgypt s o t h a t he mi ght
5
be t h c i r f r i e n d a g a i n s t t h c i r ~ O C o f t h e llo15gli t l yn; i st y.
1
I.anc-I' oo Lc, S t a n l e y : Me di e va l . I ndi : l L I I I L ~ C ~ MO ~ I : I I I I I I I B ~ C I I ~~ I111I ~- c
(New Yor k: t l a s k e l l l l ous c I ' ul ~l i I , 1 . 137- 8.
4
I n K l n : - ~ - . A 1 ' [ bar wa ... l ) ; w~n ~. . . . :I ~ 1-Mullt:i~l;i w; <l Kl i ah; ~~. (Nc-i r u t : 1127
ti1 K i t B I ) a 1 L ~ ~ b n h n t , I I . ~ . ) , Vol . V , pp.
-
Du r i n g t h e Mamltik r e i g n , Ar meni a was r e p e a t e d l y a t t a c k e d by t h e
Eg y p t i a n t r o o p s . They c a p t u r e d marly Ar~l ~cl n f o r t r c s s c s . Ar l ~ ~ a n
compr or ni scd o n t h e payment o f .I i zyah ~ t o t h c l i g y p t i a n S u l t 3 n . Iiut
s o o n t h e y r e b e l l e d a nd h e l p e d t h e Ho ~ l g o l s a g a i n s t t h e Su l t ? i n .
Ultimately t h c y we r e d e f e a t e d and a g r e c d t o pay t a x e s .
1
Th e r e wc r e good p o l i t i c a l r c 1 : i t i o n s bc t wc c n t h e S u l t Zn oC l i gypt
a nd mos t o f t h e Eu r o p e a n Ki ngs . E s p e c i a l l y t h e c o u r t o f NS s i r
gr ew i n t o a p l a c e whi c h tl i p l o ma t 5 ; I ~ I J an1ha5>ador s iron1 d i i c e r e n t
c o u n t r i e s v i s i t e d f r e q u e n t l y wi t h p r c s c n t s and l e t t e r s Crom t h e i r
k i n g s a nd r u l e r s . 'Thc Lur opc a n k i n g s and b i s h o p s , d i s a p p o i n t e d
f r om c r u s a d e s , e x t e n d e d t h c h a n d s o f f r i e n ~ l s h i p t o wa r d N i s i r and
r e q u e s t e d hi m t o t r e a t C h r i s t i a n s wi t h g e n e r o . r s i t y and g i v e t1lc111
d i f l ' c r c n t k i n d s o f c o n c e s s i o n s . I'ope J o h n X X l l s c n t :I l e t t e r t o
N B s i r i n 1327 a s k i n g hi m t o t r e a t t h e C h r i s t i a n s o f Ea s t wi t h
'>
'.
b e n e v o l e n c e a nd c a r c . NBs i r a c c e p t e d h i s r e q u e s t .
A s i m i l a r l e t t e r was s c n t b y Ch a r l e s 1 V ( 1322- 28) t h e Ki ng 01-
Fr a n c e t o NZ*i r i n 1377 a b o u t r h c uo1f ; l l . c o f t h c ( : I I I . ~ > I i ; l ns
r c s i d i n ~ ~ I I h i s s u l t a n a t e . 3
A t r ? : l t y w ; ~ s c o n c l u d e d he t wc e n t 11r 1 l npcr or o f Cons t . ~ n t i n o p l c ; ~ n d
S u l t a n Na s i r t o d e f e n d t l ~ c i r t c r l - i t o r i e s ir-om t h c 0t t o111; 11r 1 ' 1 1 1 . h ~
who wc r c g r o wi n g c o n s t a n t l y s t r o n g e r a b o u t t h a t t i me i n As i a
Mi nor .
1
I n t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Mamlnk r e i g n , t h e d; i ngcr o r C h r i s t i a n and
Mongi5l i n v a s i o n t h r e a t e n e d s t a b i l i t y a s we l l a s s a f e t y o f t h e i r
ki ngdom. But a f t e r d e f e a t i n g t hem i n many b a t t l e s , t h e MnmlGks
we r e a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h a s t r o n g kingdo111 and t h e y p a i d a t t e n t i o n
l ~ u i r , o p . c i t . pp. 23- 1.
' ~ t i y a , Az i z S u r y a l : 1: t and Ar af i on (1.e i p z i g : Ko ~ r ~ ~ r ~ i s s o n s v c r i ; ~ g
F.A. Dr o c k h a u s , 1 ! , 3 8 ~ ~ ~ - 5 4 ' 3 7 -
' ~ u i r , o p . c i t . p. 1 4 2 .
4 ~ a n c - ~ o o l c , A l l i s t o r y o f .- . . I i ~ y p t . . .- .
p. 310.
t o wa r d c o n s t r u c t i v e wor k.
- .
2 . A1)MINLS'I'KATION IN LGYP'I' AhLI SYRIA 1INI)I:II '1'111: b w b 1 1 . U ~ ~
The Sul LSn was t h e l l ead oE t l r c S t a t e ; h e was : ~ s s i s t c ~ c I I l y d i f f e r e n t
' N&h a l S u l l a n a h ' -- ( v i c e r o y s ) . 1)elow t h e N5'ch a 1 S u l t a n ; ~ l i , -~ ... was
t h e p o s t o f v i z i e r . I t was ; I t r a d i t i o n a l p o s t , i n h c r i t c c l t'rom
t h e Ab b a s i d c a l i p h a t e , whi c h l o s t i t s i mp o r t a n c e in Maml ~i k p e r i o d .
Fo r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , h i s d u t y r e ~n a i ~i e c l t o c x c c u t e t l r c
o r d e r o f t h e S u l t a n a n d h i s nl ' chs . I n t h e y e a r 1 3 2 7 , Su l t Rn
- ~
NS s i r a h o ' l i s h e d t h e p o s t whi rl 1 was r c c s t ; r h l i s l i e d i 1f t t . r hi m i n
1
1 3 4 3 by h i s s u c c e s s o r . I n t l l c h i g h r a n k o l ' f i c . i a l s , t h c r c we r e
a numher o f g o v e r n o r s ( Wu l i t s i n g . w a l 7 ) o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t its.
-- - .
The mos t i mp o r t a n t o f t hcm was t h e wi l f ~~. . ol ' Ca i r o . Egypt was
d i v i d c d i n t o d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c e s and e a c h p r o v i n ~ c was l o o k e d
a f t e r by a w 5 l T ( g o v e r n o r ) . Onl y Al e x a n d r i a was j i ovcr ncd by a
N5bh w l S u l x l a h d u e t o i t s s t r a t c g i c i mp o r t a n c e .
2
- -- -
Iri S y r i a t h c r c we r e s i x p r o v i n c e s , namcl y: Al c p p o , Il umal ~, Da ma 5c . u~;
S a f a d , a n d Kar k; and e a c h 1i;id ;I .~ N8't.h ; I ] Su l --.. t-;lriali. 'l'lic ri ach .~ -- .. o f
Damascus was s o i mp o r t a n t t h a t somet i mc s h e w: l s c ; ~ l l e c l NYel) a l
Sh5n1 i . e . v i c e r o y o f S y r i a .
3
a . I ' - m y . - . The r o l e o f t h c ar my wr i s v e r y i mp o r t a n t i l l t h i s
a g e . I t was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s . a ) The Roy:ll MamlOks,
who we r e f r e e d me n o f t h e r c i g n i n x s u l t a l l o r o f t h c f o r me r s u l t a n ,
1,) Tlle Amf r ' s Maml i l ks, c ) ~.~ Ai ri nd .-.... ~~ . a 1 *li -. - - a c o r p s O F f r c c , i . e .
non-Marnluk c a v a l r y . ' f hc s t r e n g t l l o f t l i e c i r n ~ y i n t h c whol e Mamluk
Kingdom was a s f o l l o ws : t h e KoynL Mamlfih 10,000; f h e ~ m ~ r ' s
l q a l q s h ; l n d i : _ Subh . 31 _--_ ~ ' s h a 7 ( C a i r o : I I Kut uh : I ] Khat l i wi yal r , 1!133;
Vol . I V , p. 2 . ; M a q r ~ z ~ : A ~ ~ .. . KIi i t nx ( Ca i r o : Mu ; ~s s a s ; ~l i a 1 I l a l a h i
wa Sl i ur a nka uha , 1 9 3 3 ) . Vol . TI , 1). 305.
7
' Qal t l s handl : op. c i t . Vol . 1 1 1 , p. 4 0 4 ; Vo1. V , . 2 4
"
3 .
] h i d . Vol . XTI, p. 6.
A I - ~ ~ I I I I t h e above iucnt i or ~vd ~. cr : l ~l : r r iirmv, t h e r e wr r v ;lux i 1 i:lry
t r o o p s ul' n:lt i v e s , c . g . ' I' urko~~~; un a1111 Ku r d i s l ~ sl l r pl ncr ds; I{c~douin
)
t r i h c s ; S y r i u - l ' a l c s t i ~ ~ ; ~ i a ~ l a11d 1. cl ~anesc t r i b e s . '
. -. .
11. ~ . Just . - . . i c e . . The Marnlnk s u l ~ r l n s pi^ i d gr c; l t a t t e n t ion t o tlre
i n s t i t u t i o n oC J u s t i c e , arid or p, ani zct l i t i n inally clcp:irtincrlts. For
t h v f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r e was pub1 i c col11.t i n which f our cl:lis .. - . ( j r t dgc
wcre appo i n t e d representing I ' or ~r s cl 1o1~1 s o f j r t r i spr udcn1. c. A 1 I
c i v i l and c r i mi n a l c a s e s wherc wi t i ~ e s s c s wcre needed, used t o l)c
br ought i n such c o u r t s .
As f a r ;is t h c army was c o n c e r n c d , t h e r c were s c p; l r a t c q'<J:s ~ . f o r
them c a l ; cd j udges o f army ( c l l ~&i l ~ a1 C~ s k a r ) . Tllcy dVa l r t l i c c n s c s
bet ween ;irrny and ar my, and army and c i v i l i an.
Tlrcrc was a n a n o t h e r c o u r t c : ~ l l e d ; I S 'F.l;tl~hamaln ---~. .~ - : # I .~ F.1:1;51i1n' .. . . ( t l ~ c
c o u r t f u r g r i e v a n c e s ) . 'The S ~ ~ l r i i n hi ms el l - I I S C L I t o s i t i n t h i s
c o u r t . I t s p o s i t i o n seems t o be 1 i ke t l r c , ; I ~ I ~ I < ~ : I l I . P I , I I - C, OVC\ I -
d i s p u t e s among o f f i c i a l s and p u b l i c werc de c i de d in t h i s c o u r t .
Evcry Mond;ly and Thur s day, t l l c !;ull,Srr h e l d t h i s c o u r t . Al l Four
:i
qi i cl l s u s e J t o be l ) r es cnt t o a s s i s t him. Ni i i r s t a r t e d I r o l d i ~~) :
- ~ .~~
open c o u r t on e vc r y Monday i > ~ ~ < l ' l ' In~i ~. sdi ~y, i n wl l i cl ~ hc s a t ;1101le.
4
Many petty d i s p u t e s were dcc i dcd try t h e M111jras ~ . i l ) ( inspector
genc.ra1) , e s p e c i a l l y t h c r a s c s wlle r e not I I I L I ~ I I i n q u i r y was ~ ~ c e d e d
a per sor i Si l ct l s u i t in h i s c o u r t , whi l e i i r u l ~ t ; ~ ~ i I ~ ~ - o r h i s a s s i s t ; ~ n t
used t o 11; l t rol i n t h e s t r c c t and whc.rcvi.r hr- round any o b j e c t i o n -
a l ) l e e v e n t , h e t ook n o t i c e and decidc:tl tllc 111; l t t er .
c . . I i i t cr ~i r i l .~~ Pol i t i c nl Colrdit .. ~ i on. ' I' l~c i n t r r n n l p o l i t i c a l c ondi -
t i o n of' t h e Mamltik Sul t : +n: ~t c was not ;11ways r he sn111e. 111 t h e
0c.g i n ~ l i n g , Mongol i nvas i oi l c r c ; ~ t c d ;I h i nd o l :inarc-hy, :lnd t he n
suhsecl ~r ent changes of s u l t i i n s r e s u l tcrl i n s t a b i l i t y i l l t l ~ c c o u n t r y .
Si n c e t l r cr e was no a c c e p t e d r u l e o r syst cl n of i n h c r i tcrlc.c, f o r
t h e appointment of new s u l r S n , a l t e r t hc. dc2; ~t l i 01. c vc r y
-
I 1 I I u1111111cr oS a11111it i ous Pl;i~illfihs a11d Ai n i r s s t r upp, l ed
t o i : l I l t 1 1 1 - < ~ power , and new t y p r s ol' d i s t u r l ~ n ~ i c ~ c s t o o k p I ; ~ c c . -
Only l 3i i i l >ars, Qal2wr7n and, N a i l . i n h i s t h i rd r u l e , wer e ;il)lc2 t o
pr ovi t l c s t a b l e gover nment . An c l t l l at i s why t h c i r rei):n cnj uycd
academi c and economi c p r o g r e s s .
T h e s o c i e t y i 11 Mil~lilrik e r a was di vi r l r d i n t o I I I ~ I I ~ c l n s s ~ s : 1: i r s t ,
t h e r e wc.rc t h e M;mlEks w l r c ~ n u w ;issulned t l i at t he y were l ) or n trr
r u l e . ' I' llcir nla i n i n t e r e s t was i n governnl ent arid W;I r s . '1'hc.y
l ooked upon t h e s ons of t l ~ e s o i l r . ont ct r npt uo~~sl y arid 11ardl y nl i xe~l
wi t h thc>ln. 'l'hcy ;ilways pr c. i cr r cd t o inarry : I I I I ~ I I ~ t 11c. i r own c l a s s .
. .
I h c r c wa!; ;I b i g gall I ~et wccn t l l c r ul in!: c l a s s o f M;11111iiks and tilt, i.rs
oS t h e i nhahi tarit.;.
' l l , r ~ ' 1. ai111T~at1: A 1 - - t!ishah ~~
i.i' ~. l I S . ~ l o : liar a1 I , 1g76) ,
f'. 18.
2
I I BI I l y:s , Muhamnlatl h i n A1) m; l d: I ~~~- I ~ I Z L I I I L T ~ . ([:a i r o : I . ; ~ I ~ J I ~ ~ I I :I 1
' rii1Ti waI Tar j ar nah, o , I . I I , 1 . 2 3 5 .
By t l r c s i dc o i t h c Mamlnks t11cl.c was : ~ n o t h c r s c c t i o n s:ll lccl
' t u r 1 1 n 1 c 1 1 ( ah1 .. . . ~ ~ a1 hm51nah) .. .. .. .- . 'I'll i s inc. ludecl peopl e empl oyed i n
d i f f c r c n t o f f i c c s , l i k e s e c r e t s r i c , s , ! u r i s t s , ' ~ ~ l a m ~ , and l i t c r a r y
I I I CI I . 'I'lris c l a s s was t h e conr1cc.t i n s l i n k hetwec:rr tllc. r u l i n g
Man~lillis a n d t h c i r s u h j c c t s . Ma~nliiks rospcL. t c~d '111 ain5, a s fro111
them t hey l e a r n e d r e l i g i o n and somct iincs t hey wer c a f - r a i d LI T
thcnr J u c t o t h e i r i ~r f l u o n c t : i n p ~ ~ l i l i c .
1
'l'lcsc? 1 1 a111 llevvI. sp;1 ] . < > < I
,
c r i t i c i s n r when t he y saw a 11rc!acli 0 1 ' c l e a r religious i ~ l j u ~ r t i on. -
'Tlrc t h i r t l gr oup o f p e o p l e was t h a t o f t r ; ~ c l ~ . r s arrd I I I C I . L . ~ I ; I I I ~ s . llut?
t o i ~r t c r r s c t r n d c a c t i v i t y i n t h c p e r i o d , t l ~ i s c l a s s was ver y
r i c l i , a ~ ~ c l ; I t t h e samc t i me pr ey LIT d i l ' f c r c ~ ~ t t i r xcs ;111d, s o ~ ~ ~ e t i ~ n c ~ s ,
o f c - o n f i s c a t i o n t o o .
on ;I vi l 1a~: c. which was p a i d h y t h e whol e v i l l i ~ g e i r r r s l ~ e c t i v c ol:
or r e' s income l e v e l . 1bn 'fcrirniyali gavex i t t h e i ~i i ~nc o r ' ; I -~~ I mnz5l L...~.~ i l r ~ .
# I
1 ~- ~ n ~ ~ s l ~ t ; ~ r ; h ~ l ~ ' , -~~ . . . .. i . o . j o i n t o r common i n j u s t i c e .
1
a . .~ ( ; u i l d . . . Mo s t l y t h e s r a r t s l n c n o r o n e a r ~ d t h e same t r a d c I ivc!el
i n Lhc same q u a r t e r s . I n C a i r o , t h e r e wcr c many c l u ; ~ r t c r s whi ch
we r e o c c u p i e d hy o p a r t i c111; l r gro111) 0 1 ' c r a f t illllvn. l <ut L11er.e was
no g u i l d i n t h c s c n s c t h a t t h e y c. oul d o l ) t a i n ; I c o r p o r a t i v c s non no-
p o l y o r t h e y c o u l d f i x t h e p r i c e or t h e i r p r o d u c t s t o t l i c. i r
g r e a t e s t s a t i s f a c t i o n , 3 s was thc. c ; ~ s ~ : i n Wc s t c r n l i ~ ~ r o p c . I , ; ~ p i d u s ,
who h; l s p ~ . e s e n t e d a we l l - d c >c u ~~~c , ~i t ( s t 1 s t u d y o r S y r i a n : I I I ~ Eg y p t i a n
t owns i n t h e Yamluk p e r i o d , d c n i o d the, c ~ x i s t c n c c ol' a n y h i n d o l
7
g u i l d i n Musl i n1 s i t i e s o f t h a t t imc:
1 . Town\ . The i mp o r t a n t towns o l t h y Fl , i r~l uk r e g lmc wc.1 c, (:,I i I o ,
A l c x a t ~ t l r i n , l l a mi e t t a , Aswan, Ai d l r a l ~, Cl ~az: i , I ~ ; I I I I ; I S ~ L I S , Al c p p o ,
I I , ' T r i p o l i , c t c . The f amc~us t r : ~ v c l l e t . 1l1ri l { ; ~ ! Bt , s l i
a
( d. 1 3 7 7 ) h a s gi ve n, hc a ut i 1' t r l d e s c r i l ) t io11 o f t l i c i r c c o n o ~ n i c ; ~ n d
sot : i ; ~ l c o n d i t i o n s i n J i c a t i ~ ~ g t l i ei r importance, i l l h i s book
4
' I ' u h l ~a h . -.~-~ ; I I ---- N U Z ; ; ~ ~ ' . -- Ile a l s o inent i o n s t h c d o c t o r s and sc~Iivli11-s
whom lie v i s i t e d i n t h c s c c i t i c ' s . Ilc r e p o r t s 11;iving l i s t c n c ' d t o
Ihn T; ~i n~i ycl l i d e l i v e r i n g F r i d a y >eri non i n t h e mosque o f l ) i ~nl a s c us ,
5
t hough some wr i t c r ' s r c j c c t t h i s r o p o r t 011 t h c g r o u n d t l i ; i t i t was
n o t kl ~own o f hi m t1i;it h e c.vc.r d c l i v c * ~. r d t h e l l r i d a y s c n n o ~ ~ ; nrorc-
o v e r , ; i t t h e t i me l h n l3afii!ali v i s i t e d 1)amascus I I , it111
l ' t l ' l ~c ter'nl ' g u i l d ' cl cs i gl r at c~d :r imc~tl i c v ; ~ l uni vrr ol - c r a l . t s ~ncu o r
t r ; i t l t ? ~. s wh i c l ~ s u p c r v i st rd L I I c . wor h o f i t s ~n~cr nher s i n o ~ . J c ~ r t o
u p h o l d s r ; l nda r t l s a n d , Tor t l ~ c same ~. c * a s o n , 1 ; ) i d down c ( . r t ; ~ i n
r i l l e s a ~ ~ d inaclt' arrwngemc: nt s L'or t h e c >d u c a t i o n o l a l i l r r c ~ ~ t i c c s
; I I I L I t h c i r- i n i t i a t i o n i n t l ~ e u n i o n . 'l'lic 1;ui IJ ~ 1 r o t c ~ c 1 c:d i t s
~nc. n~l ) er s a g i ~ i l ~ s t c o n l p c t i t i o n and i n Cl r r i s t i a n :IS w r l l i s i n
l s l a mi c c o u n t r i e s , wcls c l o s e l y i.1.latc.d w 1111 r cl i p i o ~ ~ . "
l . ; ~ p i d u s , I r a M: b111.sI ;,. ll..-- i ~ n ( : i t ~~ - i v s ~ 1 1 1 the, I . ; l t <, r Mi ~l cl l c
. -----
~ ~ ~ I i c l c : r v r i ~ v c ~ r s i t y P r e s s , 19%7~7, - j ) I q. - 96 , 98, 101.
41hn l <n f f l r a l ~: o p . c i t . p. L4, 2h-LC), ?] , 1(1, 5: .
Taimiyall was i mpr i s oned i n t h e I ) an~ascus f o r t .
I
c . 11111ac-t - - o f t h e ~ Cr us ades . . . ' l' hc c' ~.us;~clc.s dctcpi y i n r l ~ ~ c : n c e d t h e
s oci ; i I ; ~ n d intellectual l i l - e ol ' bot h t h e p a r t i e s . I l er I >vr t I l ~ , ; ~ t o n
wr i t e s i l l h i s book ' Econo~ni c l l ~ s t u r y o l l i l ~r ope ' t h x t " t l l ~: c r u s ; ~ d c s
.. ~- . ~ . .~ ~ ~ .~~
came a s ;i heaven1 y - s c r ~ t o p p ~ r t u n i t y t o c s l ; ] I ) l is11 l' i rmccr Soot 1101 ds
i n t l l c nl r ct i ng p l a c e o f Eas t a11d W~ s t . "' A<; t l l c d u r a t i o ~ ~ of ' peacc
was l ungcl - t l r a ~ ~ t h e p c r i o d o f war , Musl ims and Cl r r i s t i i 1112; r n i x ~ d
f r e c l y on s o c i a l , economi c and ; ~ c a d e ~ ~ l i c l cvc: l , which r c s u l t ~ ~ l i n
1r111cl1 g i v e arid t a k e .
..
Egypt and S y r i a becalnc t h e ccnt 1. c of l c ; ~r . ni ng cl ~l ri rrg t l ~ c blarr~liih
p e r i o d . A number o f e d u c a t i a n ; ~ l i n s t i t u t e s ( ~n; ~dr as: ~h. ; ) ~ worc
3
e s t a l ) l i s l l c d b y t h e Sul r i i n in t l i i i c r e n t c i t i e s ol' tlrc hingdoln.
' I' hcrc wcr c s p e c i a l i z e d t e a t - h e r s ISor c;lcll >; u h j e c t . 'l'lrcy used t o
g i v e c e r t i i ' i c a t e s t o t h e i r s t ~ ~ d c n t s wl1c. 11 t hc y c - o ~ n p l ~ t e d t l l c i r
s t u d y of' t h e s u b j e c t . 'l'lrc val uo nl ' t h i s ~l egr ec- t l cpcndt ~d on tlrc
fame ol' t h e t c n c h c r llinlscl r .
'1 .
I'hc Ma~aliih Sul t , . i ni t ook i n t e r e s t
i n c o l I c c t i o ~ r oL books and c. ; t ; ~l )I i.;hlnrnt oC I i l ~ r ; i r i c s . ( : cncr al J y
ever y mat l ~. ; ~sal r .- - and nwsque had ;I v ~ I u ; ~ h l c l i h r a r y , ant1 tlrc,r.c wcr e
s cp: r r : ~t e I i br r r r i c s a l s o . S\ l l t , l ~r ();115wiln enric.lrcxd Iri s L i l ~r - a r y
wi t h tlrc hooks o f colnmentl1.y 011 t l l c ( ~ i i r ~ n , t h c T r ; r J i t i 011. ; of ~ I I C
Pr o p h e t , j u r i s p r u d e n c e , l angu; l gt h, I I I ~ J i c i n e , 1 i t e r a t i t r e , : ~ n d
1
SI I ; I I . ; I ~I . I ~I LI TI I , A.S. ( l i d. ) : ~ ' I ' a f ~s ~t - :;II;I i h11 a1 - - 12; 1%1n . . ~- - ' hn ' I ' : I ~I I I ~Y: I \ I - .
(l%lr. i~nantli: I I Qayyi i n; ~) ~, I , I 30- 31.
1
"l l e; i t on, 1 1 . : . . . I:,conomic ,. .. ... t l ~- i s t ~. or y . 0 1 - -- . liurol3c (New Yorh: I l a r l ~( \ r and
Row, 1!1,48), 1). I d- .
36-
As l ~i i r , !i. A , I:. : . A 1 - - - :\$r . -. a1 M; I I I I FI I Th T ( ( : ; I I r o: 1)ar a1 N; I I I c I : I I I :I I
- ~ - - ~ .
' Ar ~ ~ b i a l r , I ' Jh5) , pp. f3i.I1Sl.
- ,<,:.-- . ...
4 ; ~ l l s l ~ ; ~ ~ l i : o . c i t . ~ o l . X ~ V , 11,'. 3 2 . , ..* ..*I -. ..., a,:
.- \ R.
I. r~
/ '
Sl rcddi ng l i g h t on t h e i n t e l l e i t u ; ~ l c 1 i ~ ~ ~ ; r t c ol' t h e ;rp,c, I . . l l i t t i
r e r a r k s , "Vicwed i n t c l l e c t u : ~ l l y ~ I I L % clrt i1.c Ay y 1 1 1 ) i d - M; ~ ~ n l i l h pcr i ot l
wils one o f c o l n p i l ; ~t i on r a t h e r tIr;111 o f o l - i g i r ~ i ~ t i on. Ne ve r t l r c l c s s ,
i ) : ~mas c~. ~s ;in11 Ca i r o , especially a f t e r t h e J c s t l ~ ~ i - t i o n o l Haghdad
and t h e tli s j n t e g r a t i o n o r Mosl em Sp;l i n , r emai ned t h e ecluc;it i or r ; ~l
and i l l t el l o c t u a l c c n t r c o f t h e Arab wor Id. 1 1 c s : r o s I - o ~ ~ n d c ~ l
and r i c h l y endowed i n t h e s c two c i t i e s s e r v e d t o i.orrbL*rve and
1
t r i l r r ss~i t Arah s c i c n c c and l e a r n i n g . " &
. .
I r a n s l a t - i o n o f Cr eek i d e a s and p l ~ i l os ophy i n t h r cal - l i c r ;rgcs o r
I s l a m c r c x t c d a c o n t i n u o u s s t r uggl c arl~ong t11c. o r i g i ~ ~ a l Muslim
t l r i ~ ~ k e r s f o r many c e n t u r i e s t o conic. 'l'hc s t r ul : gl c hct wccn t h e
-
one - s iclccl r a t i o n a l i s t t endency c l - c ; ~ ~ c d by t l ~ e Greek p11 i losplry a ~ ~ d
t h c c o ~ n p r c l ~ e n s i v e a t o mi s t i c ; ~ n d i ~ ~ u ~ i t i vc qua 1 i t y of I s l ; ~ r n i c t l ~ o u g h t
c o n t i n u e d i n t h i s per j ot 1 a l s o . I n si i f i sm ... and p h i l o s o p l ~ y c e r t a i n
s i g n i S j c ; ~ l ~ t devel opment s t ook place. Alcpllo was cc311t 1.c o f thcs
d o c t r i n e 0 1 - i 11 ~ mi n a t i on ( i s hr ' l cl ) . ~ ~ ~ ~~. 'l'hc I ' ; I I I I ~ L I S s a i n t i hn ' ~ ~ ' a l l ;
( 1 104-1240) s p e n t h i s l a s t days i n S y r i a . S a i ~ ~ t wor s hi p s p r c ; ~ ~ l
and became common, f o r t h e c o~r dc ~nn: ~t i on uC whi ch t h c fad i c nl
t h i n h e r ;ind reformer I hn T; r i ~ n i y ; ~ l ~ wr ot c many hugc vol umes. Ilc
a l s o c r i t i c i s e d t h e Gr eek phi l os phy :~ncl l o g i c .
I n t h e f i e l d ol' geogr ; i l ) I ~y, a i ~ ~ l ~ n h e r o r v a l ~ ~ : i l ) l c I l o ~ Ls wcr c wr i t t cr r
i n t h e p e r i o d , most i mp o r t ; ~n t l)t:ir~g ~ t ; l L L wT l n . . - . . . i l l . . ~ ~ 1 3 1 1 l < l ~ r 1 ~-~ - ( ' l ' ahl cs o f
t l ~ c count r i c s ) by A ~ I I ~ I ( ? 7 - 2 ) i n whirlr hc ari : ucs Tor
t h c sphericity o f t h c e a r t h and t h a t , i f a pcrholl t r ; i v c l s ar, ound
i t 11e wi l l e x p e r i e n c e g a i n o r l o s s o r orrc tl:iy. 1 1 1 the. words of
P. I(. I l i t 1.i "' This Sy r i a n : ~ u t h o r was 11t'rl1;1l"i 1 0 Ilc cons i cl crcd t h c
g r c a t c s t 11i s t or i ogr a l ) ha r of t h c p e r i o d ir1.csl1ci.t i vc o f I I ; I I i o n ; ~ l i t y
l
o r r e l i g i o n . " Anot l ~c r contemporary of A I j u I I , I I I 1 1 1 T n
Uirnasllq i ( d. 1. 326) pr oduced :I c o s r ~ ~ o ~ r c i p l ~ i ca I t r c a t i s c Nu k l r l i ; ~ l ~ ~ p-- a I
a h I ' A . &-.- ~ 1 ~- I - ~ - ~ I I3al1r ~- (r. Iioicc p i e c e o r : i l l t i ~r l cs r e l a t i n g
-
t h e m; t rvel s o f iallti and s e ; ~ ) which i s ~ o t s o p,oo<i ; I S ' I ' ; ~ c y i l n i n
--
i t s 111athe1llatica 1 a s p e c t , b u t r i c h e r i l l i t l y e ~ I , I i 1 1 ~ r 1 ; i n d
e t h n i c i nl or mat . i on. ~ ; l q h t ' s ( I . 1?2!11 Mu'jaln d l I ~ ~ I I ~ ; I I ~ . i s ;I geo-
gr apl l i cal d i c t i o n a r y on wl t i cl ~ ~ a f d i (I?!lir-1303) pr c s c nt c d ;I
s u l ~ p l cmcnt ar y.
t h e suppl c n~c nt ol ' t h i s book undcr
Cl os cl y r r l a t e d t o hi ogr aphy i s 11
h i s t o r i a n s oF t h e p c r i o d a r c Abul
( d . 1 3 3 2 ) . a l ~ a z r i (cl. 1339), a1
. Allrung tlrc out s t ; ~ n d i I I ~
-
( d . l 3 3 2 ) , N u w a i r i
-
i ( J . 1 0 I I I I I a1
- -
1:;twwt.i ( I . 1323) , c t c . Abul l : i d>' s work on l i i s t o r y i s ;I condcrl-
s a t i o n ; i r t d c o n t i n u a t i on o f the! voltlrninous 11 i s t o r y 01- I 1 ) n ; I 1
~ t h i r . ( [ I . 1234) . So p o p u l ; ~ r was l l i s l i i s t or y t h a t i t was
)
cant i nued, surnrnarizcd and a h r idpccl 11y l a t c r wr i 1cr. s. - 1b11
K ; I ~ I I T I . ' S I . 1373) -.. ; ] I Hid:y;~l~ ~- w:l'l -~ N L I I : ~ ~ I I . .. .... i!; ;I va I I U ; I I I I ~ t r ( ! f cr en~. ~%
hook on i l a ~ n i c h i s t o r y . l t s f o ~ ~ r t c c n t h vol u~nc i.; r c1; l t r d t o
a c t i v i t i t \ s ; c s p e c i ; ~ l l y t h e e i g h t h v o l ~ ~ ~ n c , wh i c h i s i mp o r t a l l t l. or
al l y r - cs c; l r ch on f i n a n c i a l syst em of l:,gypt i n t h a t period.
These i l c ve l opmc r l t s i n c c l uc a t iorl ;111<i I e a r n i n g made I:fiyl)f : ~n, l S y r i : ~
of t l ~ e M:mluk age p e e r l e s s among t h e l ; ~ n < l o f l s l i i n ~ , a t t l r ; ~t tinti,.
'The blamliiks knew t h a t t l ~ c s t ; l l ~ i ! i t y ol . t h e i r r ci y, n arid sl l cc- ess
o r t h e i r r u l e depcndecl on t h e s t r c ~ i g t h o r e c ~ ) r ~ o n ~ y , a l o n g w j t h
t h e st l . c11gt l 1 01' t h r ar mv. I < c ; ~ I l y s l ) c. aki ~i g tlrc* I ; ~ ~ t c r ' s st r ' 11gt l 1
was 0 ; l s e ~ l on t h e 1-ormcr. I t W; I S I ' or t h i s r ci l s on t h a t t h e y t r i c J
t o exploit Ti l l l y t h c s o u r c e s ol: wc ; ~ l t l r , illid d c v c l o p ; ~ g r i c u l t ~ ~ r ~ ,
t r a d c , and i n d u s t r y t o e n r i c h t h c c o u n t r y ; ~ n d t h c govcr nal cnt .
Ag r i c u l t u r e r e c e i v e d f i r s t r a t ( . i r n p o r t : ~r ~c c i n t h a t ; ~ g c , ; I S i t
was c o n s i d e r e ~ l t h e milin s o u r c e 0 1 ' wc3; l l 111. l ' hcy we r e aw: l re t l ~ ; ~ t
t h e l i v i n g o f i n h a b i t a n t s d c p c n ~ l r ~ l on r l g r i c u l t u r : ~ l p r o J u c t .
I n d u s t r y :rnd t r a d e we r e a l s o l i mi t e i l T O t h e c3xt cr l t o S ; ~ ! ; r i c u l -
~ U I - a 1 p r o ~ l ~ c t s .
'They o r d e r e d t h e ~ n e a s u r e me ~ ~ t 0 1 ' t l l c Ni l e a ~ ~ d s u r v e y O F 1:111cl; arid
r e d i s i r i l > u t i u ~ i o f l a n d was c a r r i c ~ d Oy t h e t wo blamliik S111[5ri.; -
t ! u s n n ~ ~ ~ d d ~ ~ i ~ 5 j i 1 1 a n d N;is i r Mut!;iiom:~d b i n Qa lqwiln.
1
In t l ~ c . :Ige o f
Nas i r , a number oT big arid s ma l l cla~ns wc r c c r c c t e d and I I I ; I I I ~ b i g
c a ~ i a l s we r c dug o u t .
2
A I - ~ I I I C I I ~ ~ t s Fo l- t he sup11 l y o I h c 1 t c r
q u ; ~ l i t y s c c t l s we r c ; 11so ma d e . 3 111 most c a s e s thc3 p r o d u c t i on
e x c e e d e d t h e n e e d 0 1 ' t h c c o u n t r y . So tile S u l t a n I ~ c l l ) c d S y r i ; ~ : I I I J -
I l i j a z wi t h Il uge q ~ ~ a n t i t i e s o r ' I ' l ~c r e we r e g r a ~ r ; ~ r i c s i l l
Egypt wl i crc s u r p l u s p r o d u i c was p r c s c r v e d , wl ~i c l l w ; ~ s cor~sunlecl o111y
5
i l l 11;ll.d t i l nes.
- -
' ~ a ~ r i z i : Sul f i k. Val. I [ , p. 0 I t i r : 1 . c i t . VoI . X I V ,
I). O!I.
5
-
A I I , K I I X I T I i n ~ i : ?ut, d;th . - K;,sllS :11 M ; ~ I I I ~ I i k [ c ; I ~ r o : : \ I
bl;1tl)5h i l l . ~u111hur i al 1, 18941 , 1 1 . . 122.
'I'hc v a r i e t y of g r a i n s grown i n l i gypt : ~ n d S y r i : ~ ; i t t h a t t i r ~ ~ c wc-rc'
wh e a t , b a r l e y , r i c e , gr a m, h e a n , c t c . ' Suga r c unc w ; ~ s c u l t i v n t c d
i n l i gypt s i n c e t h c h c g i n n i n g o f l s l a ~ n i c I l i s t o r y i n t h a t c o u n t r y .
I t s c u l t i v a t i o n i n c r e a s e d c o n s iclc.r:ih l y i n t h c Maml uk CT; I . 1'. K .
t l i t t i w r i t e s i n h i s book ' j l - i , ~t <m~y o f S~". I' t h a t "Ar-ab t r ; ~ i
de1. s i ~ ~ t r o d u c e d s u g a r c a n e f roln 1 1 l t l i : ~ 01. s o u t l ~ e r l s t c r n AS i a , w11cre
2
i t mus t ha ve o r i g i n a l l y grown wi l d . " ( : ot t on W; I S t l ~ c most conrmon
o f t h e t e x t i l e p l a n t s .
F r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s wc r c a l s o growl] i l l I n ~ v t ~ q u n n t i t i e s a11c1 ill
-
great v a r i e t y . Qa l q s h a n ~ l i f i i vc s d e t a i l o f cvcxr y h i n d o f f r u i t
3
and v c g t ' t ; ~b i e gr own i n Egypt a t t h a t . t irne. ' I M I I i s ~ r l r 211s
a nd c s p c c i a l l y Ni i s i r p a i d great a t tcxnt i on t owa r d t h c p1; 111t i l t i on
o f f r u i t f u l t r e c s a nd g a r d e n s . Pc o p l e wc r c s o i n t c r c s t c d i n
r a i s i n g g a r d e n s t h a t t owa r ds t h r c\nd o f N; i s i r ~ - e g i ~ n c , t h c r c we r e
one h u n d r e d and f i f t y g a r d e n s i n o n e L. i1.y. 'The ga r de l l s trl' a l -
~ a z f r a h we r e s c c o n d t o nonc i n t h e i r I , c a ~ ~ t y ; ~ n d y i c l d s .
. I
a . -- T ~ T ? -. .. Sys t e m. .~ The l a n d i n t h e bl ; ~~nl i i k r . c i g ~ ~ was d i s t r i 1 , u t e t l
among . Amirs . - . . . i n t h e form o f . iqt,.l'. . -~ I t W; I S i i f or m oS ; ~ J ~ n i n i s t r a t i v c
g r a n t . l l c r e wc s l l ; ~ l l I I S C t l i i s v e r y term, h e c a ~ r s c i l s 1:11ropr;111
c ol 1nt e r p: l r t feudalism o r f i c f i s h e l p f u l i n ~ l n d e r s t a ~ r d i n g i t ,
d
h u t hot11 a r c n o t t h e s amc. ' Ther e i s, l , as i c cl i Tf e r c r ~ c e l ) c t w ~ . c ~ ~
t h e t wo. Wc s11a11 ~ ~ S C I J S S i t i n c l i i ~ p t ~ ~ . V I wl l i l e c ~ a m i n i n ~ : 11111
'l'a i mi y a h ' s vi e ws a b o u t d i f f e r e n t f or ms o f cconomi c or gal l i z a t i o n s .
'['he mo s t i ~ n p o r t a n t IIOII-III~~ i t ; l r y <]I) I i g a t i o n s WII ich il I I I I I ~! ~' - 11;1cl TL)
i i n r e t u r n T o r t l ~ c henc: i j t . ; dcl . i vc: d 1-rnm r h c .. i q t a ~~.~ wer e
s11pvr vi si o11 of c u l t i v a t i o ~ ~ , i r r i g n L i o ~ ~ , d i s t r . i t ) u t i u ~ i o f h v s t
i t I l ~ s ~ r ~ i i : I I I I ~ I I :;ystt.!~n 01. I j g y p t ~ I I I : Oh:
~ ~. ~~
U n i v e r s i t y l ' r c s s , 1 7 ) , I . 5 2 .
I I : op. c i t . VOI . I V . 11. 5 0 .
5
N W I I : op. c i t . V u l . V I 1 1 , 1 . 2 0 1 ; 1' 01 i i i h : 011. < . i t .
I)['. !]-LO.
I , I . : I . c i t . 11. 70.
c . I : I I I i t r i t i o . Lief-ore : I S wc. 1 l :IS i n t h e I ~ r g i ~ r n i r r g o f
~ . . . .. ~~ . . ..
t h e bl i 11111j l h r e i g n , l i gypt i a n l ; ~ n J waz tl i v i d e d i n t o t we n t y l o u r p a r t s
gr ound oI p r o t e c t i o n . Ile w;lrrtcd t o pr ' c ~vc ~t t d i s o ~ t l c ~ r .ln(L l o o t l ng
-
t el l p ; ~ r t s I - or b o t l ~ i1111Trs . - - .. . . ; 1 1 r t 1 . ; l j n; i Li , .= arl e p a r t t o s a t i 5 1 . y c o ~ a p l a i ~ ~ t s
311d I . ( ~ I I I ~ I i ~ r i n g n i n e p a r t s t o l i i . h e l ~ t ; I S l ' cs i ' r ve l o lie ; ~ s s i j i r ~ c d i n
:i
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t h c for111 o i -~ icit,;' t o new t r o o p s . TIIC m : ~ j o r i t y o f t h e ~ i ~ mi r s ~ -.~-- w e r ~
n o t s a t i s l - i c c l wi t h t l l c s c p r o v i , i o ~ r s a ~ ~ d t h i s ~ : I S onc o f t l r i .
t l ~ a t t l r i s - rawh was ; I nr aj or I ' ; ~t . r , , r T o r . t h e wc ; ~hc ni r l g oT ar my i r r
l i gypt ;is i t d i d no good. Nor~c. g o t ; ~ r r a r e a o f 1;111t1 1 i ~r j : c r t h ; ~ ~ r I I C
Ira~l e a r l i e r , s o t h a t hc: mij:ht I > ( , si l t i s i i c t l . 0 1 1 t h e o t l ~ e r I I ~ I I I ~ :I
4
I ~ i g [ ' a r t of l a n d r e mn i n e ~ i u ~ r ~ l i s t r i i ~ ~ r t c ~ l .
I . .
1 0 1 d . VoI. I , p. 8 8 ; i d c ~ n . i t I S
I I J I I I ~ , N. : 01). c i t . Vol; V 1 T I T , 11-
2
~1aqrTz. L: - K t i t . - ~ ~ - L . L Vol . 1 , I 87- 88.
3 .
~ t l c ~ n . Khi t i i f . ~- Vol . I , 1 . 8 8 ; i dvm. Sir
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4 1 1 ~ I , I i i i p . t . i t . I . V 1 1
5
ll111 ' I yBs : o p . c i t . Vol . I , 11. 159.
i i h . Vol . I , 11. 8/11.
, 1) . ! J S.
change i n Ligyptian l and s y s t c ~ n . ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ l a t e a ~n i r ' ! ' GSLI I I 11 ik:hl y
pr ai s ccl i n 111s l)ook ' ~ a l - i i t h Mi . ; t " (I: i rl i l nci aI Systc~tn I I ; I S
he s a y s " I t was a c o n c r e t e s t e p ; i t w:ts not ;I lncrc s ~~p p l e r n e n t t o
t h c c. : ~rl ic,r mc a s nr c ~ne t ~t h y an kr.;~l> SIII !:in, I I I I ~ i t was sc11.11 ; I
l a s t i n g work t h a t even t hc prcsc!nt J c p: ~r t mc r ~t o T tnc;lsurc~rrc-nt
might. hons t I I ~ O I I i t .
4
1:yypt got a c t >r ~t r ; l l p l a c e i l l t h c f i c l J o f t c x t i l r i t ~ d ~ ~ ! - t r y , a11d
some of Irrr t owns ga i ne d wor l d f;rmc, i n t c x t i I ? pr oduct i o n , f o r
e x; mpl e , t h e town U P S l ~ a t t ; ~ , I ) ; I ~ ) i e l c ~ c x , C ~ C . Lihewi s c , ligypt was
fanlous i n t ns n~~l ' a c t ur i nf i o f c u r t a i ~ l n ~ ~ c l P I owrr-sheet ; somct i ~ q ~ s
I
t h o y c o n t a i n e d p i c t u r e s o S d i f S c ~ . c n t ;Inirri:ils. Me t ; ~ l i ~ ~ ~ l u s t r y was
a l s o p a i d d u e a t t e n t i o n by t h c l i gypr i ; l ns . 'I'lrcy u s c d t o p ~ - c . l ~ ; ~ r c
I
p o t t e r i e s o i c o p p e r and o r n ; ~ mc n t s ol ' ~ o l c l anll s i l v e r . " In t l ~'
i r o n i n d u s t r y , Egypt had no c l i i 1 i n g u i s h c d p l ; l c c even thou,qli t h e
Egypt . i n n s s p e c i a l i s c d i n ] >t . o d ~~c . t i o n o I' ar ms :in(! I I ~ r d w ; ~ ~ . ~ 111ac1e o f
s t c c l . Al s o t h e y p r e p : u c ~ l i r o n wi ~r d u ws , l o c h s a n d k e y s wl i i c l ~ a r e
s t i l l p r e s e r v e d i n t h e Ar; ~l l i a n Al - c h a e l o g i c ; ~ l M I I ~ C I I I I I v(. C: : i r v.
C;lrpc:nt r \ . a n d c a r v i n g i n d u s t r y i s a l s o wo r t h mellt i on. Most o f
i t s u s e s we r e i n t h e rool ' ol ' h o u s e s , door s. , - yi l r dvws, c l ~ ; ~ i r s , c t c .
.I
. -~
Egypt was o n e o f t l ~ c i mp o r t ; ~ r ~ t c c n t r . e s oF s u g a r i ~ ~ d u s t r y . Macl r i zl
w r i t e s t h a t i n t h e c i t y o f Samhtid, ! : i t uat ecl a t tile w c s t c ~ - ~ ~ 11; i nk
o f t h e N i l e , t h e r e we r e s e. vent ecl l h l g s t o n e p r e s s e s I' or s u g ; ~ r c : ~ n c
a n d Mal 3wi was f amous f o r i t s c u l t i v a t i o n , and t11cr.c ; al s o we r e
many c r u s h i n g ma c h i n e s .
5
l l l n Ri~tr)!:~h who t r a v c l l e d i n l l gypt : ~ f i c l
S y r i a i n I 326 w r i t e s a h o ~ c t I l ; ~ ; r l l ~ : ~ k , ; ~ n o l d tow11 o f S y r i a , t h a t
8 ,
many h i l ~ t l s of' s we e t me a t s arc 111anuYi l ~t ur t . d ill i t , a s we1 1 a s t r x-
t i l e s , and some o t h e r goodti t . h: ~t c ; i ~ n o t h e e q u a l l o d e l s c wh e r e .
,oh
l ~: l l q s l l : l n d i : op. c i t . Vo!. 1 1 1 , p. 4 7 2 .
..
' ~ u r ~ r , M. J : ~mi i l u d d ~n : I ) ; I LI I : I I I . .. l 3; 1117 1 . 0;1l~fiwi111 . f i Mi ? r .- ( Ca i r o : 1):ir :I I
i I A , 194x1, p. 30.5.
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~ u r ; r : op. c i t . p. 314
. I
Ro s s , s i r 11. 1). : l ' hc -~ Ar t o f ~~ ~.~~ l i gyl ~t t I I I . U I I ~ I I ---- ~- t h c ~ . . Ag?s ( I . ond~) n: The
S t u d i o I , t d . , I , I . 73.
About t r a d e a n d i n t l i ~ s t r y , i n the M:lmlrlk p c r i o d , I ' r o ~ c ~ s s o r 1' . K .
lli t t i w r i t e s t h a t "' l' hc cor r <. css i o n u i ~ l ~ c - r c ~ d 11y ;I 1 Acl i 1 and I$: (yI); ~rs
t o t h e Vcrret i a n a n d ot11c.r l i u r ~ ~ p c ; ~ i ~ Mc r c l ~ ; ~ n t s s t in1~11 :I t ~ d c ~ x ~ . h i l ~ ~ g c
oi ' com~nodi t i c s and rnade i : ai r o :I g r e a t ' CI I ~ I ' C] I OT ' 0 1 ' t I : I CI C 11rtwt.en
I l a s t and Wes t . S y t i a n s i l k s11arc.d wi t h per i unr es a1111 s p i c c s 1'i r s t
p1:lc.c i n t h r e x p o r t t r a d e . I : I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I ~ I I ~ I a t - t i c l c s s t o o d
n e x t i I I t l l e 1 i s t . i ) ; ~n l a s c l ~s , ' 1 1 . i 110 l y , Ant i o c h ; ~ n d 'I'y r e wc r r :Intong
I
t h r l e a d i n g c e n t r e s o i i n d u s t r y . " So ~n c t i mc s i ~ ~ d u s t r i r s i n d i r c c t l :
h c . n c i i t t t . d from t h e govc r nmc nt ; I(-t i o n s , f o r c x a ~ n p l e , WI I L \ I I i t
i mpus ed t a x e s on f o r e i g n t radcnrs o r wlirn t r a d e p a c t s wc'r'c i r ccor ded
wi t h foreign g o v e r n me n t , as t l ~ e s c . , t ~ ~ [ l r l ~ r o v i d c d ] ~ ~ . u T c c t i ~ > n t o
t h e home i n d u s t r y and i a c i l i t y t o c s p o r t t l r c i r p r o d u c t s t o
f o r e i g n e r . ; .
a . . 1nt cr 11; r .. 1 ' l ' r: ~t l c. I1gyl)t and S y 1 . i ; ) I I ; I ~ I ~ c c n t h e 1-cnt r c 111' t r acl c
an(I C O I I I I I I P I . ~ ~ I o n r e I 1 1 1 t c Is I I . 'They 11i;1 i nt ; i i nel l
f u l l y t h e i r c e n t ~ ~ r i c s o l d c I i a r a r t e ~ - i s t i ~ ~ s i n t h e 3 g c 01' M; ~n ~l u h s .
I ' I I l a c i l i t a t e d t h e i ~ ~ t i i r ~ ~ a l r r ; ~ d c r l s WL - I 1 a s f o r c i g ~ t
t r : i d c . l i ver y c i t y o f Il gypt and S y r i a l ~acl ; I ~ a ; ~ r k c t . I h n Iiat,C~talr
w r i t e s , "' l ' l ~e t r a v e l l e r s on t l r c Ni l c need t aht s 1111 p r o y i s i on w i t 11
t h e n . T l ~ c r e i s an u n i n t c r r ~ l p t c d c h a i l l o f b a z a a r s f r om Al e x ; r n i l ~i ; I ,
t o C ; ~ i r o , a ~ r d iron1 C a i r o t o Aswan i n LI PTI CT Eg y p t . ' I ' 11c furt 11c. r
w r i t c s t h a t on t h r Ni l e t h e r e a r c t l ~ i r t y s i x t l ~ o u . s a t ~ d I l o a t s
h e l o n g i n g t o t l ~ e S u l t 3 n : ~ n d h i s subjects, whi ch s a i l i i l l st rci l l u t o
u p p e r l i gypt and down s t r e a m t o Al e x a n d r i ; ~ and 1l:rmict t a I a d e n wi t h
3
g o 1 I o f i t l 1 1 1 c r c 1 1 n 1 i s e o f 1 1 h i 1 1 From t h e ;1110vc
s t ; +t c ~n c n t o f I hn l %at i i t , ; l h i t ; ~ppe i ~r . . ; t l i ; ~t l h c , Su1\ ?11l a1 s o t o o k
1,;lr.t i n t h e t r a d e . Ac c o r d i n g t o Ma q r i s i , i n o n e a r e a ol: C a i r o ,
3 .
i . I ) i <l . Vol . I , p . 4 0 3 - 6 4 ; I . ; ~nc - I ' ool c , S . : A ~ -~ l l i s t o r y . (11' ligyyt . --
I' . 1 1 2 .
not s ucceed i n t h e i r e l i o r t s . ' 1. h~. nc.ccss i t y of I i t-c co11ilic1 l c ~
t )nt h t h e p a r t i e s t o c o n t i n l ~ c t 1, adc w i t h each oilier. ' l ' herc vc,r.c
h o s t e l c r i c s o r ' f unduh' ~- -. . i n I i ~ y p t I'or t h e Sor e igli t r:rJcr.s t o s t a y
2
t l i e r c : ~ t n i g l ~ t and kccp t h e i r c a p i t a l ~ l ~ c r c i n . I t o r d i ~ ~ ; ~ r i I y
cont ; i i ncd l odgi ng q u a r t e r s , ;I w ; ~ ~ r c l i o ~ ~ s c , ;In ovcn, :I 11:1throo111, a
cl i apcl . . 31111 a gr a ve ya r d. 'The fi;~lc*w;iys wer e - c 1 used e;lcli cvc3n i11j:
:i
and r ' cs i . ~l cnt s l ocked i n f o r t l ~ c l i i <; ht . l)u(: t o t l l e e x p : ~ n s i o ~ i 01.
t h c t r a d e , cust om d u t y l)cc:~mc : I I ~ i r npor . t ; ~nt s o u r c e o l govei-nment
income i n t h e MlimlGk p e r i o d .
c . . : ~ t n c r s h i . . I n t h i s fir loreig1,n o r o ~ ~ ~ r s c ; i t I-adc* w; ~s 111ost 1 y
d o e I ~ ~ t ~ ~ e r s l i p . I n t h i s c a s e ~ T I C 1>; 1r t 11cr pr ovi dcd c ; ~ p i t ; i l
and t l i c o t h e r h i s 1.1hotlr slid p r o f i t w;is c l i s t r i l r ut c d ; ~ c ~ . o ~ . d i n &: t o
t h c i r agreel l l ent . I n t h e words o f ( ; o i t c i r ~ , " I ' ; ~ r t ~ ~ c r s l i i l l o f d i f l ' c-
r e n t t y p e s and I' ncct s wer e t l i c leg:) l i l i s t r umel ~t s Tor Sorlnal
coopcr at i ur i i n bot h i r ~du: i t r y and commcrcc. I i ~~~pl oymcr i t wi t h a
f i x e d s a l a r y , t h e normal r e l a t ions11 i p i n o l ~ r own s o c i r t y , was of
l i t t l c s cope and i mpor t a nc e , ;~ncl s o w;~.; investment 01' c a p i t a l
a g a i n s t l' ixcd i n t e r e s t . Wagcbs ; ~ n d i n t e r c s t wer e r e p l a c e d i n t h e
Medi t e r r a nc-:in. s oc i c t y of t h e c l c v c n t h c c n t ~ ~ r y , a s known t o u s ,
t l ~ r o u g l ~ t h e (;en i z u docu~ncnt s , 11y income Trom 11.1 r t ne r s l l i 1'.
, , 4
Al t houf i h t h i s r r ~! ~; i r h i s about c l e v e n t l ~ ccr i t l l r y blediterr;lllcxan
s o r i c t y , but t h e r e i s no i nl or r nat i ou t h n t t l ~ e s i t u ; ~ t ion clianjiccl
i n t h e MamlCk s o c i e t y 01- t l ~ i ~ . t e e n t l i ; ~ n d f u u r t e c r ~ t l ~ cr.lltl1r.y. liven
i n l i ur opc, u n t i l t h e j o i n t s t o c k C O I I I I I ; I I ~ ~ ; i ] ) p c a r ~d i l l S C V C T I ~ C ' L ~ I I ~ ~ I
c e n t u r y t h e p a r l r l e r s l ~i l ) was t l ~ c i ~s u; i l d e v i c r f o r u n i t i n f i two o r
more p c r s i ~ n s i n t h e e n t e r p r i s e whi ch c o u l ~ l n u t hc done s a t i s r ; ~ ~ - -
! I
t o r i l y 1,y t h e c a p i t a l and 1;1liour o l onc per s on.
e n I . : op. c i t . i r . I ~ ( 1 .
' I
'.
~ a q r f 2 . i : .. Khi cat . -. . Vol . 1 1 , p i . 9 2 - 9 4 .
3.
l'lic 6n,. Caml)ridge . . Lco. l l i s t o l y ~ ~- ot' . . I ; I I I . O E ( CI I I I ~ r i d f i c , 1 0 ) , I . I I I ,
I' .
eaton, on, 1 4 . : op. c i t . p. 105.
111 c. unncct i on wi t h t r a d e ; ~ n d i ~i dr r . ; t ~- y t h e i nst i t u t i on o f ' l , i i s h a I ~' ..~
possessed g r e a t i mp o r t a n c e . ' I ' l l ? o f f i c e r i n c h a r g e u r t h i s
i n s t i t u t i o n was c a l l e d 'Mr11jt;rs i l ) ' . The maill <. ll~xy o f Mui i t asi l , w ; ~ s
- - ~ 1~ -.. . . -
g e n e r a l i ~ i s p e c t i o r ~ a n d es pc, ci : r l l y m; ~r. k(' t s y s t e m. IIe us e d t o
c h e c k wc i gl r t s arid me a s u r e s , q u i ~ l i t y of p r n d i ~ c t ~ , c I r e ; ~t l u g i n
'>
t r a d e , and t o ke e p c o n s t a n t v i g i l o n t h o p r i c e s . '
s h a l l d ~ s c u s s t h e r o l c O F the. s t a t e i n cconur ni c l l f c .
1..
l h e . . C; i 1111) r i d~e . . . liconornic . .. ~ I l i s t n r . nl' l i r ~r o p c . Vol . I I I , p. 'I!).
'>
' ~ a q r ' i z i : Kl ~ i t i i f . A , ~- Vol . I , 1 . 461.
3 ~ ~ a s a r i , A . 1. : o p . c i t . p. l l (j (j .
we r e t l ~ r c c . k i n d s o r ni onc t a r y ~ I I I
I I ( c o l ~ p e r ) . Whi l e (1 ~ I I ; r
o f c u r r e n c y f r o ~n t l i e i I. p r c d c c . c s s o r s , t l i c Ay y u h i d s . Ac c o r d i ~ i g t u
M L I ~ ~ T z T , i n t h e Ayyubi d p c r i o t l , dir11:11l1 W; I S S O I i i s l ~ l y c i r c u 1 ; i t ~ d
t h a t c l i n i ~ r l o s t i t s v a l u e . I ' r - i c . ~ o f ' <. ver y t h i n g was ~nc. nt i oncd i n
i 1 i 1 1 ; t a x e s , wa ge s , r e n t s ckt c. LIIIJ ;i1 1 wcr. cS pa i d i n d i ~- l i ; ~~ns .
I
~ - -
Si nct : p e o l ) l c wer e i n n e e d 01' ; I s ma l l mo n e t a r y urli t t h ; ~ t 111ig1rt
was ;I g r c ; ~ t r e l i c 1 f o r t1~c.m. Onl y t11c h i s t r ; ~ ~ i s ; i c t i o n s wer e m: ~ c l c ~
3
I . . . ~. . 1 I I I I I I ~ . ~ l l ut t h e c o n d i t i o n wo r s e r ~ e d whsn S u l f 3 n K i ~ h ~ ~ s t i S and
T.711ir IlcrqCiq ai med t o e x p l o i t t l i c l ) c o p l e xntl s w ; ~ l low u l ) t h c i r
we a l t h , ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 f o r t h i s p u r p o s e Ki t b ~ ~ g l r ; i ~ n i ~ ~ t c , ~ l c opl ) vr .. l ' r ~ l iis - -- i n a
'L
v e r y 1; l r gc number h; ~vi ng, f acc. v ; ~ l u c . more t . h: ~n i t s i n t r i n s i c . v a l u e ;
p e u p l c r[. I - r ai ncd t o a c c e p t the-in. So h e cl ccl a r c d t h a t . ~ ~ ~ - 1-illiis ~- s l ~ o i i l d
who c;lrnccl Sul Gs by s c l ki ng t l r c i r goods a t ; I c h e a p r a t c , had t o
c l os c * t h e i r s h o p s d u e t o t h i s f l e w r a t e a t w l ~ i c l ~ t l r cy s u r f r r e d
;I l o t . Ilc want ed t o b r i n g a c l ~ n n g o i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n . So a s a
r cmcdy, Ire i s s u e d now 1-111 i l s , .- wr i g h i n g o n e d i ~ I I ; I I I I t o 11o ; ~ c c c p t c ( l
a t t h e i r f a c e v a l u e . But t l i c a u n d c r we i g l ~ t f r ~ l f i s d i d n o t c e a s e t o
. ---
c i ~ . c u l a t o . i s I s y s t e m c. rc; ct ct l i u r t l r e r I r ; ~r ds l r i p , a s t i r e
f u l u s whi c h we r e c q u a l t o s evel i d i ~ . l ~ ; ~ ~ n s ; ~~. c o l - c l i n g t o f ; i c e v a l u e ,
. , ~. ~. .
we r e wo r t h two d i r h a ms -- by wc i g h t . ' I' l ~e c o n d i t i o n co111~l on1 y h e
i mpr oved when i n 1358, N3s i r ' s j i r ; ~nds on Na s i r I l as an c ; ~ n c c l l e d (11 I
1
t h e e x i s t i n g th152 a n d i s s u c d ;I new k i n d o r f ~r l l ' i s . '
. --
I n t h c h o g i r l r ~i n g o i M; ~ml i k e r a t h e dir11;im .. c o n t ; ~ i n c d t wo t h i r d s
3
o f s i l v e r . a n d o n c t h i r d o f coppcl - . Hut i n t h c c o u r s e o f t i n ~ c
t h e p r o p o r t i on o f t h e a1 l o y r cve1- scd.
~ h c c x c l ~ a n g e r n t c b e t we e n <I i ~ I I ; I I I I and ~ T I I Z I . ;I l wnys i ~ ~ u c t u a t c d .
. . . . ~.
1)ir15r re: t cl l ed 284 - d i r i ~ a m .- . . .- i n t l ~ c rci j i rr o r Zi i l ~ i r Oa i l ~a i - s . 4 111 t l ~ e
e a r l y p c r i o d o f NAs i r , o n c dinar. ~. w; l s c.qual t o 1 7 . d i rl l ; ~rns. ' l ' he~l
i t S c l l t o 25J d i r l ~ n ms wl ~c n h e i r 1 c r e a s c J t h e expend i t u r e on war -
and a l a r g e numher 0 1 ' cl i n5l . s we r e p u t i n t o i i r c u l a t . i on.
5 .
-. - . .
'I 1 <I S
t h c end o r h i s r e i g n a d e c r e e was i ssl ~cd S o r h i d d i n g p c o p l e t o
s e l l or. buy g o l d . A l l wc r c o h l i gci l t o s u r r c n d c ~ t l l e i r ' g o l J t o
t h e mi n t and t a k e - d i r h a ms - . . i n r t u r n . MnqrTz-i r e f e r r e d t o i t a s
a n ur r pr c c c dc nt c d a c t o f i n j u s t i c e . ' Tlrc I I ; I ~ O I . : I ~ out <- omc o f t h i s
a c t i o n was i n c r e a s e i n t l l e p r i c e ol' g o l d . I n t h e yctirr, 1330
Su l t Bn N35i r p u r c h a s e d a lnamluk f o r 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ch!_ilj!xcs cql l a l t o
7
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4 ,000 . di nr i r . 5. ... ~~ - - Tl l i s means ; I I I cxcl l ; l ngc r a t e of o n c c l ~ r l ~ r c qua I LO
1
~ ; l ~ r T z T : -- ~ u l i i k . V O I . I ! , pp.
2 y n ~ q s h a n d ~ . op. ~ i t . Vo l . I I
3
1 I 1 1 ~ 1 . 01'. C l t . Vol . 1 1 1 , 11.
.. . .
4 i h i d . n. 438.
0 .
h i . I . I T , p. 3!13.
77-
~, l c m. K l r i 1 : S . . Vol . I I , p. 4O; I .
On t h e whol e t h e mone t a r y s y s t e m was vc r y u n s t : ~ l , l c ill t h i s pcbri od.
The c i r c u 1 ; l t i o n 0 1 - coppc!r f u1Es i n ; I l ; ~ r ~ r 1. mount and i r ~c r c : l s c
. . ~ . .
i n t l l c q u a n t ~ i t y o f a l l o y i n d i r h ; ~ r n , ~- r . e s ~ r l t ~ . ~ l i l l l a r h o f conl ' i dc!ncc
i n t h e c u r r e n c y and he nc e j n i t : ; ~ l ~ ~ l ~ ~ a : ; e mc n t . ' I ' 1c.d t o an
a c u t e i n f l a t i o n a r y s p i r a l .
1
Ac c or di ng t o ~ u w a i r T ' s d e s c r i p t i o n 01- Ll r i ~r nj a 1 -. . r a l , i c was
i mpos ed 1, ot h i n k i n d and i l l c a s h . l ' l ~ e t a x l ~ a y ; ~ l ) l e i n ki nd v a r i e d
from o n e s i x t h t o t h r e e ar t l s l , 11cr l - r ~l d: ~~. An a d d i t i o n a l t a x ,
.~ ~ . .~ ~.
-
c a l l e d I j u q y , was a l s o l e v i c t l on some c u l t i v n t c d 1a11d. I t s i ~i nount
f l ~ l c t u a t e d be t we e n t wo a nd f o u r ~-~ ~ l i r h a m - pel- . f c ~ l ~ l h . Tax payable i n
c a s h v a r i c d a s w e l l . Mos t l y t h e ;iInount was 2 5 0 di r11n111 p c r Seddar ~
.- - -- - -
and s ome t i me s i t r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0 ~li1.11nm . ~~~ p e r t h r c e fcdt1:in. -. I ' l ~ c s ~
' J - -
l a n d s we r e mo s t l y cultivated w i t 1 1 f 1 ; l w . " I -~ a I I ) : ~ s a t j n ~
was payable i n money a nd ~l s c t l t o hc p a i d i l l i n s t a l m c ~ ~ t s a t IKixecl
3
t irnrs d u r i n g t h e l ~ n r v c s t o f f l - u i t s . 'l'hc t a x or1 l a n d f l uc t u; l t c s d
a c c o r d i n g t o i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e i n p r o ~ l u r t i on.
i l l s o
Th e r e wa s / a t a x known a s ~ a r ~ f j , n p p l i c d t o p a s t u r e l a n d a n d l ivc.-
s t o c k . Ac. cor di ng t o Nu wa i r i , i t was l e v i c d i n c i t h c r o f t h c t wo
ways - - :IS a f i x e d t a x t o I)(. p:lid ~ I I I I I I ; I ~ l y 0 f t c 1 1 i n i n s t a l mc n t s ,
o r ;IS a v a r i a b l e t a x collected cvcr - y y c a r a l ' t c ~ . t l r c N i I t s f l o o d
- -
had r c c c d c d . The for-mcr was t r c; l t c, d ; I S h i l a 1 ~. i t a x , whi l c t hcs
( : ol l t r ; l r y t o t h e ligypt 1311 - . Y S ~ C I I I W ~ I C ~ C t h e Ni l e : ~ n d i t s c: ~n: l l s
wer e t h e s o u r c c oT i r r i g a t i o n , i n Sy r i a c>vc!ry I l l i11g dcl ~( . nded on
I i n. Mor eover , wh i l e i l l Egypt . 1 1 1 l ; ~ n d \ were c111 t i v ; ~ t r d e ve r y
y e a r , i n S y r i a pe opl e used t o d i v i dc t l ~ o n i l l t o two ! ] a r t s ; tllc%y
c u l t i v a t c c l one ;und 1c. C~ t h e o t h r ~ . ~ ~ n c u l t i v ; ~ t c d t o 1.c'g:lin i t s
f e r t i l i t y . Onl y ;I s mal l p a r t o l t h c Syri ; l l r l i ~ n c l was i1.1-ig:ltcd hy
c a n a l s and we l l s . 111 t h i s c a s e t h e r c >t ur n was inor? t ha n i t was
1.ro111 1 ; 1 1 1 ~ 1 i r r i g a t e d hy T: I UI , and s o t h e t a x on s l ~ c h I:incl was
a l s o h e a v i e r . ]:or e x a n p l c , wh i l e i n j : e ~~c r a l , l a l ~ d t a x was o ~ l c
t 11,.
f o u r t h o r one t h i r d oS t o t a l pr ocl uct , i n / c a s c o f l and wi t h i ~ ~ i g ; ~ -
t i o n S a c i l i t i , ; ~ t h e t a x was ; I I i al F <11' t i l e t o t : ~ l 11r odur t . ' fl l cs t ; ~ s
r a t e v a r ire1 f r - or one f o u r t h t o one% c. iglltlr i n t i 1 c o i I c I ; I I I
a nd l a n d s wi t h o u t i n h ; ~ l ~ i t : ~ n t s , o r those. s i t l ~ a t c d on t h c f r o n t i e r
n e a r t h e enemy. Gener al 1 y , Musl i n s had t o pay ' ushr .~ .~ ~ ( t i t l ~ e ) ;I St e r
-
2
payment o f kl i ; i r ; ~J ; but - Dhi nmi s wc3re c xc ~l np~c d f ~ . e > ~ ~ ~ ~ u s h r . I n so111t:
p a r t s of S y r i a , l7uropcan t y p e o f f i e f ~ ; I S i nhct r i t ed f r om c r ~ ~ s a i l e r s
whcrc the? Cic!S h o l d e r had t o pay a f i x e d amount i n 1 ic11 of 11 i s
f i e [ .
3
Apar t f r o n ~ t h e l a n d t a x , i n h ~ s t r y, mi nes and Si s hc, r i cs had a l s o
c o n t ~ . i h u t e ( t t o t h e t r e a s u r y of t h e Mamliik Su l f 3 n s . l i g y ~ t i an
-
s u g a r i n d u s t r y was an i n p o r t a n t s n o r c c o f rcverloc ( l l ~ r i n g t h e
p e r i o d L I I ~ I ~ C ~ s t u d y . I t W; LS r x p o r t e d ~o As i a anel t h c Mcdj t c r r a nc ; l n
c o u r ~ t r i c s u n t i l t h e cnd oS t h c l 4t l 1 ~ . c n t t l r y .
'1
'I'he t ~ c x t i l c i ~ ~ d l ~ s t r )
ilnd s hi pl ) ui l di l l g s t o o d t h e n c x t ; I S s o u r c e s o f r evenue.
1 . .
I d . p. 2 0 2 .
. -
I I I I ~ . [ I . 2. 59.
3 7 ~ 1 7
l h l d . I . 260-01.
-
~ n q r ; z T : Sul i j k. -. . Vol . I , p . 3 4 4
I n ~~r i r ~i r l p a l u m, ' n a t r o n ' a n d e n ~c r : r l d wcarc t h e ma 111 s o u r c e o f r e v c n u c .
Alum h e l p e d Egypt t o b a l a n c e 11cr p; t y~nc nt s w i t l ~ o u t exh: l us t i n g h ~ l r
I .
s t o r e o f g o l d . Na t r o ~ l ' was 111i1rcJ i n l i gypt s i n e - c t h e alrc i e n t d a y s
a n d i t l a s t e d u n t i l f i r s t hul f o f t h c 1 5 t h cc1rt111-y. A 1 ' LI I ~: I T: -
I
~1 f o u r t e e n t l r c e n t u r y h i s t o r i ; ~ ~ ~ - wr o t e t h a t t h c n: 1t r . ons ' cx1l I oi t ( : ~I
i n t h e h u n d r e d fedcl an .~~ I %i r k ; ~h ~ ~~ ~ : ) I ~~- ~ I ~ .. . i n rlrc: HuIJ; l i rTyah p r o v i n c e
y ielclecl a r c v c n u c o r a h o u t 100,000 d T , ~ r ~ r s . ~ ~~ - - ~ : 1 1 ~ s l r a n d ~ s t a t e d
t h a t i n l ~ i s l i f e t i me , t h e v a l u e o l . ' l ~; i t r o ~r ' lrad g r e a t l y i l l cr eas eel
:z
s o t h a t t h e p r i c e o f a q i n J 3 r . -. rcac-Ired 3l ) out 300 . dirI1:1111~. S a l t
had i l l s o I ~ecl r t a x e d u p t o 1310 wlrclr NS s i r a b o l i s l r c d i t . Tllc I ) ur dcn
on i n l r a l ~ i t n n t s , d u e t o t h i s t a x , c a n h e g u c s s c d SI . VI ~ I t h e I' act
t h a t a f t e r i t s a b o l i t i o r r t h e 111-icc. o f : III nrd; i l ) -. o T s a l t f c l 1 fro111
1 0 t o a s l i . t t l e a s 3 di r l r ; i r ~~s .
'1
l i gypt p o s s c s h c d L I I I ~ ~ I I C ' mi ne s o f
F i s h wc. l . t % a l s o t a x e d i n t wo d i f l ' e r u n t ways: ;I pernr;lncrlt t a x was
c o l l e c t e d i n p l a c e s wl rcrc t h e i ' i sl i c. r i cs we r e a c t i v e a l l t h r o u g h
t h e y e a r s , s u c h a s I ) a mi c t t a , l3uru 1 l u s ; I I I ~ As w: ~n; ;rnd t a x c s wc*re
a l s o ~ o l l ~ c t c d o n t e nl por a r y S i s h i n g nc-t i v i t i c s . 111 S y r i : ~ , t h e
r i v e r As: a n d l a k e o f ' l ' ; ~l , r i ah and o t h e r wa t e r s we r e s our c . e s o f
s u c h r e v e n u e .
b
An o t l ~ e r i mp o r t a n t s o u r c e o f r cvcr l uc~ was t a x on t r a d e a11J t r a r i s -
a c t i o n . Me r c l l a ndi s e was p u r c h a s e d p r i v a t e l y o r hy s t ; ~ t c mono-
p o l i e s i nanaged by . i na t j Sr . . . . . - - ( t r ; l cl e I r o ~ l s c ) . T I I 1110, N S . ; ~ r t o o k o v e r
I ~ < a ~ , i e , 1 1 . : op. c i t . 1) . 8 2 .
-
3
~ a l q s l ~ a r ~ t l ~ : o p . c i t . Vo l . I I I , pp. 4 5 0 , 4 0 0 - 0 1 .
t n : r : ~ a 1 .~ Ntg61n. .. . . .. Vo l . I X , 11. o 2 .
5
- -
Ma q r i z i : S111iik. Vo l . 111, pp. / 155, 3HL, 4S( J ; . Kl l i t , : ~t . . ~~ - - - ~ ~. Vol . I , 1 ) . ? 3 3 .
6
-
Nuwa i r i : op. c i t . Vol . VI I T, 1 . 2 0 % - 0 4 .
- 1
t h i s ~ n l a t j ~ r , ... .~ .~ s o t h a t i t s r c v c n l ~ e went t o t l i C S u 1 t 3 n 1 s K11:iss.
The r cvcnnc f r om i nat j ur was s o lruge t h a t i n 1 3 2 7 N i i s i r o r J e r e d
~ ~ .-
1,000 di r hams t o be p a i d mont hl y t o t l ~ c (!ii<li Muh:~mnr:~J h i n .Iam;l'.~h
- 2
from t h e l l i at j ar . -~ ~ : i k ; t ~ was t h c maill t a x ~ I I I ~ O S C L I OI I i i ~ e r ~ h i i n d i s e
of- Muslin1 t r a d e r s . Prom t h e cx:l~nin;lt ion o f t h e h i s t o r y of t h a t
p e r i o d , i t a p p e a r s t h a t i n i mp o s i t i o ~ i a n d c o l l e c t i o n ol' Z; ~hi i l ~,
.
3
t l ~ e ---- ~ l l a r ' ~ ; ~ h ~ -. p r i n c i p l c s wcr c i l L I I I O S ~ 11e , ~1e c t e d.
, .
I hc t a x i mposr d on t h e i mpor t s o f -~ C I I I ~ I I I I I I T S ~- - was c ; l I l c d rr:j . -. i l l a1
dhin1111a11. 'I'lle fi xi l l Cram cust om dut y ~ ; I S consi dc~r aL11c. J bn 1%at ul al l
--- - -- -- -
wr i t e s t h a t when he I-cached (!;~t i y ; i , on t l l c I ~ o r d c r I,crwccn ligypr
and S y r i a , he saw t h a t " t h e r e a r e oi l ' i c. es h Cr c wi t h o r l i c c r s ,
c l e r k s and n o t a r i e s , and t h c c l ; ~ i l y r evenue i s one t hous and
di r i ; i r s. , , a
A t a x named
' I l u g ~i q ~ --
. . . . - s:t>il . . - -. - . - a ~ l i i ~ l l ; ~ h ' -.-. was i111posct1 on 1:hc g r a i n s
i mp o ~t c c l t o (::I i 1.0 a t t h e I ~ i l r t ~ u i ~ r v i FIJS t a t ; I I I ~ A l ~ x i ~ n d r i i ~ . I t
was one of: t h e maj or component s o f t h e r evenue of uTwLn. Al ~out
4 , 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 di r hams wer e a n n u a l l y r e a l i z c ~ l from t h i s t a x . Si n c e
Copt s wcr'c mo s t l y eniployecl i n i t s r o l l e c . t i on, t h e y e a r ~ ~ c ~ d uill i mi -
5
t e d i nconi e, wh i l e t h e pub1 i c s ul ' f cr cd ;I l o t o i i n j u s t ic-c. A t
t l l c t i me o f ----- rawk, S u l t ~ n Ni l si r ; I L ~ O I i s h e d i t :11ong wi t h so111e ot l l e r
t a x e s
S a l e s t a x was a l s o a s o u r c e o f r cvcnue i n t l ~ c Mamliih p e r i o d .
. - -
Accorct i ng t o Ma q r i z i , i n 1338-:<!I, a t a x ~.;rllc:cl t l l c - c p r ; ~i ' i t , ~ was
b
i mposed on p r o p e r t y t r a n s a c t i o n . [ t was :I t a x on s a l e s
- -
2 ~ a q r i z i : SulCik. - - Vol . 1 1 , p . 283.
3
I I i 1 1 i 1 1 , I , 1 . X N N , 11. 3 3 7 .
' l bn Bafi i yah: op. c i t . 11. 50.
5
- -
Maqr i z i , h l r i t a t , ,.... Vol . I , pp. 8 8 - 8 ! ) .
' i de~n. - Sul i i k. -- .- .- Vol . 11, pp. 458-55).
o f p r o p e r t y a mo u n t i n g t o 2 0 df n51. s p c r 1,000 t l r n ~ r s , i . e . 2 p e l
c e n t . l ' l ~i s t a x r e ma i ne d i n f o r c e u n t i l t i 7 0 when M i l l i k As hr . ; ~f
Sl1db511 a l ) ol i s h e d i t .
1
. .
- -
On . i ) hi nm; s, 1 i z ya l l o r p w a l i t i l x was i mj ~osc. d. I t was :I pol l t a x .
at
Somet i mes i t was c o l l c c t c d / t l o ~ ~ l i l r ~ t h e 1cg; l l al nount o f t h c j ; ~ w i l i
,
-. -~
'.
t a x . ' l ' her c was a n o t h c r t a x irnposcd 011 [)!I immTs . . . -- nanlcl y ' I I I U ~ ~ I - ; I I -
- -
.. -.. ~
1 N I . Al ong wi t h solno o t h e r t a x e s , Sul t311 Qal5wil11 a b o l i s h e ~ l
..- .- - --
i t i n 1 2 7 0 , whi ch h a d h e e l ~ i l l f o r c e f o r t h e l a s t ci ght c. en y e a r s .
3
As a r e s u l t o f t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h e s e t a x e s , p r i c c s came down.
-
111 t h e y e a r 1300, t h e Sul ??i r ~ i mpos ed solno f r e s h t a x r s , i n c l ui l i ng
a r e g i s t r a t i o n f c c f u r s l ~ o p h c c p c r s mounting t o 4 0 di 11i 115, w l l i ~ l ~
was w i t ht l r a wr ~ hy t h e i r ~ t e r v e n t i on o f c l l i e f j u s t i c e I t>n t d i i k l ~ l o u f
4
a 1 MSl i k I . Th e r e wcrc t a x e s on wc ddi ng ; ~ n d p r i s o n r . r s , w l ~ i c l ~
r
we r e ; ~l i c i l i s h c d hy N5 5 i r d u r i n g t h e rawh o r 1 3 1 5 . " War t a x e s we r e
c o l l e c t e d f r om t h e p u b l i c wl r cnevcr t h e S u l t51i made ~ ~ . r ! p i ~ r a t i on
o n c v e r y Il gypt id11
t a x was ; ~l ) uL i s h c d
. ,
l n x c s we r c c o l l c c t c ~ l
-
f o r war f ar e, . S u l t 5 n Qu t u z i ~nl ) osr ! ~l on(, ~ l i n ; ~ r .. .~~
t >
t o f i11a11c.e t h c war a g a i n s t tlrc. ' I' ;jtaI' . W d r
ani l r e i e p o s e ~ l many t i me s i n t h c bl:~~nliih c r a .
on t h e u s e o f pc ~hl i c services s u t . l ~ ; I S i r r i y . ; ~
v i c e , s u c l ~ as t n x c s o n p r o s t i t cl t i o n , d a n c ilrg
311d r n u s i c i : ~n , was a l s o a source 01' incr)mc i n
I . .
t i u r ~ ~ I ~ ~ I T I I S . l a x url
parties, s i n g c b r s ,
t l ~ a t p e r i o d . ' 1 ' 1 1 ~
p r o d u c t i o r ~ oC i n t o x i c a n t s a n d a c t o f p r o s t i t u t io11 was ; I I l uwrd 1111
H
t h c pilyment o f t a x e s . The i l o c l o r s o f I s l a ~ n i c 1. : ~ have a l wa y s
O ~ ~ O S L ' J t a x a t i o n o f t h i s k i n d , a s t l l ey c o n b i d e r c d i t ; I I I i ml ' r i ngc -
! I
rncnt o f t i l e ~ h a r r b h anil all c . r i c o ~~r : ~g c ~n ~: l i t o r s i n .
~ ... ~ ---- ~ ~ -.
' ~ a q r i ~ r : -- ~ h t ~ ~ t . ~ o l . 1, p. 106.
2.
I . VoI . 1 1 , 11. I ; I . SuLIIL, . .- . ~ V d . I I , 1 ) . 33.1,
31
~ c l c n ~ . S u l n k . - Vol . 1 , p. 604.
4
i h i i l . I . 1 , 1 ) . !lo:.
r - - -
.,
~ d c ~ n . Kh i t n t . Vol . I , p. 8 9 .
-- ....*-A-
h . .
l h l d . p . 105.
7 7.7
1 I) 1 d . 11.
--
1 1 0 ; Sul i i k. Vol . 11, 1 . 1 1 - 4 : ; .
- . -. - --
8i(~cill. ~ l l i t a t . - . L- L V ~ I . T I , p. !I, ).
I 1 i n i ; l 1 , M I . 0 1 X X V l 1 1 , 1) . I ; M I : I . .. Vul . I ,
1). 0 I hn Ka t h l r . 011. c i t . Vu l . 1 1 1 1 , 11. 2 5 4 .
I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ; I ~ ; I ~ ~ ( c o n l i s c a t i o n o f p r ~ > p < ~ r t y ) , n 1 inawarTth a1 1j:~shrT;111
-- . - ~ . . --
- -
( h e i r l e s s p r o p e r t y ) , e t c . I I a I s r e i g n and thc3 1o11g
r e i g n o f NZs i r , c a s e s of c o n f i s c ; l t i o n o f o f f i c i ; i l ' s p r o p e r t y werc
numer ous. Ru t i t must h e not e d t h ~ t C OI I f i s c a t i on was I I O ~ al ways
on cconomi c gr ound. Very o f t c n i t was used ; I S puni s l ~~nc. nt . FOI
exampl e, i n t h e y e a r 1 2 6 6 , p r o p e r t y o l some ; 11ni 1.5 was conl ' i sc- at cd
he c a us e t he y s u p p o r t e d t h e encrny o i Sul!511.
1
11. State H o r r o w x . l i xnn~pl c~s o f s t a t e hor r owi ~l g ; I r e a l s o f our ~d-
i n t h i s p e r i o d . Son~et i mes F1;linliik S111tii11s horrowc(l 1110110y f r o ~ ~ ~ 11 i g
"
.j
t r a d e r s , when t h e y [ el t s uch nc c ds . I$ut no d c t a i Is on t cr nl s and
c o n d i t i o n s , e t c . a r e a v a i l a b l e .
c . Collection -~ a n d Ad a ~ i n i s t ~ . ; I t i o n . ' I' :lxcs were g e n e r a l l y c o l l c ~ c t c . ~ l
by t h c ~ n~u( ~i : ~' s -. i f t he y wcr c c o ~ ~ f e r r c t l I I ~ O I I the-111. Sonlct i111es
~ ~ 1 1 f . l n T o l f i c i a l s wer e ; ~ s s i g n c d t h e 1,cspon.; i h i 1 i t y of t a x col 1ct.-
. . .- . -.
8-- -
t i o n . One a ~ ~ o t h c r s ys t em o f c o l l e c t i o n was t h a t o f .... L!~III:III i l l
whi ch t h e (Ismin -- .- .~~. ( t h e g u a r a n t o r ) 11t;cJ t o gclc1r;lnt c.c ~ ; I Y I I I C * I I ~ 01' ;I
f i x c d ~ I I L O U I I ~ of I I I O I : ~ ~ , i r r e l i p v ~ t i v c of i n c r ~ a s c o r t Lecr e; ~s e i l l
t h e amou~l t t h a t hc would ccil l c c t I'rorn people. I I i s 110s i t iori was
j u s t l i k e a 1nid~l1cm;lll. 111 t h i s s ys t em t a x p:l)'crh wcr c : ~ l w: ~ y s
b;11ll y h i t , ; I S t h c L~ d3n1in usctl t o col l e c t t l l c o r i g i n a l : I I I I OI I I I ~
:I
and s o mc t l ~i n g more.
' l h n ~ a t h f r . o p c i t . Vo l . XI I I , p . 350.
I I I I . 011. c i t . ~ o l . I 1 1 , 1,. 2 0 ; I I S I I I I I ~ . 0 1 . c i t .
Vol . 111, 1). 400.
3
- -
Ma qr i z i : .~ Sul i i k. .~ Vol . 1 I , 11. 103.
4 . .
1111~1. 11. 153.
5 : .
-
~ h l d . p. 4 2 0 ; Qal qs handi . op c ' i t . \ l ul . 1 1 1 , 11. 4 7 0 .
o r i g i n . l - l w a r o r I W ~ i r I 1 d:~wzwecn wcr c t h e ot l i c r
-~ L. ~~
-
t er ms u s e d , i l l t h i s p e r i o d , f o r . B a i t ~- a1 1n;il. ~- I t was a ver y i l ~i por -
t ; l r l t de pa r t me nt o f t h e gover nment ; cot ~~p; i r ; ~l , l c t o t h e m i l l ist ry o i
f i ni l nce in p r e s e n t d a y s . A l 1 ;Ic-courlts of S t a t ? Ltlcome ; I I I ~ expc.11-
di t . ur c wer e t h e c onc e r n oT t l i i s office. 'I'Iic I i c ? ; l d o i t h i s o l . i i ~ . c
- -
was c a l l e d by d i i - i e r e n t names 1 i hc r i s ~ i r a l d; ~w; ~wcer i , r i ; i zi r a1
-~ - L~ ~ . . . ~ -~ ~ .
- -
- 2
nuqqnr o r - n a z i r a 1 mnl . Ile was ; ~ s s i s t . e d b y a 1;lrj;c nc111111cr o f
s u b o r d i n a t e s . 'The s econd most i1nport;lrit i i r t ; ~ ~ i c i a l o i i i c c was
t h a t o f - i ) i w a r l a 1 kha5s 2' I t w;is cst a1, l i s hc d 11y s ul t ; l n N-ir i n
1320, t o llrnnage t h e ~ u l t 3 n ' s p e r s o n a l purscrs. 'l'lio clr i cl ' o l t l i i s
-
of l i c e was c a l l e d Na z i r a1 I So111ct imcs h i s i n i l ~ ~ c r i c ~
-..L ~-~
- 3
increased more t h a ~ t h a t o f t h c ~ : ~ . i r a1 I I I ~ ~ . IIe was r e s pons i b l c
.. - . ~~ ~ ~~
t o manage t h e c x p c n d i t u r c uri f ood ; I I I ~ ~ l n i l ' o r ~ n f o r t h e cot l r t o f
t h e Sul t ; l n, and c h i e f o f l i c e r s , govcr r i ur s , j ~l i l ges and t h e ~. . SLI I .. tGn7
Maml G k s .
4
.-
' ~ l , i I YC~SLII.: Ki t 5h ; ) I li11;lrn i ( 1 i r o: n l Maht;lll;lh ;I I Sal l . f y: ~h,
- - - ~ (--. T6 L
1392 Al l . ) , PI,. 1 ; 11 ~J~ai111iyi111: ; 1 1 ~ ~ - A S i v ~ s ; ~ l i a1 ~11;11,7:1!1
r i~
( Ca i r o : I ) ar al Sho' uh, 1 7 I . J.).
e x p e n d i t u r e . 'She p i c t u r e t h a t we g e t from t h e pi c c c mc a l a c c o u n t s
i s a s r o l l o ws :
-
Income f r om Khar .q reac' hcd t wc l v c mi l I i on d i n a r s dur i nl : t h c r e i g n
o h i r I a l a r s . I e ~ r i w i nr l ~or t a nc c wa:; g i v c n t o : I ~ I I I ~ csxpen-
d i t u r c , i r ~ vi ew o r t h e ~ a n ~ l i i k k m i l i t a n t n a t u r e ;i111l t h e w ; ~ r l i h c
p e r i o d . They p a i d due a t t e n t i on t o pr c. p; ~ r a t i o n o r a ~ . I I I ~ ; ~ n d
1
a i ~ ~ mu n i t i o n s a nd i n d u s t r y o f war s l ~ i p . " ' I' l ~ey Irad :In o u t s t a r i ~ l i ng
d i s c i p 1 i nc d arlny, w11 ic.h pi c a n end t r ) ( : r r ~ s ; ~ d c s ; I I I ~ t u r n e d h;tch t I I C U)
i n c e o f Mongol s. Apa r t f r om t11c army c x p c . n d i t u r e , a l o t o r
3
moncy was s p e n t on Royal MamlCik f a mi l y and f u n c t i o n s . Ncx t ~ ; I I I I C
- -
t h e c x p e n d i t ~ ~ r e 1x1 mi n i s t e r s , govc. r nor s , v i z i e r s , q ; ~ ? i s , s u p e r -
v i s o r s ol ' d l w ~ n s , a c c o u n t a n t s , s c r i l ~ c s , e t c . I ' r ovi s iori oC pub1 i c
services, 1 i ke d a ~n s a nd c ; l n a l s , school . ; and l ~ o s p i t a l s , was o ~ l c
o f t l i c hc a ds o f pub1 i c c xpe ndi t u r c . A nu1111,cr o f I I I I ~ l d i n g s , ~ ; I I I I S
a nd c a n a l s we r e b u i l t i n t h e b l : ~ r n l i ~ h p e r i o d . l ' l ~ c i r l ~ i s t o r ' i c n l
b u i l d i n g s r e v e a l e ve n t o d a y t l i e i r d i g n i t y arid g f i ~ n d t . ~ ~ ~ . . ~ ' 1 ' 1 1 ~
i d l e i nconi c was s p e n t on t h e p u r c l ~ a s c o f h o r s e s , whose b c ~ r c i i t s
5
i n n ~ c d i c v ; ~ l a g e nc c d no d e s r r i ~ l t i on. J I I mi ~ny c 3 s e 5 CX~ I . ; I V; I ~ : I I I L . C
arid rrl i susc oC pub1 i c f u n d s t ooh p l a c e , and t h e c o n t e ~ s p o r a r y
t h i n k e r s c r i t i c i z e d i t .
ti
(1 -
c f . , i h n I ' a i n ~ i y a h , MFS. ~ -. Vol . X X V I I I , 11. 5 7 1 ; Suyi ~! T . ('11. c i t .
Vol . I I , p. 99.
I B N TAIMIYAll - 7'llli MAN
A d e e p s t u d y o f t h e a u t h o r ' s p e r s o n a l i t y i s a l w; ~ y s h c l p l - u l i n ; I I I
a t t e mp t t o unt l e r s t nnd and e v : l l ~ l a t e h i s vi ews a11J c o n t r - i but i o n .
For t h i s p u r p o s e i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r 11s t o b e g i n wi t h t h e I I I ~ I I
h i ms e l l , and cxal ni nc h i s ba c k gr ound, i . e . how he was Or ought 1111;
i n what c ~ ~ v i r o n mc n t he l i v e d ; llow Ire was c t l uc a t c d; w11:lt was h i s
c h a r a c t e r , e t c . T h e r e f o r e , t o make ;I r c s e a r . c h otr econol rl i c vi e ws
o i I b n ' l ' a i mi ya h, a t hor ough s t u d y o l him a s :I man i s inevitable.
1. FAMl L Y AND EnUCATION
I bn l ' a i n ~i y a l i ' s f u l l name i s ' l ' aqi a 1 I J ~ I I Al!nucl h i n 'Ahdul l);llcc,ln.
-
Ile was bor n i n t l a r r a n - - a ~ O H I I i t 1 n o r t h - e a s t 01 ~ ) r e s c t l t Sy r i ; I - -
on 2 2 J a n u a r y 1 2 6 3 Al l ( 1 0 K; I I ) ? a1 Awwal, 6 0 1 Al l ). I l e L.:ITTIC frolrt
a f a mi l y t h a t had be e n r enowned fot - i t s learning a Long t I I I I ~ .
His f a t h e r 'Abdul !!aleem, u n c l e i : n l h r u t l d ~ ~ ~ and gr a nt l f : l t l l c ~-
Ma j duJ d~11 wer e g r e a t s c h o l a r s o r I l anbl i t c j ur i s pr r ~t l e r l c c ; I I I ~
a u t h o r s o r many hooks . llis Cami l y was f o r c e d t o I c ~a v c i t . <
n a t i v e p l a r c i n 1 2 6 9 AD b e f o r c t h e a p p r o a c l ~ o f Mor ~gol s and t o
t a k e r e f u g e i n I ) amas cl ~s . ' At t h a t t ilnc l h n ' I ' ; ~i mi ynl i was sevc, n
y e a r s o l d . Iiis f a t h e r ' Ahdul I,l;~lcclo was a ppoi r i t c d I p r o f e s s o r
2nd 11c:l~l o f t h e S1i kk3r i yS MRJ r a s ; ~ h . I : I I ~ O W C L ~ wit11 ;I pvnvt r ; l t i ng
i n t e l l e c t a1111 a wonclerl' ul mcmory, Tbn 'I'a i t ~l i y; ~I i ~ T u c l i e ~ l a t t hi .
e a r l y s t a g e a l l t h e existing s c i c i r c c s , j u i - i s p r u c l c n i e s , t r al l i t i o n s
o f t h e I ' r ophc t , commcnrry 011 r h c (?ur-'cin, t ~ ~ ; ~ t h c ! m; ~ t i c s arid p h i l o s o p h y
' l hrl l i a t hTr . op. ~ i t . Vol . X I V , pp. 1 Rb- 7; I I I L I llSi11
o p . c 1 t . p. 2 .
I
a nd i n e a c h h e was la.; a hc a d o f I r i s c o n t c mp o r n r i c s . A~norrg h i s
t e a c h e r s was Shams a 1 i)Tn a 1 Ma q d i s i who was t h e l i r s t 1!:1nl1al1
c h i e l j u s t i c e o l S y r i a a f t e r t h e r e S o ~ m o f j u d i c i a r y by 1i ai l )ar. s.
2
The rrumhcr o f h i s t e a c h e r s i s more tliarr t wo h u n d r r d . N:rmcs o i
sollle o t h e r f amous t e a c h e r s a r e I bn Abi a1 Yl ~s r , a l Ki1m51 bi l l
' Abd, ;r1 Alajd b i n ' As nki r , Yahy5 \ , i n ! j ; l i r ; l I i , Ahmad birr Abu a1
Kh a i r , ~ t c . ~ He was s e v e n t e e n y e a r s o l d whcrr Q;i?i 31 ~ i ~ q d i s i
a u t h o r i z e d hi m t o g i v e -- f:ltwn -. - . . ( l e g a l r u l i r r g) . 'I'llc ~ a J f was pr oud
t h a t i t was h e who ha d f i r s t p c r r n i t t c d a n i n t c l l i g c n t a r ~ d
- 4
1e; l rnecl rnarl 1 i k e 1l)n l a i n i y a l r t o g i v e f a t w; ~ . A t t h e same a ge he
. . . . .- . . -
s t a r t e d d e l i v e r i n g l e c t u r e s . When h e was t h i r t y , Ire was o f f e r e d
t h e o l i i c c oT c h i e f j u s t i c e , wlrictr Ire r c i ~ ~ s c d , a s 11' c o u l d n o t
p e r s u a d e l i i ms e l f t o f o l l o w t h e l i m i t a t i o n s i mposed by t h e
5
a u t l r o r i t i e s .
I h n l ' ; r i l ~~i . yah h i ms e l f n e v e r r n a r r i c ~l , pe r l l a ps Ire c o u l d n o t f i n d
time t o t h i n k o v e r t h i s q u e s t i o n . Once IlTili? 1)hnlrl)i. wr o t e a h o u t
hi m t h a t Ire was f r e e f r om t h o p a s s i on ol ' Food, i l o t l ~ i ~ ~ g ilrrd s e x .
Ilc had i i r t c r c s t i n n o t h i n g r x c c p t s p r e a d i n g knowl edge :ind a c t i o i r
b
a c c o r d i n s t o i t . l l i s b r o t h e r usccl t o t a k e c a r e o l h i s c x p c n s c s
llis l i l c was v e r y s i r npl c . tlc was mor e c onc c mc c l wi t h ot l r cr ;
7 -
i n t e r e s t s .
B a s i c a l l y , I h n Ta i mi y a h ' s e d u c a t i o n was t h a t o l l , l ; ~r ~h: ~l ; t h c o l o -
g i a n a n d j u r i s c o r ~ s u l t . '1'0 t h e knowl edge 0 1 - e a r l y and c l a s s i c a l
l ~ l ~ ~ r Ka t l i i r . 01'. c i t . Vol . XIV, p. 137; I hn h h ~ l t i l i l a dr . op. c i t
11. 3 . ; I R h : I a t - ... I I l ~ n l i l ~ l r .. . .. C a i r o .- Mat bhh a1
S u n ~ ~ a h a L Muh;imn1ad' ly5~-IV15~3) , Vol . 11, p. 388.
2
La o u s t , I I . : " I bn Tai mi yyn" l i r q c dr l o mc{l i ; l o I Is 1;11n (I.onclon:
Lozac & Co. , 19711, Vol . 111, p.
31hn h b d i ~ l llad;. op. c i t . p. 3.
4 ~ b n l ( ; ~t h; r . op. c i t . Vol . XIIL, p. 34 1.
5
I I . 0 . c i t . Vol . I T, p. 330.
6 . .
~ l ) l d . p. 330.
7 - . r T
i h i d . p. 395.
t l a nb; ~l i s m he a dde d n o t o n l y t h a t o f t ' l c o t h e r s c l r oul s oC j u r i s p r u -
de nc e but a l s o t ha t . o f I r c r c s i o g r a l ~ h i c a l 1 i t c ~ u t u r c , i n 1 ) a r t i c u l : i r
o f p h i l o s o p h y a nd s u f i s m. Ilc hat1 a n ampl e knowlcclgc ol ' Gr eck a n 3
l s l a mi c h i s t o r y , and r e l i g i o u s hooks o f o t l ~ c r s , a s i t i s c l e a r
f r om v a r i e t y o f h i s books . 'l'llough he p r c f c r r e d (l:lnb:~lf scl 1oo1 o f
j u r i s p r u d e n c e , hct was n e v e r hi ; r s cd i n h i s t h i n k i n g . I n h i s
wr i t i n g s , h e f r e q u e n t l y q u o t e d t h c o p i n i o n s o f f o u r Can~ous
s c h o o l s o f jurisprudence o r e ve n l ~r or c. I n n numllcr o f ma t t e r s
he a d o p t e d o p i n i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h a t o f t l r c f o u r s c h o o l s . Ac t u : ~ l l y
he was all o r i g i n a l t h i n k e r ( mu j t : ~ l ~ i d ) -- ...- -- , I who ( l r - won a l l t h e Cour
s c l l ool s .
I n a1 1 h i s r e c or ma t i v e e f f o r t s , l h r ~ ' l ' ai mi yal ~ : ~ c c ~ p t c t l t l r c Qur511
and t h e Sunnxh ( t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e P r o p h e t ) ;IS t h e h a s i ~ ' c r i t o r i a .
I n t h e matters wher e t h e r c was rlo r l c a r gui t l i ~nc c i'rom t h e q111.511
anti t h e Sunna h, hc ne ve r h e s i t t r t c i l i'rom r a t i on; rl t h i n k i n g a nd
a t l o p t i l ~ g t h c p a t h o f - Ilt i l l ad ( c r e wt i v e o r i g i n ; l l i t y and i l l i t i u t i v c )
Tlrc t h i r t c e n t l r and F o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s A. 11. J ~ a v c a (I i s t i ~ ~ g t r i s l ~ e ~ l
p l a c e i n I s l a mi c h i s t o r y . INut t h c i r i mpor t a nc e i s i n exl 1t rn5i o11
of knowl edge a nd I c a r n i n g , ; ~ncl [ l ot i n t h e t l e l ~ t h o f knowl ~>dgc .
'The rncans of' a c q u i r i n g knowledge wer e e u s i l y a v a i l a h l c . I , i h r ; ~ r i e s
and s c h o o l s we r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n l a r g e number s. I(ut t h e p c o p l c
d i d n o t u s c t h e i r o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g power. . - k t was i bn ' r ni mi y; ~h
who c o n t r i b u t e d a l o t by way of o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g . Ile ~ . r . i t i c a l l y
exanl i ned t h e e x i s t i n g s c i e n c e s JI I J l i ~ i d t l r c new F o ~ ~ n d : ~ t i o n s of'
r c s c a r c l r and c r i t i c i s m. A s t r o n g ol ymr r r nt 0 1 ' l bn ' I' ai rni yah i n
Iris l i f e t i me, c h i e f j u s t i c c s u b k I ( d . 1 3 5 0 ) ~ I I L . C wr o t e t o t h c
g r e a t I s l a mi c h i s t o r i a n a 1 i h . ~l ~b T " I Irj gl rl y r c s p c c t him ( 1. c .
I hn Tai nri yal r) , and a p p r e c i a t e I r i s e x p e r t i s c i n c d u c a t i o ~ ~ , ~ 1 1 u f ~ a 1 1 , .~
and r n t i o n ; i l s c i e n c e s . I a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h e h i g h p l a c e 1 1 ~ .
a c h i c v c ~ l i n o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g and i n t e l l e c t u a l r a c u l t i c s , whi ch
words can n o t d e s c r i h c . Suclr ;I u n i q ~ r e p c r s o n a l i t y liarl n o t been
1,1
t h e r c f o r c e n t u r i e s .
2 . CIIARACTEK
Ile was ve r y gc nc r ous and i r i i ~d h c ; ~ r t c d e s p e c i a l l y t owar ds t h e poor
and t h e needy. " A n ~ i r s , ar my, or Ci c. er s , t r c r I I c. l : r sscs
of pc opl e l ovcd hi m, a s Ire worked f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t day and
n i g h t i n c vc r y p o s s i b l e way. Ilc us ed t o s pend money g c n c r o u s l y
on poor . "' Though he n e v e r engaged i n t r a d e arid cornmcrce, hc had
is
c o n t a c t w i t h s uch pe opl e a nd understood t h e i r pr ol ~l c ms ; I S , cvi dcnt
- -
from t h c Fat awa i n whi ch ;I l a r g c nu~nhcr of e n q u i r i e s wcrc madc
from h i n about t r a d e , comrncrcc and c n t Cr p r i scss bus i n e s s
c o n t r a c t s . Onc of l ~ i s disciples a l a h 1 i d d . 1311)
was a b i g t r a d e r h e f o r c j o i n i n g h i s d i s c i p l e s h i p .
3 A l l hi nr l r oi
pe opl e us ed t o a t t e n d l bn l ' ; ~ i n ~ i y a h ' s l e c t u r e s and lhencf i t c d S ~ O I I I
them. I n s u p p o r t 01- a r i g h t s t a n d I I C was al ways v e r y l ' i r n~ and
uncompr omi si ng. Lluc t o t h i s r eas on he had a number o i opponent s
and cnemi cs a l s o .
4
I bn T n i ~ ~ ~ i y a h ' s l i Se was n o t ;I mere academic- 1 i f c . Whencvcr t h e
need c a l l e d him he e n t e r e d i n p o l i t i c a l rind p u b l i c a f f a i r s and
made h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n , n o t o n l y wi t h h i s wr i t i n g s and s pe e c he s
b u t , 1 i k e n b r a v c wa r r i o r , wi t h t h e sword ; IS wcl I . l l cr c i s an
l c f . , IIIII Raj ah. op. c i t . Vol . 1 1 , pp. 3g?- 93; I bn I l a j a r . op.
c 1 t . Vol . 1 , p. 159.
2 1 1 ~ n h h d u l - l l ~ d c . op. c i t . 1,. 118; I : I I 01,. c i t . 11. 3515.
3
I a op. c i t . Vol . 11, p. 3 h l ; I n a j a r . op. c i t .
Vol . 1 1 1 , pp. 375-76.
4
I I I I . c i l . 11. 394.
account oS h i s wa r l i k e a c t i v i t i c s wl i icli i s ;I ver y i n l p o r t a ~ ~ t nspcc.1
of h i s 1 i c e .
- -
In 1300, t h e MongBls under t l ~ c i 1. h i ~ r x (;haz;ln irrv:~ded S y r i a ;rn[I
dc f e a t ed t h e Sul FSn' s army. Icy now we1 1 h~i ow~i , Ibn ' I ' ai ~~i i yali C l u ~ i ~
hi l ns el f i n t o tlrc s t r c ~ i ~ n o r : ~l ' l ' ; l i r s , wl r i l c t h e r e l i g i o u s d i v i n c s
and s a i n t s wcr c l e a v i n g Ua~nuscus t o t a k c r cl ' ugc i n lljiy[rt. 'f'licrc
were d i s t u r b a n c e s cvcrywliltrc. I ' r i s o ~r c r s xot o u t Srol~i j a i I s , t h c
had c l c ~ n c ~ i t s s t a r t e d l o o t i n g and pl u~r d( ~r . i l i g t h c c i t y bcl ' or c t h e
Mongols el l t er cd.
I
I bn 'l'aimiy;ilr d i d l i i s h e s t t o r c s t o r c o r d e r i n
-
t h e c i t y ; and t o g c t h c r wi t h t h c remai l l infi ' L I ~ ; I I I ~ ; I hc a ~ c t t h e c h i c 1
- -
of Mongol 7 1 1 ~11311 Gl raza~i . 1Ic s o I ~ o I ~ c c I ~ I I I I ~ p l ~ a d ~ ' 1 1 t h(; c a s e 01.
t h e pe opl e o f I ) a~nasr us h c f o r c him t h a t he s c c u r c d t h e r c l c a s c of-
many p r i s o n e r s and s ucceeded in a d c c l a r n t i on ol' pc a c r in;idc f o r
7
c i v i l i a n s . -
Dur i ~ ~ g t h e ye a r 1300, Mongol t l r r c>; ~t :I r os e Tor a s e c o l ~d t imc. I 1>1r
'I'a i r n i y:lh c x h o r t e J pcopl e t o . J i ~ li>d n n ~l cncour aj i cd tlic.~n t o c o n f r o n t
t h e Mong51s b o l d l y . Ilc was as ked 11y t h e govcrl ror of Da ~ ~ ~ a s c u s t o
go t o Ca i r o a ~ i d pe r s ua de Su l t Sn N;isir t o i n t c r v c n c i n Sy r i a . Ile
l e r t f o r Ca i r o i n Janr t ar y 1301 a11d persu:~CIcd t l ~ e S~~l!;lli t o come
t o U;iniascrrs wi t h h i s army. Wlicn hc saw t l i c Su l t n n r c ? l uc t a nt t o
l nc c t h e Mong6l s, 11c war ned, " I f y o u wo ~r l ~l a voi d t o come t o t h e
p r o t e c t i o n o r S y r i ; ~ , we s h a l l choos e ai r ot l i cr S~r l f l l n who wi l l
def end ; i r~d p r o t e c t h e r a t t h e t i me ol' war :1115 wi l l c nj ov l i cr
resources d u r i ~ ~ g t h e peace t ime. " Ile f u r t l i r r ; ~r . g l ~c J "1lve11 i f ~ O I I
were n o t t h e r u l c r 01- S y r i a , hut 11cr i n l i : r b i t a ~r t . ~ 11:1vi11g as hed YOL I
t o h e l p t hem, you nus st come t o t l r c i r r c s c u c . Now t l r ; ~t you a r c
t l i c i r r u l c r and t h e y ;are your s u1) j c c . t ~ you h;ive no c x c ~ ~ s c ; you
11)aw5t13r~. o p . c i t . Vol. I X , p. 3 8 ; (1,n k. i t hf r . op. c ~ t . Vol
X I V , 1'. 7 .
A p a r t C ~ U I I I t h e l > a t t l c o f Sl ~a t l l ! ; ~l ~, hc. t ooh p a r t i n solnc o t l i c r
e x p e d i t i o u s wi t h t h e M n m l G k i ~ u r l ~ o r i t i c s , a nd ~ ~ ~ ~ c I c . r t o o h a ~ L ' W
e x p e d i t i o u 011 h i s own.
4
I '1' I O N BY I( I VAL. ' ~ l , ~ b l x
. op. c i t . Vol . X l V , p. 1 5 .
22- 25; I hn %l,dul l i e 1 op. c i t . pi ). 1 7 5 - 8 0 .
c i t . Vol . X l V , p . L h .
c i t . Vo I . Xl V, 1). 3 5 ; I I I J I 1 5 ~ 1 ~ . op. c-i t
- 4 4 -
llis f o l l o we r s wer e c ount l e s s . llis rc.1 i i : i ous : . cal , l c a r n i ~ ~ f i arid
a . Vi s i t t o
- - - - - - . .
Ihrl 'l"1i111iya11
Egypt , atid a
1ii111. IIc was
i i o ~ I I ~~ i t I - t ~ I . ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ o ~ ) p o ~ i c n t s o I'
.-~ . - .~- .
compl ai ned a g a i n s t 1i i 111 i n t h ~ . ' our t o f t h e ! ; 111t i r 1 i n
nunrl ~er o f b a s e l e s s cl i ; ~~- gc. s wcr c I c vc l I c t t L ; ~ g ; ~ j ~ i s t
c a l l cd by t h e Sul t511 I g y p . lle r c a c l ~e d C;I i r o url
7t h Apr i 1 1300. Ibn T:i i m i y a l ~ was a c c ~ ~ s c * d oi' ; ~ r ~ t I ~ r o l ) o ~ ~ ~ o r ~ ) I ~ i s n ~ .
He was not g i v e n p r o p e r c l ~ a r ~ c c t o c l a r i f y i t ~ I I I ~ was 1)ut i l l t o
2
p r i s o n . Ile rcmainccl i n t h e ~ . i t a d a l o f Ca i r o i' or n c ; ~l . l y ; I ye;ll
and a h a l f . Ile was r c l c : ~ s c ~ l 011 Z5rh S c p t . , 3307.
1 . Scconcl ~~ .. . I ' c r s c c ~ ~ r i on. Aftc' r comi 1 1 f i o u t I I J i I , 11111
' l' aillliyah de c i de d t o s t a y f o r some (l, lys i n ( : a i r ( , t o I ~ r i l ~ l : o u t
x
r e l o r n ~ s ill t h c r r c c d s ol ' pcopl c' ; I S we1 1 I i n t h e i r w ; ~ y o f l i t < , . '
Ilr c r i t i c i x e d l ~ i t t c r l y t h e 1111-lslannic i ( l cas of s u f ism anel con-
t i nued t o cletiouncc a 1 I t h e i r l l ~ o v ; ~ t ion!; which 11c r cga rtlc*cl a s
Mranwl~ i l c a ~ ~ o t l i e r Si l l t i i n I{a il):trs a1 J a s l i a r ~ h i r wl~o wa.; s t rollfil y
pr o- s u2i s 111 c a p t u r e d power. I I t Si nc- c :i n111n0cr o f sr l l r l l or t cr s
o f 11111 ' I ' ; ~i ~ni y; ~h wcr c p r e s e n t i l l ( : ; i i r o, t h i s t i ~ n t , Ilc was oxi l cl l
t o Al vxan( l r i a and put under 11ot 1sc~- nr r es t . llis c x i l c i n A1 c x a r ~d r i ;
l a s t e d s cvcn mont hs . When Nii.;ir Mu t ~ ; ~ mr n n ~ l h i n Q ; l l ; l w G r ~ was rt. 5-
t or ct l t o t h c t h r o n e on 4 M; ~ r t - 1 1 1310, h c r c c a l l c d 11~11 l ' ; ~ i n ~ i y i ~ l ~ iintl
r e c c i v c d h i m i n a udi onc c a t (:;I i r o .
4
' l b n ~ a t h y r . op. c i t . Vol . X I V , p. 1 7
n
3~t 1n 51)dul I I ; I J ~ . op. 1. i t . p. 157.
g a v e a n s we r s t o t h e e n ~ q u i r i c s wl ~ i c h wc r c : ~ d d r e s s ~ ~ t l t o him.
I
. - -
i l . 'I'hc 1; our t l l ant1 l . a s t P e r s o c u t i oi l . The I a!;t p c r s e c u t i on C ; I I I I ~
- .~~ . . ~ .~~ ~.~ .
on 1 I I y , t 3 2 h wh i ~. h c o n t i n l ~ c d t i I 1 h i s death. 'I'hc op11011c~1lt .;
0 1 - Il)n Tai mi yal l dug lip a n o l d l a t ws g i v e n b y 11i111 so~lic. s c v ~ t n t c c n
.".+L
years h a c k whi ~- l l i . oul d be 111. ~)vr~i t Il i v c . I t . r c l : l t c d t o v i s i t : ; t o
-
t on10s. In h i s t r c a t i s c on v i s i t c ; t o t o ~ n l r s ( ' I ( i s ; ~ l ; ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ v . ; I . ; I ~ L ~ L -. . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ; i l ...
7
I I I ~ . op. c i t . Vol . X I V , p. 0 ; I 1 1 1 1 . 0 1 ) . ci t .
I'atw: t o ~r ~: i kc? i t .
Su.L;:ln. A g r c : l t
i n t l ~ c c- i t a d a l o
,
Qxyy i m . "
t e ; l c h i n g a n d w r i t i n g . Many o i Iris
l i ven t h c n 11,n T a i mi y a h d i d n o t s t o p w r i t i n g ; h e w r o t r many l e t t e r !
; ~ n d l ~ o u k l c t s w i t h c o a l . 4 l h n T a i mi y a h n e v e r c o ~ n p l a i n e d t o ;rnyi)cid:
a h o u t h i s p c r s e c u t i o n . I I I i n I 1 cor l d i t i o n s . IVl~cn a 1 I
I ncans a n d e n t c r i a l s o f rending at i d w r i t i n g we r c s t ; ~ h c n ;Iway f r o m
h i m, h e s a i d , "Now t h c y r e a l l y h; r vc p u t I I I C i n t . 0 p r i s o n . " Ilc
I , r c ; ~ t h c d h i s l a s t o n Z b t h S c p t c ~ mh c r , 1328 AI) ( 2 0 t h 1111 i 1 Q: i 4~d; ~h
7 2 8 Al l ) 11; l vi ng e n d u r e d t h e s e to11g11 c o l l d i t i u l r s Lor Li v e mo n t h s .
The. who l c o u n t r y i i ~ u ~ ~ r n c d 11 i s ( I c i ~ t l l . S i h ~ o l s , s h o p s , h o t e 1s a n d
r n a r k c t s wc r c a 1 1 c l o s c d t o n1;1rk I l i s s a d c l c ~ni s i , . His b u r i ; l L wa s
; i t t c n d c d b y a 1 ; i r g c numbe r u l - t l ~ c i n h ; ~ l , i t ; ~ n t s o f l ) an~a: ; t - us. liyc.
wi t r r cs s cs wr ot e t h a t a1 1 t h e i n h ; i h i t ; ~ n t s , pr o ;tnJ i ~ g i ~ i n s t , e x c e p t
some i ~ r v a l i d s , al t cncl ed t h e I ' I I I I C T : I ~ pr : i yer .
I . .
l l r i s i s 3 c l e a r
p r o o r of h i s s ; ~ c r i i i c ( . s f o r publ i c purposes :rn(I j u s t C : I I I S ~ ; LIJIIJ
:I t e s t i mony t o h i s p l a c e among pcopl e. A s a wl ~ol c IIL. s pe nt
about f i vc y e a r s ~ I I d i c l e r c n t p r i s o n s , i n c l u d i n g t l ~ e two years
and t h r e e months o f t h e l a s t impr i s onn~c nt .
'I'hc word ' rc. for!n' i n 1s l a n ~ i c t c r mi ~l o l o g y dr>es not incan t h c same
a s i ~ r t l r c Ch r i s t i a n t c r n~i r l ol ogy. I n I sl am ' r cl ' or n~' rnealis t o
1~11r i i y I s l a mi c t e a c h i n g s :tnJ t o remove t hi s i nnovat i ons :~rrrl m i s -
c o n c c l ~ t i ons from i t . 1b11 'Fa i mi y; t l i wa.; ;I gr e a t ~-cl ' oi . mc~. i n tlr i s
se11sc.
- -
Accor di ng t o ' i l l a ~n a h ~ h i h l i Noa/~na~ri , a p e r f e c t r ef or ~r i cr i s out.
who s c v o l ~ ~ t i o n i s e s r c l i g i o ~ l o r 1101 i t i c s ; who docs not imitate
o t h n r s , 11ut expouncls o r i g i n a l i de a s o r 11 i s own, and; h r a r s
I ~a r d: , hi ps , rnahcs s a c r i l i c c s and doc s n o t h e s i t ; ~ t : c cvr n I' ron~
'>
l a y i n g down h i s 1 i f e f o r t h a t c a u s e . " A l l t l ~cs c. c s s c 1 1 t i a 1 qua1 i -
t i c s o f ~ . c f o r ~ n e r a r e found i n I bn ' I' :~imiyalr.
TI I C !most i ~ ~ ~ p o r t . a n t : i s pc c t s 0 1 11111 ' l ' : ~ i ~ n i y a h ' s ref' o~rms wer e: :I) t o
b r i n g a r o v o l u t i on aga i l l st t h c i i ~n o v a t i ons ; ~ n d c ' o r r ~ ~ p t pr:tct i c e s
cr el ' t i n I s l am and t o cn111h: rsi ~e t11c cor l ccpl oF " l ' : ~wl ~~d' - .. . . -. wi t h a1 1
i t s imp1 i c a t i ons ; I)) a r et t r r l l t o ~ L I I I ~ ; I I I I ~ : I I ~ : J l 11ri11c ~ ~ I I C S o f I sliim
and i t s o r i g i l r a l s p i r i t i n s t c : ~( l ol' d i s p u t i ng o v r r s t ~cond; ~r . y and
I I I I L I I I . I - 1 , I ; 3.71; Tl l n kgi t hi r . up. z i t .
V u l . X I V , 11. 130.
o n - Iund1111c11ta1 r o l l e ~ ~ s ; i111d C ) s c r v infi t h e p ~ l b l i c p u r ~ i o s e s
t hr ough s t a t e i n t c r v e ~ ~ t i o n i n cconomi c I i Sc o f p c o p l r i n :I way
t l l at gua r a n t e e s j u s t i c e and S C - L . L I ~ ~ t y and I ~ ~ C V C I I ~ S c~x( 11oi t : l t i on
1.
and s e l f i s h n c s s . Ile devot ed a1 1 h i s e r l c r gi c s t o t l i cs c a c t i v i -
t i c s t hr oughout h i s l i f e .
I n t h e I R t l i c e n t u r y , t h e sweet. and pur e s p r i n g ol' I sl am w:~s
sp0 i l(!d, 011 t h e one h a r ~d , hy u n - I s l a ~ n i c cust oms and rites and
f a l s e i n n o v a t i o n s sue-11 a s toml) wor s hi p; on t l i c ot l i cr hand, the,
s o c a l l ct l s u i i s n ~ 11a~1 made the. r e v o l u t i o n a r y inessajic of' l s l am
lifeless. I ' i n ~ i y a h ~ r i O I I I in 11otl1 d i r c c t i o r i s .
S u f i s ~ n was wi de- s pr ead i n t l ~ a t p~, r . i od. Tl l erc wer e ~ I i T l c r e ~ l t
forills 01- s u l i s m, wi t h di ! f cr cr i t c o n ~ . c p t s , ~nct l i ods ~ I I I C . ~ r ~ l l t s . liut
a1 1 of them pr eached a '1 i r e o r s e t - l u s i o ~ l and i ~~c l i v i c l u a l ism; ~ I I I L I
any e r f o r t Cor o r g a n i s i n g good s o c i a l I i c or r t ~ t I i n i t
was cons i dc r c d a s wo r l d l i n e s s . They iriveritcd J i TTcrcrit i t l eas
a11d he1 i e f s c o n t r a r y t o t h e tc~:icliinjis o r 1sl;im. 1'1111s t l i cy t l i vcr -
t e d t l i c at t e n t i o n oC t h e i r f ol l ower s Frorn t h c ;1ctu:11 p ~ - ~ ) l ) l e ~ n s oT
1 i . C~ . 1b11 Tai mi yah b i t t e r 1 y c r i t i c . i z e d t h e i r i d e a s i ~ n d :1tti1c.hc.~1
t h e i r ~ ~ r a c . t i c e s . Once he wr ot e a l r t t c r t o Sh: ~i kh N I I . ; ~ . ~ ; ~ n l ) i j T
t h e s p i r i t l ~ a l advi . s or of Da i ha r s , ~; i s h; l r ~hf r i n w11ic.h he condemned
t h e monism o f I hn ' Ar ahi . M ~ I I I ) i j i I ~ V L - X I ~ C an~: r . y w i t h 11 i r n i11ic1 on
3
h i s advice!, ~ i i s l ~ i ~ r l h f r e x i l e d him t o Al ex; ~ndr i r i . A t t11:it ti111c
Ca i r o was J omi nat cd hy t h e s ~ f c s . Ilc want ed t o l ) r . c; ~k ~ l ~ c - i r powc7r.
and p r r ; ~ c ~ l i r ~ l ;~g;r i n s t them. As ;I r es o l t h r T:lc.ccl s t r o ~ ~ g ol1l105 i t i on
f r or ~l -~ S U ~ T S . and t l l e i r r ol l ower s . In ~) ; ~mas c. us , ;I c e r t a i n S ~ ; I i kh
Ihr5l i i m a l ~ ; ~ t t n ~ i , who had d i s r i i : t l ~. ed I ~i l ns cl 1: ancl was ;lc~. usc>d
among o t h e r t l i i n g s , O F i mt i ~ ~ l o r ~ i ; l ~ ~ i s ~ n , was hrougl i t t o hi111. 1I)n
' I' ain~iycih 11crs11aded him t o r i v i l i z c a11J lic3t t e r 11is contli t i on.
4
' , I - _
' ~s t i f i r , S . : A 1 . . . -.. Muj t an~a' a 1 . t4iljl-~i ~
ry ~ ..
Xs r , S, ; l J at , i ~~ .. ~ .~ a1 h1:1111:11ih ~~ - ~ . ( Ca i r c ~ :
I)ar a1 Na11?i111 a1 'ArilbT;111, 1!70?), 1). 1 6 2
3
i n 1 1 I . op. c i t . p. 771.
1 t r . op. <. I t . V O ~ . S I V , 1 ) . 3 7 .
Some mi s gui ded pe opl e g l o r i f j e d t l i c tombs. l'oml)-worsll ill i s
c o n t r a r y t.o t h e I S I ~ I ~ I ~ C ~ ) c l i ( ~ f . 0 1 . v ~ ~ , ; ~ ~ ~ ! T ~ t l . ~ -- . I . ; LW! I ~CI -- T C ~ ~ I ~ I - e s
d e n i a l of- d i v i n i t y ;lnd power t o anyone excc,pt Al l al l t h e Al n ~ i g l ~ t y .
'I'omh d e v o t i o n and s i mi l a r i r i n o v a t i o ~i s vi ol at e. t h i s p r i n c i p l e .
lbii l' aimi yah denounced t h i s i nnovat i on i i i i d wr ot e 111a1iy t r e a t i s c s
on t h i s i s s u e .
Orice 21 t y r a ~ ~ t gove r nor o r f l ; i r ~ ~ a s c ~ ~ s ilnliosed so~llc e x c e s s i v c t a x e s .
Ihli ' l' aimi yali g o t him t r a n s I-ctrred h y t h e Sul La11 a11d g o t t . l ~ ~ * t a x e s
3
c; i ncel 1cJ.
Il)n ' 1 ' ; ~ i ~ n i yah had s c c n t ; r cat i~l)Iic;~v;i' l s in I I.; e i i ~ c l . llc. I~acl
s c c n how a f a l s e c onc e pt o f r e ] i ~: i on ~ ; I I I S C ' ; ~ > x j ) l o i t a t ion and
cl i st ur l ) . r nces, and how r n i s c o n c c ~p t i o l ~s c l i t c r c ~ l i 1 1 tlru r c l i gi oi i
c s p c c i : ~ l l y whcn i t i s d c p r i v c d nof power. Ile w;ls ol' t l l c opi ni ni i
t h a t r e1 i g i o n and t h e s t a t e s l ~ o ~ ~ l ~ l I,(, i nd i s s o l u l >l y l i ~ ~ h c d .
Witl~orct t i l e c o e r c i v e power o r t h c s t a t e , r c l i g i o n i s i n d;111ger;
w i t horrt t lie cli s c' i pl i nc o f t l ~ t . r evcal ct l l.aw, t h e s t a t e l rccon~c, ;I
t y r a n n i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .
4
-- ~
l ~ l ) n Ka t h i r . op. ~ i t . Vol . X I V , p . SO.
' AI Mub3rilk, M. : "Pref' ace" a 1 Si v3s : ~I i .-.d ; I I S I I ; I ~ " ~ ; L I ~ ( H c i 1-11t: Oar :i I
Kutuh a 1 Ar nhi ah, 9 1 . i i i .
3 .
Il)n ~ n t l ~ y r . 01, . c i t . Vol . XIV, p. 0 2 .
4
1 I I i I i I : :L I S i s I I ~ ~ l i : - ~ ..... . 1 ) . 1 H!l .
011ic: he wr o t c a l c t t c r t o t h e Sul l Li n o l 11is t i mo , a d v i s irrg h i ~ n
t o f i g h t s t a r v a t i o n , f u l f i l n c c d s , hc l 1) t h c s u p l ~ r c s s c c l , 1 i s t c n
t o t h e t r a u h l e c l p e r s o n s , a nd t o e l l j o i n good a114 l . or l ~i i l e v i l s .
Ile count t : d t h e s e t h i n g s a s pi 1l:rrs ol ' j u s t i ci ! :III(I g o u ~ l n c s s .
I
An o t h e r t a r g e t . o f 1l)n ' l ' s i n ~ i y a l ~ ~ s c r i t i ci 5111 i s t l r c (;rc3eh 1111 i l o -
s ophy a nd l o g i c . The t r ; r ~ ~ s l ; r t i o n o f ( ; r e e k 111' rit;1ge i l l t o Aral ) i c
s t : r r t c d i n t h c c n r l y p e r i o d s 0 1 - 1 s l a m. A 1-vw Al ) l > ; ~ s i d c ; ~ l i 1111s
e s t a h l islrccl a c a c l c l ~ ~ i e s f o r s ucl l t r ; r ~ i s l ; ~ t i o r i ~ . W i t l ~ i r r 1.wo o r tlrr-cc?
centuries, n g r e a t nunrbcr o f Mus 1 i m plri I o s ~ p l ~ e r s i ~ l ) p e ; ~ r ~ J wllo
propourrdc~rl Gr e e k i d e a s o r t r i c d t o j u s t i f y t h e I s l a o ~ i c i d c ; ~ s ; l nJ
c r c c d s f r om t h e (;reek p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t o S v i c ws .
l ' hc t r u e p i c t l l r c oT l s l a s r 1)c>c;1111c r l i s t o r t c d Iby c o n f l i c t i ~ r g i nt cs r - -
p r e t a t i o n s . l3y t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y Al l , Gr cck ~ ~ l ~ i l o s o l ~ l l y l1:1(1 s u c h
a s t r o n g h o l d o v e r t l ~ e mi nds of l ~ e o p l c t h a t t l ~ e y coul cl l r : ~r cl l y
t hi r r h wi t h o u t i t s h e l p . ( ; r e e k phi l o s o p h y l r; ~d hccomc t l r c ~ ~ ~ c % ; ~ s u ~ - i n :
r od Tor r c l i g i o u s t r u t l i s . I)uc t o t l r c i r i ~ r l ' l u c ~ r c c i t t ) e c i ~ ~ n c ;1111ros
i mp o s s i b l e f o r p e o p l e t o k e e p steadily t o t h e r i g h t p a t h o l 1sl;lrn
I b n 1' ; l i mi yah w : ~ s a wa r e o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n . Ilc knew t h n t u n l e s s
t l r c f a l s e har l r l i cap o l Cr c c k [ ) l r i l o s o l ~ I ~ y was r e ~a ovc d 11co[l l e wuul d
n o t h c ; r bl c t o g r a s p t h e c i i v i n c t r u t h o f Is1:un. Iic s t u d i e d a l l
t h e g r e a t Mus1i111 p l r . i I o ~ o p h ~ r s i ~ n d t h e i r wor hs S L I C I I ; I S ; I ] l : 5r 5I ) i p
wl ~o i s c a l l e d tlre n e x t Ma s t e r ; ~ S t e r A r i s t o t l c , wor ks o f Avi cc. n~r a
( I l l n ~ i n 5 ) I hn ' l ' ui - ai l , Avcr r oct s ( I n I u s t ~ l ) t c . llc c . r i t i ci zccl
cvcrr a 1 i ; l ~ a z a l f who h i ~ n s e l f was ;I g r e a t c r i t i c o f p h i l o : ; o l ~l ~y ill
h i s l a s t cl ays, f o r n o t g e t t i n g r i d ol ' p h i l o s o p h y t o tlrc: l ' ul l
1
e x t c n t . Dur i ng h i s e x i l e I A ~ L ? ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ : I i n 1 3 0 7 he wr o t e onc of
t h e rno.;t v a l u a b l e wor ks a1 I ~ L I ~ ~ J ' A I ~ ~. ~~ ~ :11 . ~ b l n ~ i ~ i ~ i ~ n ' . 'I'hc 1:)-erich
s c h o l a r I l r n r i l . a o ~ ~ s t i s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h ; ~ t in Al cx: 111~1ri ; 1 I I C
mi ght ha ve met and i r ~ r l u c n c c d hy t h e p; ~s s i r r ) : ~uwallllidcl~i.11 o f a 1
-
~i1-f who we r e v e r y opposcd t o t h e p l r i l o s o p h i c : ~I t h i n k i n g i n
-
r e l i g i o n ;ind v e r y s t r i c t i n t l ~ c i r he1 i e f o f t h c ~ ~ n i t y o I ( h d .
"T11n 'l'a i mi yal r was oppos ed t o c x t rcmc: r a t i o n a l i s ~ ~ ~ . I . i kc Karrt
( d. 1 8 0 4 ) he d i d n o t 1 ) e l i c v e t l r ; ~ t r e a s o n c ~ i u l d cl r i vv u s k ~ ~ o wl c . d g t ~
o f 11I t i ma t e t r u t h s . Ilc was oppos ed t o l o g i c in i t s a p l j l i c a t i on
t o t h e t r l l t h s o f r e l i g i o n or. u l t i l l l at e t r u t l ~ s . Ilc W: IS n o t g gain st
r e ; ~ s o n i n g a s S U C I I , h u t 1 1 c l i ~v c c l t h a t i t was not C ~ I I I ' I I I C ' ~ L O t h C
A r i s t o t e l i a u l o g i c o r s y l l o g i s t i c ~.~;iso::~n i ~ r g . I.og i c, l ~ c clcmonh-
t r u t e d , was n o t n me a s ur e o f ~ I I V t 1.11tl1 o r r c ; t l i t y . I t was or11 y :I
means of' j ~l c l gi ng t h e c ons i s t c n c y of a r gu~nc r r t s . I t s c o ~ i s t n n t ilscS
s l i ; ~r pe nc t l t h e i n t e l l c c t ; ~ r ~ t l a s s i s t c d i n [ l i s c o v c r i ~ i g f a 1 l a c i ct s i l l
r e a s o n ink;. I t was , l ~ o we v c r , ;111so 1 u t r l y i r ~ c ~ ~ l ~ a l i l c o[ ~ J I - o v i n g tltci
e x i s t e n c e oC a t h i n g . I t w: i s i ~ c : i t h c r ;I s i l r ~ ~ . c c o l r x i s t c : n t i ; ~ l n o r
va111at i o n a l knowl ct l ge. . . . . 1 ,
"Tn t h e o p i ~ ~ i u n o f l b n a i 1 1 i y 1 l o g i c was a l s o 11ot i n conf or 111i 1y
wi t ~ i r e a s o n , t , e c a ~ ~ s c r c a s o n c o u ~ LI not I,c s u t i o r t ~ i ~ ~ a t r d t o p r i n c i p l c .
l a i d down 11y o n c man. I <c ; ~s nr ~ ha( ! i t s 1 1 ~ 1 1 i r a t u r e ; I I I J i t I I ; I I I i t s
own al et hods . I t s c. our se anrl Cr ~nct io11 i ng c o u l <l 11'. J c t c *nni ne d 1)y
anyone. 'Thc 1 i n e s p r e s c r ilictl 11y Ar i s t o l e I i ; l r ~ l o g i c wcr c t o o
nar r ow f o r r e a s o n and i n f a c t r easor l was 11ot r c s t r i c t c * d t o t l r c s c ~
ways n l o ~ ~ c . .....
I I
1b11 'l'aimi yah' !; mctlrod o f t e a c l ~ i n g was ver y <, l cl : ; ~nt ancl r c . ~~~; i r ha l ) l c ~.
It was Eul 1 o f a u t h c n t i c r c l ' c ~r ~~n c . c s i l nd st r engt hened w i t l r r ; i t i onal
r e a s o n i n g and t . r ai ! i t i or i al c v i c l ~ ~ n c e . Whcncvcr lic want ed t o clr l i v c r
3 Lect ur e on a s u b j e c t hc r cCcr r ci l t o t l ~ e v c r s c s 0 1 ' t l i c Qur' in i ~nd
discussed t h c i r i ncani ngs wi t h c r o s s rcfcrcri , -1, s I-1-om t h e Qur'5n.
He a l s o r ~ o t e d t h c c vi dc nc c from t l ~ c t r a d i t i o n s o f t l i c I' roplict ; i nd
ex; ~r ni ncd t h e i r a u t h e n t i c i t y . 'Then l r ~, c x p I ; ~ i n v d t h e o p i ~ i i ons 01.
t h c f o u r s c h o o l s o f j ~ ~ r i s p r ~ r d i r n c c and some o t h c r f:~mous d o c t o r s
of j u r i s p r i ~ d c n c e . lie di scussc. d t h e r nat t cr f ~ ~ l l y i n tlrc I i ! l , l r t 01.
thctsc s o t h a t t h e pr ohl cm and i t s . ; ol ut i on l ~cca~nt . cl c. ar i l l t h e
mi nds of' lris l i s t e n e r s . IIt! h ; ~d ;I ver y good memory wl l i c . 1 1 hel pcd
him ovcrwhcl m h i s a dve r s a r ' i c s in l ml cmi cs .
I
Almost t h c sarllc s t y l e he at l opt cd I I w i t i s . l l i s wr i t i n g s
a r e c l e ; i r and e l e g a n t . I t i s s o 111uch r i c h wi t h t h e i . c l ' c ~. e ~i c i ~s
o f t h c v c r s c s o f t l ~ e Qur'Tin, t r a d i t i o u , s a y i n g o C t he co~~i p; i ni ons ,
t h e i r f o l l o wc r s , and o p i n i o n s o f t h e otlicr. d o c t o r s of j ~ i r i s p r u -
dence t hat . a per s on who r c a ~ l s i t , f c r l s t h a t I I C i s l i v i n g 111
t h e blcs.;ccl age. From t h e l i t c r : r r y p o i n t o17 vicw t o o , l r i s
w r i t i ~ ~ g s I ~a vc a g r e a t v a l t ~ e . licc;ruse o r t l ~ c i r c l r a r ? x p r c s s i ol l ,
and c h o i c e o f idiorns cvcn h i s tee-hnical works scum To lic l i t c -
rii ry orrcs.
Along wi t h t h c s e me r i t s h i s wr i t i 1i g3ar c h l a ~ o ~ d f o r s o ~ ~ ~ e s h o r t -
coni i i ~gr . For exampl e, he s o f r . cqu<' ~r t l y 11 i g w s s r s i l l h ~ s wr i t i n g s .
wi t h
I k ; l l i n g / a p a r t i c u l a r pr obl em h c soori goes ol'C t h e t r : ~ c h ~111cl he
c o w s back t o t h e t o p i c o n l y a f t e r a lorig cle t o u r .
. -
3 . Ills l ~ l s ~ : l l ' l , I ~ s
When Ilin ' I' aimiyah t l i cd hc l e f t ;i vcr y 1;1r-gc r r u~nl ~er o f p u p i l s and
c l i s c i [ ) l ~ s . 111 t l l i s C H S C he w: l s next t o ilone. I l i s d i s c i p l e s wcr r
o l two ki nds a s h i s t c a c l ~ i ~ ~ f i mcrt i nxs wcrc a l s o o f two hi nds .
Onc ki nd o f p u p i l s were t l i osc who hcnc1.i t c d : I I I ~ 1c ; l r nc ~~l fr.0111 11 i m
t hrougl r h i s s pepches a f t c r t h e 1: r i day prayers and puhl i c l e c t u r e s .
I n s uc h ~ n e c t i n g s hc us e d t o pr cs Cl r t l ~c l ' o r c thc111 t h e p l ~ r c and
s i mpl e t e ; l c hi ngs o i I s l am; i nvohed them t o f ol l ow t h c good ancl
j u s t , ancl f or badc t h e e v i l s and i nnovat i o n s .
The o t h e r k i n d s o f d i s c i p l c s wcrc t h o s e who a t t c n d e d hi.; s pe c i ; i l
s e s s i o n s . 'l'lreqc were d i s c i p l c s i n t r . 1 1 ~ s e n s e o f t l ~ v word. 'I'licy
pos s e s s e d i n t c l 1 i gcncc and a b i l i t y t o g r a s p t h e t e ; ~c l i
t h e i r ~r l a s t e r . 'I'lley i n l i c r i t c d Iris h~~owl ecl gc and t h i n k
I l i s d i s c i l > J e s s pr ead from S y r i a t o ligypt ~ I I I ~ C ; ~ i r o t o
'>
Some o f them s c a t t c r c d t o t l l c I nr ' t l l e~. p l ; ~ c e s . - I l i s (11
p r t ~; ~c l r e ~l uncl d c v e l o p e ~l h i s i11tc.1 l e c t u n l 11et.i t ; l gc. 'I'licy s h i ~ r c d
t h c i r 1lt:istcrs p e r s e c u t i o n s . OI I C o f t l i c ' most ~ ; I I I I OL I S d i s c i p l e s was
Ihn Qayyi ~n a1 . J U Z T ~ ; ~ I ~ (cl. 1 7 5 0 ) , wl~o i s a g r c a t wr i t e r i n h i s own
r i g h t . Ile mi ~~g l e c l h i s p e r s o n a l i t y w i t h t l l a t 01' ti i s t ~~; r cl r cbr . WL.
f i n d i n h i s l)ooks r e f l c c - t i ons o f Ihn 1ai mi y; l l l ' s t hol r gl ~t . I'lie
other d i s t i n p ~ i s l ~ e d d i s c i p ' l e s a r c Ih11 ' ~ l ) c l a1 I I ~ ~ I I ( d. 1343) who
d i c d a t t l i c agc o f 1- or t y I > u t 1eTt va l ua l ) l e works t ~vl i i nd h i m ; he
,- , -
wr ot e ;i biography o f h i s ma s t e r t~arnc.ly a1 1 1 y d - :11 l 1 1 1 1 i i 1 l 1 ; ~ - . 1h11
K ~ ~ I I T I . (cl. 1 3 t l ~ c Falnous 11 i s t o r i a r l and c o ~ n n ~ c ~ ~ t ~ t o r o f t h c
'1hn %l)duI llacli. op. ~ i t . 11. 2 6 7 .
I j i l sill1 1 , -
c f . A I . I : 'Some o f t hr ~n c.;llnc 1 o I I I I I -~ . - . : I -, T..r KllawSt T.-+ . i .. I-
(Ilyclcr:~O~~cl: l ) a e r a l ~ a1 M:ii-iC a 1 Utt11na11~:111, l!)b2)';- 01 . t) 9 .
b i o g r a p h y oC hi s t e a c h e r ; l , l 5f i z l , l l ; l l l l , t (d. l 3, 18) , t h e RI - e a t Ts l ; ~r ni c
t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r l a n ; a l h l i z z i ( < I . 1 7 4 1 ) , : ~ n o t h c ~ - c x p c r t on
t r a d i t i o n s ; Muhamm;~d I ) i n Muflcl! ( d . 1 3 0 2 ) . w r i t e r ol' loany h o o k s ;
AhG I.I;lSs a 1 B a Z Z 5 z d . 134!1) t h v ; ~ u t l ~ o r oF :I hi ogr - nphy ol. Tl)n
Tai nl i y a h ; Ibri a l h' ar di ( d . 13181 e x p e r t i l l 1 i t c , ~. c i t u r e , gr anen: ~r
and some o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f l c ; ~ r r ~ i r ~ g ; and (jcldf l l >n I : ; I ~ I I I I 1511
( d. 1 3 4 9 ) a Camous w r i t e r .
F. I MI'ACT 01: TTIN ' l' AlC1 I YAll ' I' l l ROUGl I ' I ' l l l i A(;l:S
I I i n I c r c a t cd a n a t ~~~os l i l ~c . r . c . o f r c v o l u t i o n a r y t h i n k i n g wi t h
h i s v i e ws and i d e a s and r cl l or mnt ivc. c n J c : ~ v o u r s whose in111:lct i s
Ce l t n o t o n l y i n 1 1 i 2 , t i me b u t t l ~ r o r ~ g l l t l ~ e ;igc's e v e n t odi l y. I I I
h i s l i f e t i me p e o p l e we r e d i v i d e d i n t o three g r o u p s , t h o s e wllo
we r e s t r o n g oppor l er l l s o f h i m, t h o s e wl ~o we r e h i s supporter a n d
l u l l y a g r e e d wi t h 11 i n 1 nnci the, t l i i r d j t roup was rictrt r a 1 o r a g r e e d
i n somc vi c ws and d i s a g r e e d i n o t h c r s . When Thn 1' 1iilniy;ih d i e d he
Icl't i )el ~i ri cl hi m n l a r g e n~l r nhcr o f h o o k s rid d i s c i p l e s . Soon, h i s
oppor l cl l t s hc c ; ~mc unknown wl l i l c t h e v a l u e and ap[ ) r ec i : ~ t i o n 1-01.
h i s wor ks increased a s t h c t i me p a s s e d .
I h n ' l ' ai rni yah had g r e a t i n f l u e n c r t1vr.r SLI I t 211 NXsi r M~~l ~a n ~ma d
b i n l w i i n . 'The Su l t 5 1 l us vd t o c o r i s ~ l l t I i i m d u r i n g l i i s s t a y a t
C a i r o i n t h e y e a r s 1309 t o 1712. The Su1!311 a p p o j n t c d t h e AIII-i r
Shanls a 1 1)-in Afram a s t h e G o v e r ~ ~ o r o f T r i p o l y on t h e acl vi cc of
1hi 1 Tai m i yah.
2
Ilc 11;1d grc\;ct l r ~l ' l u c n c e among nlni r s ar~cl h i g h r i l l ~k i n g o f 1- I C i ; ~ l S .
Du r i n g l i i s s t a y i n i l gypt and S y r i a , a r ~ d c ve n wl ~en 11c was i n 1 1 1 1 . i -
s o n c d , a Gr s and o t h e r r e s p o n s i l i l ch p e r s o n s , a l o n g w i t l ~ t h e ~ ~ I I I I I I ~ I I
-. . - - . -
l ~ h n X h c l ~ ~ l 1153:. op. z i t . p p . 280- 82; Jhn K a t l ~ i r . 011. c i t .
Vol . XI V, p. 66.
7
' Ibri Ka t l i ~ r : ;11 Bitl3yah. Vol . X I V , p. 01.
I n h i s 1 i I'e t i n~c I I I i n y 1 1 ra~nc, and i n f l uencc cxt c. ~~t l ecl
beyond t h e h o ~ ~ r ~ d a r i c s ol' ligypt ;ind S y r i : ~ , nil r eached o t h e r coun-
t r i e s . When hc was i mpr i os or ~c ~d f u r t h e t i n i n t h r c i t ; ~ d c l
ol' ll;i~~~ascus, mclrly l c t t c r s came from t h r i n l ~ : ~ l ) i t a n t s of Ilaghda(1 pr o
. 1
t e s t i n g h i s cl r r cs t ant1 tlcmanding hi .; r c l e a s e . When hc dic'd
Cuncr al p r a y e r s i n a b s e n t i a were per f or med i n t h e c a s t , c v r n in
~h i n a .
' IIIII ' A I I ~ I L I ~ 115~17. op. c i t , 11
pp. 5 o , x 7 .
'1b11 Kat l l r r . Vol . XIV, 1111.
- - -
' Al 1)awatl;lri. op. c i t . Vol.
171; I K t i r o . i t . I . X I V ,
8 5
As f a r cconomi c pr ohl c ms a r c c o r l c ~: r u c d , i t w;~s imllos.;il)lc f o r t hcm
1
t o e s c a p e t h e a t t e l l t i o n 01 s uc h ;I vc, r sat i l c g c ~ r i:It~s. 1b11 ' I ' a i ~ i yah
had s e e n d e s ~ r u c t i on of' f ami I i e s a n d t h c i I. deter i , , ~ . , ~ t c ~ t I c c o r l o ~ ~ ~ i c
t l l ~
c o u d i t ions s i n c c / v c r y b e g i ~ ~ r l i n g o r 11 i s 1 i f e . llis own i' ;~mi l y f i r ced
m i g r a t i o ~ ~ and s u f f - e r e d f r om l o s s o f p r o p e r t y . Ilc wi t n c s s c d ,I
g c n c r a l cconomi c p l i g h t t h e h a n ~ l s 01' Mongfils. Ilc h a d c o r l t ; ~ ~ . t .;
wi t h e v e r y c l a s s o f t h c s o c i e t y - - s t a r t i n g From ' f n ~ ~ i i ! T n ' 2nd
-- . . . . . -
a r t i s a n s u p t o amTrs a nd s u ~ t n r ~ . ; . : I I ~LI I I L I CI S ~ ~ I I t t l c agolly o f t ~ ~ c
-- -L.. 1
poor c l : l s s e s a s we l l a s t h e c x p l o i t a t i o r ~ h y tllc. r u l i n g c I ; ~ s s . Al l
t h i s a f f e c . t e d hi m t o :I g r e a t e x t e n t ; nnc l cl yr~ami c and ~. or ~s c . i c . ~l l i n
~ ~ ~
1
- -
c f . , Ma q r i z i : - A1 I . 1 I V , p. 185.
2
l o s t I . : " l h n l ' ; ~i r ni yn" I ' nc yc l opv~l e : ~ .. ..- . ..--. 0 1 I.; I ; I I I I . Vo1 . 1 1 1 , 1) . 9 5 0 ;
p c r s o n ; ~ l i t y 1 i k c hi m c o u l d n o t k e e p s i l c r i t i n t l ~ i s s i t u a t i o n .
Mor e ovc r , h c was i n s p i r e d by t h e f a c t t h ~ t l s l n m ;is a r e i g i o n ,
i s c o l l c e r n e d wi t h t h e c, cono~ni c pr obl vms arid i t h; t s g i V C I I c c l r t ; ~ i n
C ~ ~ n d ; ~ n ~ c n t i ~ l p r i n c i p l e s i n t h i s r o g a r ~ l .
On t h c o n c h a n d , 1br1 ' l ' ai mi yah c mp h a s i z c ~d t h a t c v e r y p c r s o r ~ must
bc e n s u r e d 3 mi n imurn s t a r ~ d a r d o f 1 i v i n g s o t l ~ a t h e c o u l d l u l l ' i l
h i s c l u t i c s t o wa r d s t h e Al mi g h t y and liis o l ) l i g ; ~ t i o ~ i s t o w; ~r t l s h i s
1
b r e t t ~ r c r l . On t h c o t h e r I ~ a n d , lie s t r c s s c d u(1on j u s t i c e ; t h a t i s ,
h e t r i c c l t o p o i n t o u t t l i c r c s p o n s i h i l i t i c s o r t h e i ~ ~ d i v i d u a l a s
we l l a s t h c s t a t e , s o t h a t b o t h col l l d c o o p e r l l t c w i t l ~ c:;11-11 o t l rcr :, I
nol l e was exploited. Ac c o r d i n g t o him j u s t ic.e i s : I V ; I I U ~ ~ r e c o g - -
n i s e t l by a l l n a t i o n s . Ilc s a y s , " A l l p c o p l e a g r e e d t1i;lt t h e
cons cqucr r cc o f i n j u s t i c e i s gl oomy, ; i nJ f ~ u i t . o f j u s t iccs i s
a c l n ~ i r a l ~ l c . ,, 2
Ihri ' Tt ~i mi yah d i s c u s s e d t h e economic p r o l ~l c r n s ma i n1 y i n t wo o f
h i s h o o k s . On r , I t i s l i 1.i ' 1 I S I ~ I I I ' ( t l ~ t ' 11r s t i t ~ ~ t i on 01. I l i s hak
~ ~
i n i s l a m) ; t wo, l a 1 -. ~ l y i s n h n l S I I i I . ; I ; I I I A - - ~ H I ~ $ 1 ~ W L I ' I
1:
K=t l 1 I n . r . I ' u b l i c and I ' r i v a t c I,aws i n 151: 1111 hy F ; I T ~ I I ~ I ~
... .-
0 1 1 r ) . Wl i l l e 111 t h e f i r s t hook l ~ c d ~ s c . u s s c ~ s t h e i n. l l hct r ~ ~ ~ d g o v c r ~
wi t h publ i c i ncome and c x p c n d i t u r e .
Ap a r t f r om t l ~ c s c t wo b o o k s t11cr.c a r e a numhcr o f h i s work.; in
wh i c l ~ h e e x p l o r e s m: l t t e r s r e l n t c d t o c c o n o ~ ~ i i c s . S i n c e I I C was ;i
w r i t e r o f r r c q u c n t d i g r e s s i o n , h i s e c o l ~ o mi r vi e ws ~ 1 . c s c . ; ~ t t e r c d
- -
a l l o v e r h i s h o o k s . t s p e c i ; i l l y , i l l h i s - F; ~t i ~wi i wt , f i n d l i i s vi e ws
and o p i n i o n s on t l i f f c ~ e n t cc-onomi c issues.
I n t ht . f o l l o wi n g p a g c s h i s economic vic.w.; wi l 1 be o u r mai n cone: crr
JUST PKICI:, MAIlKIi1' MECIIANISM A N U 1'111 ( ' I : IlI:(;III.A'I'lON
The c o n c e p t o r j u s t p r i c e p l a y e ~ l ;I g r e a t p ; ~ r t i n economic t h i n h i n g
o r t h e Mi ddl e Ages. Or i g i n a l l y i t was ;In ethical and 1cg; l l term
..
t h a t t u r n c d i n t o a n C C ~ I I O I I I ~ C one. I t had p < ~ s s c d t l ~r ouf i l l many
s t a g e s bc Lor c i t mer ged i n economi c t h e o r y .
The Gerlnirn a u t h o r Kudo1 T Kaul l a 5 t ; t t c s t11,it" f hc conc. ept o f i u5t 111n
; -. . -
p r c t i u m ( j u s t ~ > r i c e ) was f i r s t r or mul a t c t l i n llomc,
n e c e s s i t y of' 1: l yj ng down s p e c i a l r u l o s f o r t h c g u i d
t r n t e s i n c a s e s i n whi ch +he y h ; ~ d t o pr onounc e upon
a co~nl nodi t y o r s e r v i c e . "I Hut h r d o c s n o t g i v e any
t h i s o p i n i o n . The oconomi c h i s t o r y ol' a n c i e ~ ~ t c i v i l
t h a t t he i d e a o f r e g u l a t i n g p r i c e an<l s c c u r i n g j u s t ice. i n p c Ol ~ l ~ . ' s
a c t o f b u y i n g a nd s e l l i n g was l our ~d i n many i l a t i o n s , f u r c x ; ~ ~ o ] ) l e
' '
3
Hel ~r cws , l l i n d t ~ s " and Gr e e ks . But i t s na t ~1r . c a nd I I I ~ I I L I ~ C ' d ~ t a i I S
wer e n o t p r e s e r v e d . I n b r i e f we c i i ~ ~ s a y t l ~ a t a t t h x t t i me " a s a
c o n c r p t i o n antl a s a d o c t r i n e , i t was h ; i s i c : ~l l y e t h i c a l r n t l ~ c r t ha n
cconomi c. In a n t i q u i t y et. hict; was n hr anch o l l ~l t i l os ophy and t h e
d o c t r i n e o f t h e j u s t l ~ r i c c fvrmed a p a r t o f pl l i l os opl ~i c; r l systcrlr. ,, 1
I t was cxpouriilcd wi t h t h e viitw oS r c a l i z a t i o n o r j u s t i c e ~ a t h c r
t ha n p r i c e dct er m
t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t
j u s t p r i c e .
2
Th t ~s i t became ;I 1
d e a l i n g wi t h marhe
keepi ng i n t o vi ew
n a t i o n . T t a l s o I c
e s s houl d do a l l i n
egal t er m. The TI I I I I I
i nevi t a h l y 1 o t h e dc~nand
t h e i r power t o e n f o r c e s uch
1s s u p e r v i s i o n h n d r i g h t t o f i x , i l l st p r i c e s
t h e s t a t u s o f t h e pi . oduccr s s o t h a t t l i c c x p l o i -
t a t i o n s on t h e s i d e of buyers a s we1 l a s s c l l c r s mi ght 111, avoi dct l .
a . I P r i c e ~ i n t h e Mi t l dl c Agcs. I n t h e Miclillc Ages, j l i s t
p r i c e hecume t h e main thcmc o f t l i c t h i n k e r s on ccorrornic ~1r ol 11c111s
I t has hecn t h e most i n ~p o r t n n t concept of t h e pcr i oi l . A new
dcvel opmr ~nt i n t h a t p c r i o d w ; ~ s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n ol' c o s t a n a l y s i s
i n t h e t l i s c u s s i o n o f j u s t p r i c e , t hough s t i l 1 i t rerna i ncd under
t h e shadow o f law and e t h i c s . I t seems worthwhile t o i t x; ~mi nr tlrc
t h e o r y 0 1 . j u s t p r i c e among ' s c h o l a s t i c t 3 t l ~ i n k c r s o f r he Micldlv
Ages bcl - or e we exami ne l bn T a ~ mi y a h ' s vi ews on t h e s u h j e c t .
'She t we l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s o f tlrc Mi ddl e Ages a r c
marked wi t h a r i s e i n economi c a c t i v i t i e s i n l i uropc antl c s [ ~ a n s i o n
of t r a d e and commerce. A r e v i v a l O F i ~ r t e l l r c t ~ ~ a l l i f e :1lso tool.-
pl aci . and s c h o l a r s hcgnn t o conccr n t h e ~n s c l vcs wi t l ~ economic
pr obl ems , whi ch wer e ; i ssumi ng p r n c t i c a l a s wel l a s t h c o r c t i c ; ~ l
a i n I : ' J u s t P r i c e ' , Il r~cyc . . . - . - l opar d . - i a . ol. . . t h y So c i a l . . - . -. -. S c i c n c c * ~ .. . - - .. . .
(New Yorh: The Macmi l l an Co.) Vol . , p. J .
2 -
c l . , Ka ul l a , R . 01'. c i t . pp. 3, 1!' . 3?, :13, 34
"
. >
Sc t i i i ~~~p c t c r , 5;ly.j: "Clcdiev:~ l men of s c i r ~ r c c wcr c arrd a r e usu; i l l y
r ef er - r - cd t o a s Sclroolmen o r S c t r o l ; ~ s t i c b , (i 1oc: t crvs s c l ~ o l ; ~ s t i c ) ."
I l i s t o ~. y o f Ilcononiic Anal= . (1.or1~1011: Ge 0 1 . g ~ j \ l l e n & l l r i w i n Lt d . ,
T W ; 11. 7 8 .
i mpor t ance a t t h a t t i me . A l l t h c s c I ' act or s c a us e d rethinking on
t h e q u e s t i o ~ ~ o f j u s t p r i c e . 111 t h e words o r I l cnr i I l i ggs , " t h e
s t r e s s whi ch t h e g r e a t s c h o o l ~ r ~ c n , he gi nni ng wi t h I'ct'r I.on~l>arcl,
l a i ~ l upon i t f r om i l ~ e t w e l f t l ~ c e n t u r y onwal.ds., ~n ~u s t bc c x p l n i n e d
n o t o n l y by t h e gr owt h o f t 1-:1de hut a l s o h y t h c r e vi ve d s t i ~t l y ol'
t h e Ro~na~l Law, wl ~i c h l ai cl ~ U W I I t h a t cvcrylnarr 11ad a 1 1 n t u r a 1 r i g h t
t o o v e r r e a c h a n o t h e r . "I Thus 11c f i i vcs ccl t ~aI i r ~~por t a nc c . t o t h c
intellectual awakening o f t h c 11cr i od a l o n g w i t h t h c expansion
i n t r a d e a nd comnlercc and i n c r e ; l s c i n economic a c t i v i t i c s .
For a de t a i ! e t l s t u d y o f t h e j l ~ s t p r i c c a s s v r r ~ by t h c : ; c h o l a s t i c
t h i n k e r s wc choos c, f o r t h e s ; ~ k e o f c o n v c ~ ~ ~ i c n c e , ;I r e p r c s c n t a t i v c
)
p e r s o n a l i t y o r t h e Mi ddl e Agcs - - Sa i n t ' I ' hom: ~~ A q u i r ~ n s , ~ a s I I V
has beell c a l l ed t h e pr i nce o f t h r s c h o l r ~ s t i c s , ' and h i s t houfi l rt
gover ned an epoch. ' Accor ~l i nf i t o Ot l , r i e n , "'l'l,e t c i i c l ~i n g 01.
Aqui nas upon economi c n f f a i r s r c ma i ~ ~ e d t h e gr ound work o f i l l 1 t ~ h c
Lat er wr i t e r s u n t i l t h e end o f t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y . I l i s o p i n i o n s on
v a r i o u s p o i n t s wer e ; ~r npl i f i et l and e x p l a i n e d Ily Lat er a i ~ t t r o r s i n
more d e t ~ ~ i l t ha n he hi ms e l f cmpl oyc%J. . . . ,, 5
Wi t hout d e f i n i n g c l e a r l y what i s j u s t p r i c e , Aqui nas s a y s "It: i s
L ~ a i r ~ t TIIOI~LIS . - --.$..~ A ui n<~s .... : 1 ( 1225- 1 2 7 4 ) was horn a t l t occasccca near-
qi11no 111 tT(: ~ n g c h n ~ o f Napl es . IIc was the. son oS I.a11d111ph,
c o u ~ ~ t o l Aqi ~i rro. Ile b c g ; ~ ~ ~ 11i s s t u d i e s a t a n c*ar l y age a t Monte
C; ~ s s i n o and l at . c>r a t t h e Un i v e r s i t y of Napl cs . Ilc s t ~ ~ d i o d a l 5 0
a t ( : ol oj ! ~~c undcr Al 1, cr t us Magnus, s u l ~ s c q i ~ c n t l y Sol 1~1wi 11g h i s
r n; ~s t c r t o I ' ar i s . I I t : t r i e d t o s y n t l ~ ~ , s i z c t h e t c ; ~ c l r ~ n g ol' C h r l s t i -
; 1 1 t i t y ; ~ n d pl l i l os opl ~y of A r i s t o l l ~ . . Ile t ought i n I 1; l r i s and C o l ~ j i ~ ~ c .
l l i s ~ l ~ o s t i nl por t ant work i s SLIIIITII:I T11i:o l ogi c; i I I I I 111- C. C. pk1rts.
Ncar l y c v c r y t h i n g o f i n ~ p o r t a r ~ c c t h a t 111, 11;1s t o s a y ; ~ l l o ~ ~ t s oc. i ; ~ I
and 1' 0l i t i cr i l mat t car s a r c f ound i n t h e second p a r t o l i t . Kv c r , y
wr i t e r o n e a r l y h i s t o r y o f cconon~i i . t h o u g l ~t r e I c r s t o 1 1 i r r 1 .
"
3
I l ancy, I.cwis H . 01) . c i t . p. 9 8 .
y A. . i t . p. 30.
s i n f u l t o 11r nct i cc f r a ud Tor t h e c x p r c s s pl1r1iosc o l s e l l i n g ;I
t h i n g Tor nlore t l ~ r i ~ i t s j u s t p r i c c , i nr l s ~ncl ~l ~ a s a mi111 ~ C C C ~ V ~ S
l i i s nei ghhour t o l ~ i s l o s s . - , I Ilc quot : s Ci c c r o a s s; l yi r i g, " A l l
dc c e pt i on s houl d t l t er cTor e be e l i mi nat cd fr-om c o n t r a c t s ; t h e
s e l l e r sl i oul d not p r o c u r e some uric t o hi d I I ~ , nor t t w IIuyer sun~c.
one t o b i d down t h e p r i c e s . "' ( ; OT~ UI I i nSc~. s t l i : ~t " t o Aqu i n a s t h e
j u s t p r i c e o f any commodiry i s i t s cur r c, l l t wrlrkct p r i c e est al h-
I j s hcd i n t h e abs ence o f Tr uud ; i r i cl ino~iopol i s t i c tr.;tcl ink: pr : i c t i c c s . "
S c l i ~ ~ ~ n p c t c r nl s o r e a c h e s t h e same cor l cl us ion a s hc s a y s , " St .
'Thomas was a s f a r a s Ar i s t o t l c from po: ; t ul at i r l g t h e o x i s t e ~ i c c oS a
me t a phys i c a l o r immutable ' ol hj ect i vc v a l u e ' . I l i s ..I. c u ~ ~ r i t : i t o s
v a l o r i s i s not something d i f r c r c n t from pr.ic.c 1h11t. i t i s s i mpl y
normal compct i t i v e p r i c e . Tl ~e d i s t i11l.t ion hc sccms t o 1n:ihc hct wccn
[ ) I ' I C C S
p r i c e aud v a l u e i s not ;I d i s t i n c t ion hctweeri / a ~r d some va 1ue t h a t
i s riot p r i c c , h u t ;I d i s t i n c t i o n hr t ween t l i c pr'ic-c pai d i n a11
i r i di vi dua l t r a n s a c t i o n and t l i c p r i c e t h a t ' c- or i s i s t s ' i n t l i c pul11ic
e v n l u n t i on oT t h e commudi t y which can onl y lncnri normill c.ompct i t i vc
p r i c e o r va111c i n t h e s e n s e of normal cumpet i t i v c l ~ r i c c , where
such n p r i c e e x i s t s . ,,4
Schum11ctcr s u p p o r t s t h i s interpretation 11y t h e f a c t t h ~ t t h c
t i t l e of t h e q u e s t i o n I . XYVI 1 u F p a r t 1 1 o r Su~nlnn ' l ' hcol ogi ca, ~ I I
which t h e t h e o r y o f j u s t p r i c c i s p r e s e n t e d , i s ' on f r a ud ~ ~ o r i i ~ ~ ~ i t t ~ . d
i n 11uyi11g and s e l I i n g ' . Agai u i n h i s own wor ds , " I f t h ~ j u s t
p r i c e were s omct l ~i r i g e l s e t h a n t h e normal compct i t i ve p r i c e ,
p r a c t i c e s o t h c r t h a n f r a u d would be inorc i r npor t ; ~r i t . R I I ~ i l' S t .
' I ' h o n ~s was t h i r i k i ~t g o f what wc: c nl l norm;tl colnllct i t i v c p r i c c ,
l ~ q u i n a s , S t . T .
Sumn,;~ T l i e o l o ~ -- ... . . ..
11: E I I ~ (:ucst i on I . X X V 1 I , a r t . 1 .
2 . .
l bl i l . 11: 2nd Q. LXXVII, a r t . I .
3
( ; or don. Il co~i omi c Anal . . . s i s . l o . A I I I I . . . Smi t l . -- (1.0ni1011 11 ' l ' onl ~~. i dge:
I.cw i s l < c p F i ~ ~ t C l XT ,
f r a u d I~ecorscs t h e c h i e f phenomenon t o be dealt w i 111. ]:or i I-
t h e r e c x i s t a compct i t i v e mar ket 1 ) r i c . ~ , i ~ ~ d i v i c I ~ ~ : ~ l J c v i a t i ons
f rorn i t a r e h a r d l y p o s s i b l e c xc c pt t l ~r - o ~i g h f r : ~udul c n t r c pr c s c n-
t a t i o n s a h o ~ ~ t t h e qun, l t i t y and quai i t y of t h e goods . ,, 1
On t h e I s i of a110ve ment i oncd [ a c t Scl i i ~ml ~cl c r held t h a t t h e
j u s t p r i c e of Aqui nas was a r t u : ~ l l y normal co~npet i t i vc p ~ . i c c . Ilc
d i d n o t t r a c e o t h e r c o n d i t i ons (11' p r r f c c t co~npct i t i on ill Aquin;is
wr i t i n g whi ch a r c n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d e t e r mi n a t i o n 01' such a p r i c c .
Many o t h e r wr i t e r s on medi eval cconomi c t l ~oi ~! ; l l t I ~a v e r c j c c t c ~ l
t h e o p i n i o n t h a t ' t h e medi cval j u s t p r i c e w:ls no way J i r Cc r c n t
from t h e c o mp e t i t i v e p r i c e o f t o d a y , which i s rived a t h y i l ~ c
hi ggl i ng o f t h e mar kct . Accor di ng t o thcro i t was c ons c i ous
s o c i a l juilgesient t h a t f i xcd t h c p r i c c s hcf or chand ; ~ n d was
2
c xpr c s s c d c h i e f l y i n cust oal . I n o u r o p i n i o n t h e r c: ~s on f o r t l r csc
two e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t concl u. ; i on i s t h e f a c t t h a t vi ews of
medi eval s c h o l a s t i c t h i n k e r s a r e vcr y b r i e r i l n d i ~ o t . ~ . u f f i c i t ~ n t i y
c l c a r . Th e r e f o r e much l ni gl ~t l>c s a i d on hot h s i d e s .
Al h e r t ~ r s Ma g r ~ ~ ~ s ( 1133- 1280) was t h e f i r s t among s c l ~ o l a s t i c
t h i l ~ k t ~ r s who i n t r oduced t h e l a h o u r and c o s t anal vs i s i n t h e t l i cory
of j u s t p r i c e . lle h e l d t h a t "two comnocl i t i es wcrc equal i n V I ~ I I I C
and t h e i r exchange would he J l ~ s t i r t h c i r p r o d u c t i o n r r l ~ r c ~ s c ~ n t c d
equal amount o f l a h o u r and expens e. 111 i s doctrine was adopt t-tl
3
word f o r wo r d b y S t . Aqui nas - h i s p u p i l . But no i l c. Ti r~i t i ori ol
c o s t i s I'ounJ wi t h then^ e xc e pt 311 c mp l ~a s i s o n c xv; ~l ua l ion o f
c o n d i t i o o r s o c i a l s t ; l t i ~ s : j u s t a s wor t h o f I ~ C ~ S O I I llrpe~ld. ; upon
- - .
h i s c l a s s , s o does t h e v a l u c of h i s s c r v i ~ c . ~ 111 t h e l i g h t [ I S
t h i s p r o p o s l t i o r ~ i t hccomcs c l e a r t l i a t t o Aqi ~i na s t h c j u s t p r i c e
1 .
11,111. 11. !I3 r o o t n o t e .
2-T--
c l . , O' b r l c r ~ . 01). c i t . pp. 11b- 17.
3 ~ d u l l : ~ . op. c i t . p. 38.
4 -
c l . , Aqui nah. op. c i t . I , 2nd ( ?uc\ t i or i LXI, a r t . 2 .
d i f f e r e n t i a l s h o u l d r e f l e c t
v a r i o u s s u p p l i e r s o f pr oduc
I f j u s t p r i c e i s n o t p r c v a i
t h e di l - Cc r e nc e i n s o c i a l s t a n d i n g of
t .
I
l i n g i n t h e ma r h e t , i n t h a t c ; ~ s c t h e
a u t h o r i t y w i l l f i x s u c h a p r i c e , r econr ncndi ng t h i s " S t . ' I ' l ~on; ~s
r e c o g n i z e s t h e e l c n ~ e n t oC t h c s u h i e c t i v e v a l u c o f ;in ohj c c - t t o
t h e s e l l e r , h u t he d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h c : e l c n e n t
>
o f t h e o b j e c t f o r t h c huyc r . " - tlc s a y s , "'The j u s t p r i c e wi 11 hc
o n e whi ch n o t o n l y t a k e s i n t o ; ~ c c o u n t t h e t h i n g s o l d , h11t a l s o
t h e l o s s i n c u r r e d I)y t h e s c l l e r i n p a r t i n g wit11 i t . And t h u s a
t h i n g may l a wf u l l y b e s o l d f o r more t h a n it i s wor t h i n itself,
-
t hough n o t rnorc t h a n i t i s wort11 t o i t s p o s s e s s o r . , , 3
R e l a t i v v l y a more c l c a r a n a l y s i s o f c- os t i s pr c - s e nt e d by a n
ling1 i s h s c h o l a s t i c t h i n k e r J o h n I)uns S c o t u s . " Ac c or di ng t o hi m
p r i c e s h o u l d c o v e r t h e e x p e n s e i n c u r r c d by ;I i nc r c l ~; ~r l t i r l buying,
t r a ~ ~ s p o r t i n g and s t o r i n g goods p l u s compens at i on ( o r t l ~ c i n d u h t r y ,
I a b o i ~ r a nd r i s k i n v o I v e d i n 1, r i r l gi ng t h e comrnodi t i e s t o ma r ke t .
Ile a d d s t h a t a j u s t p r i c e i s o n e whi ch c n i ~ b l c s a r ner cl l ; ~nt t o
5
s u p p o r t h i s f a mi l y a d e q u a t e l y . It means t h a t t h e p r i c c s l ~ o ~ i l d
c o v c r c o s t s a n d l e a v e a p r o f i t s u r f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t t h e n ~ e r c h ; ~ n t .
But h e a l s o f a i l s t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e b u y e r ' s v a l u a t i o n o f
t h e c onmodi t y. 1
To s u n ~ ma r i s e t h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c ~ ~ s s i o n t h c f o l l o wi n g p o i n t s nlay 1)c
ordo don. op. c i t . p. 178.
L ~ c ~ l u ml ) e t c r . op. c i t . p. 9 3 .
7
3
Aqui na s . o p . c i t . 1 1 : 2nd Q u e s t ~ o n 1 , X X V l I , a r t . 1
4 ~ o h ~ i ~. ~~. . -..~-. l ) uns S c o t u s ( 1265- 1308) was a Ll ri t is11 Schoo111la11 who o c c u l ~ i c d
a c ; i ~ l c n l c p o s t s a t hot 11 U~ i i v c r s i t y o T O x l'orcl ; i nJ t hilt o f l ' a r i s .
Ile was c h i e f c t a r l y c r i t i c of S t . Aq u i n a s ' t hc. ol ogy. I l i h c o ~ i ~ n ~ c ~ r -
t a r y on P e t e r Lombar d' s S e n r e n c c ~ s -- ~~ i n c l u d e s I1 i s ol , . ; erv; l t io11s on
v a l u e and p r i c e .
S ~ o r d o n . op. c i t . p 178
me nt i one d. The c o n c e p t o f j u s t p r i c c was evolved wi t h :I vi ew t o
ma i n t a i n i ng j u s t i c e i n e xc ha nge . l i cor r o~ni st : ; i l i l l e r al >out t h e
n a t u r e o f j u s t p r i c e . Some o f t hem h o l d t h a t i t i s t h e nornral
c o t t ~ p e t i t i v e p r i c e ; o t h e r s s a y i t . i s b e f o r c l ~ a ~ i d quoted p r i c e wi t h
common c s t i mn t i o n . S c h o l a s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s i n t r o d u c e d t h e conccSpt
o c c o s t i n t he a n a l y s i s o r j u s t p r i c e . ' flrus t h e y ga ve c c o ~ ~ o r n i c
s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e c h i l d oi- e t l l i ~, s and 1; 1v. Icut t h e i r- c o n c e p t o f
c o s t i s n o t c l e a r and we l l d e f i r ~ c d . 111 i i x ; ~ t i o n o f j u s t p r i c e
s c h o l a s t i c t i ~ i n h e r s s t r e s s e d up or^ t h e v; l l uc o r goods l o t h e s c l l e r
h u t t h e y n e g l e c t e d t h e i ~ n p o r t a n c c o f goods t o t h e b u y e r s .
b. I i conomi c, . S i ~ i f i c a n c e o f t h e J u s t l' ric-o. l'hc concept o f j u s t
~ ~- -~
p r i c e p a s s e d t h r o u g l ~ many s t a g e s . ' l ' l ~os e wl ~u l ooke d a t i t s p r i -
mit i v e s t a g e a nd n e g l e c t e d i t s l a t e r dcvcl opmenr , d c r ~ i e J i t s
-
e c onomi c i mp o r t a ~ ~ c c . Hut most o l t h c :jut h o r s r c i opl l i :.c i t s s i g n i -
f i c a n c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f economi c t h o u g h t . 1 ) c ~s c r i h i n g S t . 'l'honras
Aq u i n n s ' a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u h j e c t n n ~ l h i s t r eat mcr r t o f c o s t ; ~ncl
l a b o u r , S a l
" t h u s i t i s
Aqu i n; l s o n 3
c o n t e n t .
,, 1
i n wr i t e s i n I i r ~ c ~ l o ~ n e i l i a - of t h e - . .... S o c i a l Sc i e n c c s , ~
i n c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t t h e j u s t p r i c e a s ~ o r n i ~ ~ I ~ t ( l c l by
l a t c r s c h o l a s t i c s was e n t i r e l y devoid o f economi c
A s t h e economi c t h i n k i n g and a c t i v i t i c s n c l v ; i r ~ r e ~ l t h e idea o l j u s t
p r i c c a l s o c ha nge d. I n h i s l )ooh I l i s t o r ~ ~ -. o r I ! c o~~ot ni r ~ A r ~ a l y s i s , ~ -
Schumpet c' r w r i t e s , "l)un S c o t u s , a t : i l l e v e n t s , lnay Ire c r e d i t e d
w i t h h a v i n g r e l i r t e d j u s t p r i c e t o c o s t , and we must n c v r r t h c l c s s
c r e d i t h j l n w i t h h a v i n g d i s c o v e r e d the c o n d i t i o n o l c o n r p c t i t i v c
e q u i l i b r i u m wl ~ i c h came t o he known i n the* n i ~ ~ e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s
t h e Law o f Co s t . ,, 2
~ ~. ~ ~ .~
' ~ a l i n . 01'. ~ i t . p. 506.
2
Schumpct er . op. c i t . p. 9 3 .
Ge n e r a l l y t h e c l a s s i c a l c c o n o ~ n i s t s h u i l t t h c i r i t l eas on t he
b a s o s o f t h e e x i s t i n g o l d o n c s . 111 t h e wor ds o f Sn l i n , " l n s p i t c
o f t h e v i r t u a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e d o c t r i n e t h e j u s t p r i c e a s
an i d e a manage3 t o s u r v i v e i n t h c most 3 i v e r s e g u i s e s . The
' Na t u r a l P r i c e " o f t h e P h y s i o c r a t c s i s n o t h i n g hut . t h e 013 j u s t
p r i c e i n a s e c u l a r i z e d T O I - ~ I a nd i n t h e new t e r ~ n i n o l o g y o r n a t u r a l
l aw. Adam S mi t h ' s nor mal v ; ~ l u o i s a n o h v i o u s s u r v i v i ~ l oli the! o l d
d o c t r i n e . "
1
A s i m i l a r i d e a h a s be e n e x p r c s s c d 11y l <udol f Ka u l l a who s ; ~ y s t h a t
"111 p r a c t i c e Adam Smi t l l ' s ' n i t ~ r 1 1 p i c i s i r l c n t i c ; ~ l wi t h t h c
i u s t ~ u n p r c t i u m o f S c l ~ o l a s t i c i s n ~ l,ut i t s t h c o r c t i c a l 11; t s i s i s
- .. .. .. -. --
7
entirely d i i l ' o r e n t . . . .
1 1 - Ile wr o t c ;I v : ~ l u a l ~ l o book on "l ' hcory o r
t h e J u s t P r i c e ' , f i r s t pub1 i s h e 3 i n i!):iO, ( I l ngl is11 1 r ; ~ n s I a t i u n
f r om German i n 1!140 hy I ) . I1;1gg) i n w l ~ i c l ~ 11c r e i t c r a t e d t l ~ a t
ins pit.^ o f t h e Ell11 a gr e e me nt o f t h e moder n e c o n o mi s t t o c x c l l ~ d e
c o mp l e t e l y t h e c o n c e p t o f j u s t p r i c e Frotn ccono~ni c. t l l vor y, t h e -
i d e a h o l d s t r u e e ve n t . oday, and i t i s ; I p a r t o f r e a l i t y . l i ver y
s t a t e f a c e s some pr obl e ms i n whi ch s h e i s 1.orcecl 1 0 f i x j u s t
p r i c c t o f u l T i l t h e r c q u i r e mc n t s o f j u s t i c e . Accor di r l g t o S ; l l i n ,
" t h e mos t r e c e n t d o c t r i n e s o f t h e un i v e r s a l j s t i c s c h o o l r e p r c s c n -
t e d by Spallll ha ve gone s o f a r a s t o r c s u s c i t ; ~ t e j u s t 1 ) r i c c a s a
7
col l cc] , t . ' I -
2 . COMPENSATION OF T11E EQUIVA1.1INT ( J UST COM1'I:NSAI'JON) AN11
l'l<IC11 01; 1 I I E IJQUlVALliN'I' (Till: ,JIJS'I' I'll ICl:)
Now l e t us i n v e s t i g a t e I hn l ' a i mi y x h ' s vi cws on t h i s i ~ ~ ~ p o r . t ; ~ n t
i s s u e . I n s t e a d o f j u s t p r i c e he uses t wo J i f f e r e r i t t cr nr s - -
' c o mp e n s a t i o n o f t h e e q u j v a l c r l t ('lwaJ a 1 Mi t l 11) and ' 1 , l . i ~ ~ o f t h c
-- .. -~ ~ - -.
l ~ a l j n , l i t l ger. op. c i t . Vol . V111, p. 507
' ~ a u l l a , I . op. c i t . 11. 51.
3 ~ a l i n . op. c i t . Vol . V111, p. 507.
e q u i v a l e n t ' ( t haman . . .. -. -- - 31 . - n ~ i t h l ) . I : ( ~ L I ; I I i t j. i r I - ; I S .
t h e p r i ~ l ~ e r e q u i r e me n t o f j u s t i c e I l ot h i l l s c h o l t r s t i c l i t c r a t u r c a s
we l l a s i n l s l a mi c one . ]:or e xa mpl c , Aqt ~i r i ; i s s n y s , "i l l co~nmc~r c it11
( c ommut a t i ve ) j u s t i c e t h e c h i e f c ~ ) n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h e equ; l l i t y o f
t l i i r i gs and wher e t h e p r i c c e x c e e d s t h e v a l u e o f a t h i n g o r
c o n v e r s e l y , t h e e q u a l i t y r e q u i r e d l ) y j u s t i c e i s l a c k i n g . "I 1l)n
' l ' ai mi yah l i i nl s e l f s a y s , " t h e compens i ct i on oC t h e c r l u i v ; ~ l c ~ r t w i l l
he me a s ur e d a n d a s s e s s e d by i t s o q l i i v t i l c n t , and i t i s t h e e s s e n c e
o r j u s t i c e (rial-s ~ a1 ~ 5 1 d 1 ) . " ~ A t n l ~ o t l i e r p l a c e lie Li i s t i ~i gui s l i e c l
be t we e n t wo k i n d s o f p r i c e s : Un j u s t and p r o l ~ i l , i t c J p r i c e s a113
. Just and d e s i r e d one s . And h e c ons i de r e c l t h e p r i c e o f t h e e q u i v a -
3
l e n t a s t h e j u s t l ~ r i c e . Thus we may n s e t l i e two wor ds - j u s t i ~ r r c l
e q u i v a l e n t - i nt e r c hr t nge ; i hl y. 'l'11;it i s t o s a y , wc s l r a l l u s e j u s t
p r i c e o r p r i c e o r t h e e q u i v ; l l c n t . I n t h e s ; ~mc way j u s t compens a-
t i o n o r c o n ~p e n s i l t i o n o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t . I l c a l l y i t i s o f no s i g n i -
f i c a n c e what t e r m i s u s e d , t h e i mp o r t a n t t h i n g i s how t h e p r o b l ~ m
i s a n a l y scd.
The j u s t c o mp e n s a t i o n ('iwaJ ,--~ a 1 mi t h l ) and tile j u s t p r i c e
a
a 1 mi t h l ) o f I bn Ta i mi ya h a r c n o t t h e same. Th e r e i s , d i l
. .-
be t we e n t l ~ e t wo. The q u e s t i o n o f j u s t c ompe ns a t i on o I. ' coi npensa-
t i o n o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t ' a r i s e s wlicn mor al o r l e g a l o l ) l i g n t i o n s
a r e a t t a c h e d wi t h o n e ' s p r o p e r t y . Ac c or di ng t o Ihri ' I' aillliyah t h i s
p r i n c i p l e i s i n v o l v e d i n t l i e f t r l l o wi n g c a s e s : -
b) wheir lie i s 01, l i gcd t o r e p a y e q u i v a l e n t g o o d s , b o n e l i t s , o r
i n j u r y i n some p a r t s o f o n e ' s body (I~ih! ~ ;i1 r r u r i s ) ;
' ~ ~ u i n a s . op. c i t . 11: 2 Q. L X X l I , a r t . 1
-
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C ) when ir p e r s o n i s a s k e d t o s e t t l c i n v a l i d c o n t r a c t s l:11 ' I J ~ L I ~ 31
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f 5 s i d a l i ) , a n d a1 s o t h c v n l i d cor i t r : r c t s ( a 1 LucLGd ; I I s ; ~ l i i h a h ) i n
-. - -. - - -
----.-. ~~. ,.. ~--, ..... :... -
c a s e o f 3 d e f e c t ( a r s h ) i n l i v e s a ~ l d p r o p e r t y .
T h i s principle i s a l s o a p p l itsd i n p' lyment o f d u c s , r c ' c o mp c ~~s c a n d
o t h e r f i n a n c i a l oh1 i g a t i o n s . Fo r c~x; i i npl c:
a ) g r a n t s o f i e r e d hy t h e g o v e r n o r ( w5 l f ) t o Nusl ~ I I I S , o r p h a n s ;tnd
t r u s t s ( wa 3 f ) - ;
b) comper r s at i ol l by n b u s i n e s s a g c n t ( w a h f I ) who i s ; i gcnt f o r t h e
paymcnt o f c o mp c n s a t i o n ;
c ) r c ~r i u n c r a t i o l r hy/ t . o a h u s i n e s s p a r t n e r ( a 1 .~~ .~ i n u l ; l ~ ~ r i k ~~~. wa l l -
2
Th e s e c a s e s a r e a c t u a l l y n o t c ; r s c s o f c x c h a n g c b u t o f c' ornpcns;tt i on
o r d j s c h n r g c o f o h l i g a t i o n .
De f i n i n g t h e c o mp e n s a t i o n o f t h e c q u i v a l c . n t , I bn T ; ~ i ~ n i y a h s a y s ,
"Thc conl pens nt i on o f t l i e c q u i v a l c n t i s t h e o q u i v a l c r r t arooullt o r
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t i n t h c pr t r vai l irig u s a g o ( ' ~1. 1' ) . I t i s ; ~ l s o -
r c f c r r c d a s t h e r a t e ( s i ' r ) -- ;+rid c u s t o m ( ' adah) . . " ' b l o r c o y c r , lie
s a y s t h a t ' t h e c o r r e c t c v a l u a t i o n o f t h e j u s t cor npens at i o n wi 11 bc.
h a s e d on t h c a n a l o g y a n d a s s c s s mc n t o f ;I t h i n g by i t s e q u i y a l c n t .
4
And t h i s i s t h e r e a l j u s t i c e a n d r t : ; ~ l a c c c p t c d u s a g e .
I t scel ns t l l a t t l i c c o n c e p t o f t h c J u s t c o mp c n s a t i o n was 3 ~ u i d c 0 1 '
t h e j u s t i n t l i e s o ( . i c t y a n d i n t l i c c o u r t o f t h e juc1gc.s. I t s h o u l d
b c r e ~ ~ ~ c r n L~ e r e d t h a t t l i c a i m o f t h e s c h o l a s t i c j u s t pr. icc- was a l s o
4 . .
1b1 < I . 1). 521 . "wa .~~ ~ ~ r a d ~ r u l ~ ~ ~ 5 . I 5 - :I I % c~ i j ' y h w L i l ... 1.- ~~~~~ i't ib:yr l i ' l . S I I L I i 1 , - i
n ~ i t h l i h i wa huwn n a r s aTGJ 1 wa ria s ti1 d u ~ . f .
-- - - - . -- -. . .~
merit i onc d a s t o p r o v i d e g11 i d arlcc For a u t h o r i t its; a 1 t hough t h e
l a t e r t l evcl opment g a v e i t a n economi c t u r n . In t h i s way t h e r e i s
g r c a t r c s c ~ n h l a l c e h e t wc c n l h n ' l ' a i i ni ya h' s c o n c e p t of' j u s t coi nl ~cn-
s a t i o n and t h e j u s t p r i c e o f e a r l y s c h o l a s t i c t l i i n k e r s .
Illn Ta i mi y a h d i s t i n g u i s h e d bc t wc c n e t 11i c . o- l ug: ~l a s p e c t o i t h c
j u s t p r i c c and i t s cconomi c a s p e c t . Ilc u s c J t h e t e r m ' c o ~ n p e n s ; ~ -
t i o n o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t ' t o c o n n o ~ t . t h e f o r me r ; and ' p r i c e o l
t h e e q u i v a l e n t ' t o s i g n i f y t l i c l a t wr , a s we s h a l l s e e i t s oon.
Such a d i s t i n c t i o n was n o t common i n h i s d a y s . Ilc s a y s , " o i t c n
it bccomes a mbi guous on e x p e r t s o l j ~ ~ r i s p r u d c n c c and t h e y c on-
t r o v e r t a l > o l ~ t t h e n a t u r e o f t h c c o mp c n s n t i o n 01' t h e c q u i v a l ~ ~ n t -
i t s k i n d ( j i n s ) -- - and q u a n t i t y ( ~ n i * i i r ) . -. " l
S i n c e t h e c o mp c n s a t i o u o f t l ~ c c q u i v a l e n t i s a mor al and l e g a l
c o n c e p t , h e c x p r e s s c s t h e mi 11 imum I e g a l r c qu i r omcnt i n t h i s
r e g a r d on t h e o n e ha nd) a n d t h e d e s i r e d h i g h v i r t u e , o n t h c
o t h e r hand. He s a y s , "To compcns at c I - o r b t h i n g by i t s c q l l i v a l c r l t
i s a n o b l i g a t o r y j u s t i c e (Qt l l .- -- w i l i h ) a n d i l payment i s v u l u n t a r i 1) '
i n c r e a s e d , i t i s f a r b e t t e r and d e s i r e d b e n e v o l e n c e ( i l j s 5 n . . . ..
mus t a l >a bb) ; -- -. -. b u t t o r e d u c e t h e c o mp c n s a t i o ~ ~ i s a p r o p h i h i t e d
i n j u s t i c e ( c ul m - - .. - mubar r am) . .- Li k e wi s e , t o encounter a bad t h i n g
wi t h i t s equivalent i s p e r mi t t e d j u s t i c e ('ad1 --. i7i1ez); . b11t t o
i n c r e a s e t h e damage i s u n l a wf u l ( ~nul r ar r am) .L_ , and t o r e d u c e i t i s -
d e s i r e d b e n e v o l e n c e ( i h s a n mu s t a h a h h l . "
2-
3~
I k s c r i h i n g t h e cl i l ' l c r c n c c bc t wc c n t h e c o ~ n p c n s : ~ t i on o r t h c e qu
l e n t and p r i c c o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t , h e o b s e r v e s t h a t "A~lrourlts
q u o t e d i n c o n t r a c t s a r e o f two t y p e s . F i r s t , an amount wi t h
whi c h p e o p l e a r c f a mi 1 i ; ~ r a n ~ l t o wh i c l ~ t h e y a r c a ~. c us t omc *d. 7'11
i s t h c commonly a c c e p t e d c u s t o ma r y coi npens; +t i on. 'Tl~c :7econcl i s
t h e ki nd whi ch i s ulicommon ( ~ ~ s d i r ) , WI I I C I I comes ;is a r e s u l t o f
. . ... - .
i r l c r c ; ~ s c o r d e c r e a s e i n w i l l i ngncs s ( ~; ?ghl >al ~) , o r some o t h e r
I
f a c t o r s . Thi s i s e x p r e s s e d a s p r i c e o l t h c c q u i v a l c ! ~l t . " 1;ro111
t h e ahovc s t a t e me n t i t bec.omes c l e a r t h a t t o 11)11 ' l ' ai mi yah, t h e
c o n ~p e n s a t i o n o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t anrl t h e p r i c e uT t h e c q u i v a l c ~ r ~ t
a r c two d i f r e r e n t t h i n g s . 'The l' ormcr i s ;I r c l a t i v c l y d u r a b l e
phenoalenon, r e s u l t i n g from cust om and h a b i t o i t h e peoplcb, whi I r
t h c l a t k r i s a v a r i a b l e dct er mi nod by t h e f o r c e s o f s u p p l y anrl
denlarid and e i f e c t e d by t h e willingness o r pe opl e and t h e i r t l c s i r e s
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e compens at i on of t l l e e q u i v a l c n t , t h e q u ~ ~ s t i on 01'
p r i c e o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t a r i s e s when t h e r e i s a c t u a l s a l e ; ~ n d
pur c l i ; ~s c and exchange o f goods. Ue f i ni ng s uch 1)ric.c 11111 ' l' aimiyah
s a y s , "'The p r i c e o l t h e e q u i v a l e n t i s t h a t r a t e ( s i l l . ) - a t whi ch
pe opl e s e l l t h e i r goods and whi ch i s commonly nzcr pt cr l a s c q u i v ; ~ -
l e n t f o r i t and f o r s i mi l a r goods a t t h a t p : l r t i c u i a r t i me and
p l a c e . ,, 3 Some o t h e r p a s s a g e s o f h i s book a1 I i s l a l e l i h ; ~ r
by t h e p r i c e o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t hc incalls t h a t p r i c e wh i c l ~ i s
e s t a l ~ l i s l ~ e d by t h e f r e e p l a y o f mar ket f o r c e s - s uppl y and demand.
For exampl e, describing a change i n ~n n r k c t p r i c e l ~ e wr i t e s , " i l
pe opl e a r e d e a l i n g t h e i r goods i n t h e nor mal ways ( a1 - - W; I & n l
m&; f) wi t h o u t any i n j u s t i c e f r om t h e i r s i d r s and t h e p t - i c e
r i s e s e i t h e r due t o s h o r t a g e o f t l ~ e goocls ( i l l economi c t er m -
d e c r e a s e i n s uppl y) o r due t o i n c r c n s e i n p o p u l a t i o n ( i n cconomi c
j a r gon = i n c r e a s e i n demand) , the11 i t is from Al l a h . l n s uch
c o n d i t i o n , t o f o r c e t h e s e l l e r s t o s e l l t h e i r goods ;it n p a r t i - -
c u l a r p r i c e i s a wr ongf ul p r e s s u r e ( i k r i h b i ~ t l : ~ i r ~-~~ l ~aqt i ) . ... . , , 4
The p h r a s e " i n t h e nor mal way and w i t l i o ~ ~ t i n j u s t i c e 011 t h e i r
s i d e s " s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h e p r i c e o r t h e equivalent I I I I I ~ ~ I ~ c ;I
1. .
l h l d . p. 522.
c f . , i h i d . -. p. 522.
3 . .
-
~ b l c l . MFS. Vol . X X T X , p. 34.5; idem. T: ~Csi r Sr1ra11 ; I ] N L ~
7' E<i r o: a h I T I I I 1 I u n i r i y t ~ , " l(53.-
4 .
idem. - a 1 - I Ji shah. p. 25.
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l a h o u r mar ket ( t a s l i r f i l l a'mul) and t h e t er m us e d hy hini i s t h e
I
wages 01: t h e e q u i v a l e n t (*ah a1 mi t h l ) . ~~ The h a s i c p r i n c i p l e
t o he obs e r ve d i n c o n n e c t i o n o i wages a s we l l a s i n c a s e o l
p r i c e s i s t h a t t h e i r q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y s l i oul d he ~ I I I l y d e f i n c d .
"L3ecause i f t h e wage o r p r i c c i s not we l l d e f i n e d arid i t s q u a l i t y
and q u a n t i t y i s n o t known, i t w i l l r e s u l t i n t o fraucl ancl g a ~ n h l e , ,, 2
-
and d i s p u t e s may a r i s e .
Si n c e t h e wage o f t h e e q u i v a l c n t i s gover ned by t h e s ; mc r u l e a s
t h e p r i c e o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t , i t can he i n r c r r c d t h a t t l i c wagc
e a r n e r o r l a b o u r e r i s a l l owe d i n nor mal c o n d i t i o n s t o c h a r g e t h e
wagc de t e r mi ne d hy t h e : l > i l a t c r a l h n r g a i n i n g of t h e e ~n p l o y e r and
cnr pl oyccs. I n t h e o t h e r wor ds , l a b o u r i s t r e a t e d a s a com~nodi t y
whi ch s ubmi t s i t s e l f t o t h e same economi c l aws o f s u p p l y and
demand. I n c a s c o f i mp e r f e c t i o n i n t h e ma r k e t , t h e wage o f t h e
e q u i v a l e n t w i l l be f i x e d in t l i c same way a s t h e p r i c c o f t h e
e q u i v a l c n t . For exampl e, " i f pe opl e a r e i n nccd O P t h e s e r v i c e s
o r t h e c u l t i v a t o r s o r t h o s e cngaged i n t h e i n d u s t r y o f t e x t i l e
o r c o n s t r u c t i o n b u t t h e y a r e n o t r e a dy t o do s o , i n t h i s c a s e
t h e a u t h o r i t y can f i x t h e wage o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t , s o t l r r i t n c i t l i c r
empl oyer c a n r e duc e t h e wage o f t h e wor ker n o r l . 41hoi ~r cr can
demand more t h a n t h e f i x e d j u s t wage.
,, 3
The q u e s t i o n how t h e wage o f t h e c q u i v a l e r ~ t w i l 1 be d c t e r mi r ~ e d ,
- -
i s ans wer ed by I bn Tai mi yah a t one p l a c e i n h i s 1:atawa -- wher e he
s a y s , "'l'hc wage o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t wi l l be d c t e r mi r ~e d lhy t h e
quot e d wage (musamms) i f s uc h q u o t a t i on ~ r n u s a m~ n ~ ) e x i s t s , t o
whi ch t l i c two p a r t i c s may r e f e r , j u s t a s i n t h c c a s c oT s a l c o r
h i r e t h e quot e d p r i c e (tham;rn musamm5) - - . .. w i l l be h e l d a s t h e p r i c e
1 .
c l . , i hn Tai mi yah. .- a 1 . l l i s hnh, ~ p. 34.
id en^. a 1 .-l iJ64, MasZ'el , p ..-- a1 T03 ~ ~ r d i n T ~ ; r l i . (1lam;rscus: Irla~islii~r;lt. a l Maktah a 1
I s l a mi ,
3idem. ..-A a l l l i s bah. p. 34.
o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t . "l T h i s s t a t e me n t c o v e r s t h e s t n t c ' s f i x a t i o n
o f j u s t wage a s well a s t h t c o n c c r n c ~ i p a r 1 i e s ' e f f o r t t o r e a c h
s u c h a p r i c c . Th a t i s , i f t h e s t a t e wa n t s t o f i x wagcs or. i f t h e
t wo p a r t i e s h a v e n o t p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d on ; I wage t h e y s h o u l d
a g r c c o r f i x a wage wh i c h i s q u o t e d a n d a c c e p t c t l i n t h a t p a r t i c u -
l a r k i n d o f wor k i n nor ma l c o n d i t i o n . 'She some p r o c e d u r e i s
a p p l i e d t o s a l e o f c o mmo d i t i e s whe r e illany goot l s a r c s o l d wi t h o u t
a me n t i o n o f p r i c c . Tn t h i s c a s e h u y c r and s e l l e r a g r e e on t h e
p r i c c whi c h i s p a i d f o r t h a t k i n d s o f goods .
I). - The I ' r o f i t o f t h e l i q u i v a l c n t ( J u s t ~. P r o f i t ) . ~~ .. . I hn ' l ' ni mi yal ~
r e c o g n i z e s t h e i d e a o f p r o f i t and t h e s c l l c r s ' r i g h t t o i t . lle
s u g g e s t s the111 " t o e a r n p r o f i t i n t h e commonl y ; i c c c p t e d Ilianncr
( a 1 ~ i l ) l ~ ill ma' r i f ) - -- wi t h o u t ' l est r o y i n g t h e i r i n t e r e s t and t l i ~ ,
i n t e r e s t o f t h c c o n s u me r s . "' l . i k e o t h e r i n c d i e ~ a l t h i n k e r s , we d o
n o t f i n d wi t h hi m much d e t a i l a h o u t i t . S i n c e p r o f i t i s ;I p a r t
o f p r i c e , i t s a n a l y s i s u s u a l l y comcs a l o n g wi t h p r i c c , i n h i s
wr i t i n g s .
I n t h e l i g h t o f h i s definition o f j u s t p r i c e , we may d c f i n c t h e
j u s t p r o r i t o r t h e p r o f i t of t h e equivalent a s t h e nor nl ; ~l p r o f i t
whi c h i s g e n e r a l l y e a r n e d i n t h a t p a r t i c 1 1 1 a r t y p e o f t r ; t d r , wi t h -
o u t i n j u r i n g o t h e r s . Ile d o c s n o t f a v o u r ;I non- c us t oms r y r n t c oS
p r o C i t t h a t b e c o me e x p l o i t a t i o n ( ghahi t n .. f j b i s l l ) - 01- t h e p e o p l e not
3
a wa r e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s oC t h e i nar ket ( mu s t e r s i . . I ) . Ac c o r d i n g t o
h i ~ n "a p e r s o n who a c q u i r e s goods t o e a r n i ncome and t o t r a d c wi t h
i t a t a l a t e r d a t e i s p e r mi t t e d t o do s o b u t h c i s n o t ; ~ l l o wc d t o
c h a r g e f r om a ne c dy p e r s o n ( muht ' <j ) . l ~ i g h e r p r o f i t t h; i n t h c c u s -
t oma r y o n e ( a l r i h h a 1 mu Ct a d ) , ~- ~. alld h e o u g h t 110t t o i n c ~ s ~ i + s e t h e
p r i c e f o r hi m d u e t o h i s need
l , ~ ~ r u r . ! h ) . , , 4
' l b n Ta i mi y a h . MFS. Vol . X X X l V , p. 72.
,,
i .
i dem. a 1 I l i s ha h. p. 37.
3 i d e ~ ~ ~ . MFS. Vol . X X I V , p. 2!)9.
4 . .
l h l d . p. 501.
A t a n o t h e r p l a c e h e s a y s , t h a t "a t r a d e r s h o u l d n o t c h a r g e fro111
a n una wa r e p e r s o n a p r o f i t h i g h e r t h a n h c c h a r g e s fro111 o t h e r s ; i n
t h e s ; me way i E t h e r e i s a nc e dy p e r s o n ( ~ n u ~ l t ; ~ r l , ) who i s bound
~ - AL. - . - .
t o buy t h e good t o f u l T i l h i s need ( i n c c o n o ~ a i c j a r g o n , h i s
demand f o r t h a t good i s p e r f e c t l y i n e l a s t i c ) , t h e s c l l c r mus t
c h a r g e a p r o f i t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h c 1)roTi . t ~ . l ~ a r g c . d f r o n ~ n o n - l ~o u n d
p c r s o n . " llc s u p p o r t s h i s s t ; ~ n d hy a s a y i n g o f t h e p r o p h e t i n
whi ch h e p r o h i b i t s t h e s a l e t o a ncedy p e r s o n ( e x p l o i t i ng h i s
-
n e e d ) . tie f u r t h e r s a y s , " i f t h e want r e l a t e s t o h a s i c n c s d s (111~1
..
15 budd - .- mi nhu) - -. - s u c h a s f o o d a nd c l o t h i n g , t h e n h e ought t o s e l l
-
o n l y a t n commonl y a c c e pt c c l f a i r p r i c c ( a 1 qi mnh . a l . m a ' r ~ ~ f a h ) . ~ . .~ . ~~.
I' hc n e e d y p e r s o n s a r c a l l o we d t o t a k e t h a t commodi t y (1-om hi111
wi t h o u t h i s c h o i c e a t t h e commonl y accepted p r i c e , : ~ n d t h e y
s h o u l d n o t pay mor e t h a n t h a t p r i c c . " I Ily t h i s , in o u r o p i n i o n ,
he d o e s n o t mean t h a t eve1.y p e r s o n w i l l s t a r t s ~ r a t c l i i n g o r
g r a h i n g t h e goods j u s t t h r o wi n g t h e p r i c c 1 ) e f o r c t h e scl l c r . 'I'hey
c a n demand f i x a t i o n o f p r i c c by t h e s t ~ t c a l ~ d t h e s t a t e s l r oul d
u s e i t s a u t h o r i t y i n t h i s r e g a r d . We s h a l l t a k e t h i s ma t t e r i n
one o f t h e f o l l o wi n g s e c t i o n s .
From o n e o f h i s s t a t e me n t s i t a p p e a r s t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o hi m -
p r o f i t i s c r e a t e d by b o t h l a b o u r a n ? c a p i t a l , I ~ c n c e owne r s o f
b o t h [ a c t o r s o f p r o d u c t i o n a r c e n t i t l e d t o a s h a r e i n t h e p r u T i t s .
Gi v i n g h i s o p i n i o n on 3 d i s p u t e d ma t t e r he s a y s t h a t t h e p r o f i t
w i l l be d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e commonly a c c e p t e d f a s h i o n h e t wc e r ~
t h e t wo p a r t n e r s - o n e who i n v e s t e d h i s l a h o u r and t l ~ e ot 11cr who
i n v e s t e d h i s money. " Becaus e t h e p r o r i t i s t h e i nc r c r ns nt c i ~ u s e d
by t h e l a h o u r o f t h i s a n d c a p i t a l (rnal) ~ .- . o c t h a t . So i t s d i s t r i -
h u t i o n w i l l be i n t h e same way a s any i nc r e me nt c r e a t e d l ~ y t wo
f a c t o r s . " '
1. .
bid. pp. 300. 361.
. 1 . X X X , p . 8 7 .
c . Kc1ev;rnce o f t h e s e I d e a s t o t l ~ c S o c i e t . The mai n o b j e c t i v e
Y_ t o -
o f t h e j u s t p r i c e a nd o t h e r r e l a t e d i d e a s wa s / ma i n t a i n j u s t i c e i n
c ommut a t i ve d e a l i n g s a nd o t h e r r e l a t i o n s among t h e mernhcrs o f t l ~ c
s o c i e t y . I t was a l s o meant t o p r o v i d e a g u i d e l i n e f o r t h c a u t h o -
r i t i e s s o t h a t t h e y c o u l d p r o t e c t t h e p c o p l c l'rom e x p l o i t a t i o n .
They we r e a l s o e v o l v e d t o f ' a c i l i t a t c t h e f u l f i l me n t o r people's
mor a l and f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s .
J u s t i c e on t h c s e l l e r s s i d e i s t h a t t h e i r goods s h o u l d n o t b e
t a k e n f o r c i b l y a t l owe r p r i c e s t h u s d e p r i v i n g then1 f r o n nor mal
p r o f i t s . Be c a us e " i n d i v i d u a l s a r e : x ~ t h o r i z c d on what t h e y own,
no one c a n t a k e i t , wh o l l y o r p a r t l y , wi t h o u t thcsi r f u l l a g r e e n ~ e n t
" 1. I (
and c o n s e n t ; and f o r c i n g a ny one t o s e l l what h e i s n o t l e g a l l y
o b l i g e d t o s e l l , o r n o t t o do what h e i s l e g a l l y a l lowed t o d o ,
i s i n j u s t i c e ; a nd i n j u s t i c e i s a n ol , l , r e s s i on (z1111n) L.- - - whi ch i s
f o r h i t l den. "' Hut i f t h e r e i s a r e a s o n f o r f o r c i ~ . ; : :I s c l l c r , and
wi t h o u t c o e r c i o n he c a n n o t f u l Ci 1 h i s obligations, h e wi l l be
f o r c e d t o s e l l h i s goods a t t h e p r i c c o f t h e c q u i v a l c n t t o s a f e -
3
g u a r d t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e o t h e r s .
On t h e b u y e r ' s s i &e I hn Ta i mi ya h us c d a n exampl e o f "a p e r s o n
who i s r e q u i r e d by r e l i g i o n t o huy c e r t a i n goods s u c h a s t h e
e qui pme nt f o r p i l g r i ma g e . tle s l i oul d buy i t a t t h e 1,ric.c o f t h e
e q u i v i ~ l e n t . Hc i s n o t a l l o we d t o a b s t : ~ i n 1:rom 1)uy i ng i t on t h e
p r c t c x t t l i ; l t t h e p r i c e i s s o h i g h t h x t h e d o e s n o t l i k e t o pay
i t . " 4 Anot he r exampl e i s the. "onc who i s r e s p o n s i b l e Tor r n r e t i n ~
t h e e x p e n s e s o f o t h e r s , s u c h ; I S t h e hus band f o r hi s wi f e , a n d
one f o r o n e ' s v e r y n e a r poor r e 1 ; l t i v c s s p e c i f i e d by l aw, 113s no
r i g h t , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g p r i c c i s t h e p r i c c o f t l ~ e
' ~ b n Toi mi yah. a 1 Mi s hah. p. 18.
2 . .
l d . 1'. 4 1 .
3 - 7 -
c l . , i dem. Ml:S. Vol . X X l X , pp. 190, 191.
4 .
i dem. a 1 Ui s ha h. p. 2 6 .
-- --
t h c p r i c e of t h e c q u i v a l e ~ l t 111 t h e c as e of c o n t r u v c r s y bctwcxtrn
t h c i 0 1 l t r a c t or s r c ~ : a r d i n g t he p r i c c , o r w ~ g c s .
The uses and i mp l i c - a t i o n s oU t h p wngc of t h e cqi i i vi i l cnt a r c a l s o
s t mi l : l r . t o t h o s e of t hc p r i c e o f t l ~ c c q u i v ; l l c n t . 'I'llc t ~ a s i c n i m
oT t hc w:ige of t h e c q u i v i ~ l u ~ t t i s t o s ; i f t - ' g u ~ r d t h ~ ' i n t c r c s t of
I ) ot h t h e e l n p l u y e r s anJ empluyccs a n d protcc-t t l l e m Sl - u n ~ c x p l o i t , ~ -
t i o n b y e a ~ h at hcr. The 1-oncept o f t h e wrtgc of the c q u i v : ~ l ~ > n t
i s h c l ~ ~ l ' u l i n r e s o l v i n g i t l dus t r i al d i s p u t e s . 1:or i n \ t a n c c , I l ) n
' Tai wi yal l wrl t c s , " 1 f 3 1 1 cmpl o y ~ r t ~ mp l o y s t h t w:lgt' c a r nc r *, b y
f r a u ~ l u l c n t p r a c t ice, a t a 1r r i c . c l cbs t h a n t l l r e q u i v a l c w t , wh iclr
i s n u t ncccptcd b y any onc r i o r m n l l y , t11c.n he h a s a r i ~ l l t t o derrtil~id
-7
the wagc of t he cquivalent."~' Ann t h e r cxanlp 1 c i s " t hc cn~p l oy c o
who d i d n o t complete h i s work, s o Ile i b n o t c n t i t J r ~ 1 t o t l ~ e 11111
w i l l
wage5 ~ T C C ' C ~ upon. B u t h u / n c v c i - t h e l c s s he p a i d according t o h i s
work. t, 4
'I'he corl ccpt o f j u s t wage is a l s o : i l ) pl i od i n t hc c a s c o f t . cr mi na-
-
t i o n ol' an cri i pl oyment c or i t r a c t . I n hi s r c f l c c t i o r ~ on N u > ; ~ i r i y ; ~ h
co~nnruni t y who a l w a y s s i ded w i t h t h c cr~crrtics o f 1 3 law : ~\ \ d I I C V C C
I I
cnj oyod t h c confidence of Muslims, I h n I'nirniynll j a y s , I I I c.:rsc o l
1 .
1 b i J . p. 26.
2-- -
c t . , iclcm. MFS. Vul. X X X , 13. 4 3 .
v
~ ~ u l l i f i c a t i o n o f c o n t r a c t o f work wi t h t hem, i r thc. c o n t r a c t i s
b n s i c : ~ l l y v a l i d t h e n t h e accor dcd wage wi l l be p a i d ; o t h e r wi s e ,
t h e wage of t h e e q u i v a l e n t . ,, 1
The gover nment i s a l s o r e q u i r e d t o a dopt t h e s e p r i n c i p l r s i n ;11 1
i t s tlcal i ngs . I f t h e r e i s need f o r t h e f i x a t i o n o f p r i c e s , j u s t
p r i c e s h o u l d he f i x e d by t h e n ~ ~ t h o r i t i c s .
2
I . ct us t a k e up t l ~ i s
i s s u e i n d e t a i l .
M . MAKKliT Ml i ( : I I AN ISM
I hn l a i ~ n i y a h had a c l e a r n o t i o n o f t l ~ e p r i c e s i n a f r e e mar ket
b e i n g dc t c r mi ne d by demand and s u p p l y . We have a l r e a d y quot ed a
pa s s a ge f r om him whi ch t e s t i f i e s t o t h i s e f f e c t . I t r e a d s "i l '
p e o p l c a r e s e l l i n g t h e i r goods a c c o r d i n g t o commonly r ~ ~ c c p t c ~ l
manner wi t h o u t any e x c e s s on t h e i r s i d e s and t h e p r i c e r i s e s due
t o s h o r t a g e o f commodity ( J e Cr e x s c i n s u p p l y ) , o r due t o i n c r c a s c
i n p o p u l a t i o n ( i n c r e a s e i n demand) , t he n t l ~ i s i s from A1 1211. "'
- -
A t a n o t h e r p l a c e i n his fa taw^ h c g ~ v c s a more ~ . l c a r e x p r c s b i o n
o f t h e law o f s uppl y and dcm; ~nd. Ilc s a y s , "I t i se and Tal l i n
p r i c e s i s n o t al ways due t o e x c e s s ( Z ~ J I I ~ o l some pe opl e . Morc-
R
o f t e n i t i s , , r e s u l t f r om d e f i c i e n c y i n p r o d u c t i o n o r d e c l i n e i n
i mpor t o f t h e goods denrande~l 1 ~~ 1 1 m a . 1' 11~s i l '
wi l l i n g n e s s f o r a good ( r aghl ) : l l ~ ~ . . ~ f i ~~ ' 1 s h a i ' ) i n c r e ~ s e s wl ~ i l e
a v n i l a l ) ~ l i t y o f goods d c c r e a s c s , i t s pt - i cc r i 5 c s . On t l ~ c o t h c r
hand, i f ; ~ v a i l a b i l i t y o f goods i ~ ~ c r e a s e s , wh i l e i t s d13111and
J e c r ~ c a s e s , t h e p r i c e comes down. ' This i n c r c a s c o r J ~ L - I ~ L ~ ; I S C I S
somet irncs beyond t h e a c t i o n o f p e o p l e ; a n d sornet i ~ n ~ , s i t i s d u ~ .
1 .
ldcm. Majmiik . . - . . .. . . - Ki s i ' el -. -. . - ( Ca i r o : a 1 Mntha'ah a1 l l u ~ ; i i r i ~ ~ ; ~ l i , l ! ) OS) , I ) . 100.
' c f . , idem. a 1 I Ji shah. pp. 2 1 - 2 5 .
-
-- .- --
5. .
1b1c1. p. 25 p a r a n t h e s e s added by 11s.
--
t o p e o p l e ' s a c t i o n h u t n o t c o n t a i n i n g any e x c e s s ( z u l m) lroln
3.. ..~~~.
t h e i r s i d e , wh i l e s ome t i me s i t c o n t a i n s e x c e s s f r om t l ~ e i r s i d e .
T t i s Al l a h t h e Al mi g h t y who c r e n t c s der nan~l i n t h e t r c a r t s o f
p e o p l e a nd t h e r e f o r e i t i s llc who i s t h e f i n a l a r b i t e r i n al l
t h e s e c h a n g e s . "l
I n t h e nhove a n a l y s i s , I h n ' Tai mi yah combi ned two d i S f c r e n t
c h a n g e s i n s u p p l y and demand i n t o o n c . No J o i ~ h t , i f a d e c r e a s e
i n s u p p l y a c c o mp a n i e s a n i n c r e a s e i n demand, r i s c i n p r i c e s w i l l
b e mor e pr onounc e d. S i m i i r y , i f a n i n c r e a s e i n s u p p l y i s
-
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a d e c r e a s e i n demand, t h e f a l l i n p r i ~ - c s w i l l he
l a r g e r , b e c a u s e b o t h c h a n g e s h e l p t h e movement o f p r i c c i n t h e
same d i r e c t i o n . Hut i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o c o mh i ~ i e t h e t wo
c h a n g e s o r t o r i n d t h e i r occur r ence s i m111t : i ncous l y. C c t c r i s ~-~~~---
a r i h u s we may e x p e r i e n c e t h e same r e s u l t i l o n l y o n e o f t hem
PI..-- 9
c h a n g e s . Fo r e x a mp l e , i f dcm;lrid d s c r e a s c s wh i l e s u p p l y i . ( t ~uai ns
t h c s ame, p r i c e w i l l come clown, rind v i c e v e r s a . A r i u ~~i h c r o l
s u c h p o s s i b i l i t i e s c a n be i ma g i n e d . Hut i t was n o t h i s i ~ i t c n t i o n
t o c o v e r a11 e v e n t u a l i t i e s , t h e r e f o r e he c o n l i n e d h i s a n a l y s i s
wi t h t wo o b v i o u s c h a n g e s i n demand and s nl i pl y . Ilc, r c l a t C s t h e s e
c h a n g e s t o t h e [ a c t o r s heyoncl p e o p l e ' s a c t i o n o r t o t h e i r a c t i o n s -
a mount i ng t o i mp e r f e c t i o n s i n t h e ma r k e t , a s t l r i s ( l i s t i r ~ c t i on
p r o v i d e s a b a s i s f o r p r i c e r c g u l a t i o ~ ~ a s we s h a l l s e e bel ow.
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d h e r e t h a t 1l)n Tnimiy:ali a ~ r : i l y ! ; ~ s t h e e f f e c t o l
t h e cl l angcs i n demand and s u p p l y on p r i c e s , h u t hc. d o c s n o t
e xa mi ne t hem t h e o t h e r way r o u n d , t h a t i s , t h e e r f c c t o f h i g h o r
low pr i ccr s on q u a n t i t y de ma ~~de c l rind s u p p l i e c l .
On a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n he d e s c r - t . i l ~c ~ t l l c l +; i c t or s c r r c c t i n g t h e t1c111and
a nd c o n s c q u c n t l y t h e p r i c e s . Ile s a y s : -
1.
~ d e m . MFS. Vo l . V I I I , pp. 5 2 0 , 5 2 3
" a) P e o p l e ' s wi l l i n g n e s s o r dcm; ~nd ( t l l - a i s ) i s i n f l u c n c c d
by t h e vol ume o f t h e goods de a a nde d. Goods nva i l n h l e ~ J I s ma l l
q u a n t i t i e s a r e more s t r o n g 1 y demanded t h a n t h o s e u v a i l a b l c i n
l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s
b) l~em:~rrd f o r a commodi t y and t h u s i t s l pr i cc i s a l s o e f l c c t c d by
t h e number s o f t h e demanders ( l i k a t h r n h a l t u l l & wa ~ 1 i l l a t i h i r n ) .
t h e
~ L
I f / number o f t h e p e r s o n s dcrnandirix a commodi t y i s l a r g e , i t s
p r i c e goe s up and v i c e v e r s a .
c ) P r i c e s a r e e f f e c t e d by t h e i n; i gni t udc of want and i t s i n t e n s i t y
a s we l l as by i t s p a u c i t y and we a kne s s . I f want i s g r e a t and
i n t e n s i v e , p r i c e w i l l i n c r e a s e t o t h e c x t e n t t o whicli i t w i l l
n e v e r i n c r e a s e i f t h e want i s n o t so s t r o n g and i n t e n s i v e .
d l P r i c e s a r e i nl ' l uencecl even hy t h c k i n d o f rnoncy p a i d i n
e xc ha nge , t h a t i s , i f money js i n common c i r c u l a t i o n , p r i c c i s
l ower ed whi ch i s n o t t h e c a s e i f money i s l e s s common i n c j r c u l a -
t i o n .
e ) P r i c e i s d e c r e a s e d f o r a p e r s o n who want+ t o huy on c a s h
payment , and i t i s i ~ i c r e n s c d f o r one who wa nt s i t on c r c c l i t .
,, 1
I n 1 1 i 1 1 1 i y h s f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s i s v e r y i mp o r t a n t . llc I I I CI I -
t i o n e d economic, s o c i a l a nd p s y c h o l o g i c a l La c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t l ~ e
demand and p r i c e s , t hough h' mi xed d i f r e r e n t t h i n g s t o g c t h c r .
For e x ; ~mp l c , t o s a y t h a t goods a v u i l a b l e i n s ma l l q u a n t i t i e s ; I I ' L'
demanded more t h a n t h o s e a v a i l a b l e i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s , i s :I
p s y c l ~ o l o g i c a l ptienorncnon, whe r e a s i n c r e a s c i n demand rluc t o
i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n i s a n economi c one . A s f a r a s i n c r e a s e
f'4
i n p r i c e due t o , * i n t e n s i t y o f want and i t s magnitude i s c o r ~ c c r n e d , ,
a
i t may b e r e l a t e d t o non a v ; ~ i l ; ~ h i l i t y o f , , s u t ~ s t i t u t c l e : ~c \ i ng t o 1
1 . .
~ h ~ d . Vol . X X I X , pp. 5 2 4 - 2 5 .
--
- 7 9 -
i n e l a s t i c demand, t hough 11111 ' l ' ai r ni yr ~h i s not c l c a r i n t hi s p o i n t .
tlis a n a l y s i s i s n e v e r t h e l c ~ s s v e r y s i g n i r i c a n t jn t h c s e n s e t h ; ~ t
we do not. f i n d s i mi l a r a n a l y s i s i n t h c l j t c r n t u r e o f h i s p e r i o d
and f o r many c e n t u r i e s a f t e r hi m.
C. PRICI: RCClIlAT I O N
I h n Tai mi yah doe s not . c o n r i n e h i ms e l f t o t h e an; r l y. ; i s o r j u s t
p r i c c and ma r ke t mect l ani sm, hr goe s a h c n ~ l t o p r e s c r i l > r a d e t a i l c d
p o l i c y of p r i c e c o n t r o l f o r r l ~ c s t ; ~ t e . As wc s h a l l s c e , t l ~ c ai m
oC p r i c c r e g u l a t i o n i s t o m; l j nt a i n j u s t i c c and t o e n a h l c p e o p l e
t o s a t i s f y t h e i r h a s i c ne e ds . Hut i t seems wor t hwhi l e t o pr obe
i n t o some e a r l i e r vi e ws on t h i s s u l >j c c t b e f o r e c v a l u a t i t ~ g h i s
vi e ws .
1. PRICE REGULATION AND ISLAMIC J URI STS
The pr obl cm o f p r i c e c o n t r o l , f o r t h e f i r s t t i me i n I s J ; t ~n i c
h i s t o r y a r o s e i n t h e da ys o f t h c Pr ophe t I l i ms e l f . I t i s r c p o r t c d
t h a t " p r i c e s s o a r e d i n t h e d a y s o f t h e Fr o p h e t . Ile was a s ke d t o -
f i x t hem. But he d i d n o t a g r e e and s a i d : Al l al l g r a n t s p l c n t y o r
s l i o r t a g e ; lie i s t h e s u s t a i n e r and r e a l p r i c e maker ( nl ~~s a ' ' i r ) . ~ , . . 1
wi s h I woul d go t o l l i m ! l avi ng done no i ~ l J u s t i c t ? t o a n y one i n
bl ood o r i n pr ope r t y. " '
On t h e b a s i s o r t h e a bove ? h ; l d Tt h 1 ( i . c . -. -- ~ ; l y i n g o f t h e I ' r o p h c t ) ,
c o n t r o v e r s y s t a r t e d among t h e d o c t o r s o f 1s l ; i mi c j u r i s p r u ~ l c n c e on
t h e s u b j e c t o f p r i c e c o n t r o l and p r i c c f i x a t i o n by t h e gover nmcnt .
Out o f t h e f o u r famous s c h o o l s o f l s l a i ni c Law, l l anh: ~l 7s LIIIJ
~ h i i f i ' i s a r c o f t h e vi e w t h a t t h e s t n t c h a s no r i ght . t o l Ki x t h e
' l bn l.:litniyah q u o t e s t h i s hadi t 11 i n h i s book . nl i l i sl , ?h. L.._ 1,. 2 5 ,
w i t h r e f e r e t ~ c c t o ~ b ; UawT;J-Zid ' l' irinidh;i.
p r i c e s . I bn Qudzmnh a 1 ~ a q d i s i t h e t,i:~nhnlT t h i n k e r wr i t e s ,
"The I m u m ( head o f t h e s t a t e ) h a s no a u t h o r i t y t o r c g u l a t e t h e
p r i c e f o r t h e peopl e. I t i s pc opl c who w i l l s c l l t h c i r goods
a t what ever p r i c e s t h e y l i k e . ~ h n f i ' i School i s a l s o o f t h e s m c
o p i n i o n . ,, 1
Ile a l s o c i t e s t h e above ment i oncd I , ~ a d ~ t t i and s t a t e s t h a t t h c r c
p~
a r c two r e a s o n s f o r n o t p e r mi t t i n g t l i e r e g wl a t i o n o f p r i c e s .
F i r s t l yt l i e pr ophe t d i d n o t f i x t l i c p r i c e i n s p i t e oC p e o p l e ' s
demand f o r i t . I f i t wer e p e r mi s s i b l e , he would have done i t .
Secondl y p r i c c l i x a t i o n i s an i n j u s t i c e , and i n j u s t i c e ( ~ u l l n ) i s
p r o h i b i t e d . Mor eover , i t i n v o l v e s a p e r s o n ' s p r o p e r t y , and I I C
has t l i e r i g h t t o s e l l a t what evcr p r i c c t h e s c l l c r and huycr
a g r c c upon.
Hc a n a l y s e s t h e p r i c e f i x a t i o n l r om t h e economi c vi ew p o i n t 2nd
i n d i c a t e s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f s uch :I p r i c e c o n t r o l . Ile s a y s ,
" I t i s obvi ous t h a t t h e p r i c e f i x a t i o n wi l l r e s u l t i n t o d e a r n e s s ;
becaus e when t h e o u t s i d e t r a d e r s w i l l l i ear a bout p r i c c c o n t r o l ,
t hcy w i l l n o t b r i n g t h e i r goods i n t h e a r e a wher e t he y would be
f o r c e d t o s e l l them a t a p r i c e a g a i n s t t l ~ e i r w i l l . And t h e l o c a l
t r a d e r s who havc t h e goods , wi l l c o n c e a l t hem. The ncedy cons u-
mer s w i l l demand t h e goods , and ha vi ng t h e i r demand u n s a t i s f i e d
t h c y wi l l b i d p r i c e h i g h e r . The p r i c e wi l l i n c r e a s e and bot h wi l l
s u f f c r - t h e s e l l e r s wi l l s u f f e r a s t h e y have l)ccri r e s t r i c t c d
from t h e s a l e o f t h e i r goods and t h c buye r s w i l l s uf l - c r a s t h c i r
want s havc been l e f t u n f u l f i l l e d . I t i s , t h c r c r o r c , p r o h i b i t e d .
,, 2
I t i s c l c a r f r om t h e s t a t e me n t o f Ibrl Qud2mi1h t h a t t o him t h c
p r i c e f i x a t i o n w i l l h r i n g J us t . t he o p p o s i t r e s u l t o f what i t i s
meant For . The r e a s o n f o r h i g h p r i c e i s g e n e r a l l y t h e i n c r e c ~ s e d
demand o r d e c r e a s e d s u p p l y . And t h c s i t u a t i o n w i l l l)c r u r t h c r
a g g r a v a t e d i n c a s e o f p r i c c c o n t r o l . A l ow p r i c c w i l l i r r duce
ncw h u y e r s a nd i n s p i r e t h c e x i s t i n g o n c s t o d c ~ n ; ~ n ~ l i nore a t t h a t
p r i c c . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , d u c t o l ow p r i c e importers w i l l
r e f r a i n Crom i mp o r t i n g g o o d s ; t h c home- pr oducc1. s may I i kc t o s e l l
t h e i r goods a b r o a d i f p o s s i b l e , o r t h e y w i l l s t o p p r o d ~ ~ c t i o n
a wa i t i n g t h e a b o l i t i o n o f c o n t r o t . ' Thi s w i l l c r e a t e s h o r t a g e .
As a r e s u l t , a h o s t o f a d v e r s e L.onscclucncc a r c 1 i k c l y t o s t e m
f r om t h c c f f o r t t o r e g u l a t e t h c p r i c c .
I b n Qu d i ~ n a h ' s a r g u me n t s a g a i n s t p r i c c f i x a t i o n by t h e s t a t e i s
v c r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e g i v e n hy t h c moder n e c o n o mi s t s . l3ut a
good many d o c t o r s o f l s l i l r ni c j u r i s p r u d c n c c h a v e a d v o c a t e d p r i c c
c o n t r o l i n g r a v e s i t u a t i o n s a nd e mp h a s i z e d t h c nccd Tor a j ~ ~ s t
p r i c c p o l i c y . l ' hc Mi i l i kT and Ll anaf i S c h o o l s h o l d t h i s o p i n i o n .
I b n Ta i mi y a h h a s cxami ncd t h c o p i n i o n s o f t h c f o u r p r i n c i p i ~ l
s c h o o l s o f I s l a mi c Law and o f some o t h e r c x p c r t s 01.' j u r i s p r u -
d e n c e , h c f o r e h e g a v e h i s own v i e ws . Ac c o r d i n g t o him " t h e
c o n t r o v e r s y o f 'Ulama o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f p r i c i n g r e v o l v e s a r o u n d
t wo p o i n t s . F i r s t , i f t h e r c i s a n c s t a h l i s l ~ e d h i g h p r i c c i n
t h e ma r k e t a nd s omeone t r i e s t o c h a r g e h i g h c r t h a n t h a t p r i c c ,
h e w i l l he s t o p p e d f r om d o i n g s o a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Mal i k: Sc h o o l .
But i f t h e s e l l e r wa n t s t o s e l l a t l c s s t h a n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d
p r i c e , t wo o p i n i o n s a r c r c p o r t c d Trom t hem. A s f a r its s h a r i ( i
and f o l l o we r o f A!lmad b i n [ l anbal l i k e Ah6 I j a f s a 1 ' Ak b a r i ,
Ah; ~ a ' l a , e t c . a r e c o n c c r n e d t h e y oppos c d any i n t v r r e r e n c c
i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n ... "The s e c o n d q u e s t i o n on whi ch t l l c r c i s
-
d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n s among '1ll;ima i s t h e f i x a t i o n o f a rr~axi o~um
p r i c c f o r t h e d e a l e r s ( i n nor ma l c o n d i t i o n ) whcn t h c y S u l Ci l
-
t h e i r o h l i g a t i o n s . T h i s i s o p p o s e d hy ~ n n j o r i t y 01 ' l l l u~~r : ~, e v e n
' 1hn Ta i mi y a h . - a 1 l l i s b a h . p. 37.
hy M51 i k l ~ i ms e l f . . . . l3ut some d o c t o r s I i ke S21d b i n Mus;iyvih,
~(1bTi1h I). ' ~ h d u r Kah~n; ~r ~ and Yaby5 b i n ~ i f r d a r c r c p o r t c ~ l t o havc
acceded t o i t .
, , I
'The f o l l ower s o f Ah5 !lanTTah s;ry t h ; ~ t t h e : i u t h o r i t y slrou l ~ l 1- i x
p r i c e o n l y when pe opl e a r e 1i:rrlncd 1)y r l ~ o i n r r c a s c i n p r i c e ; t l r at
i s , when p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o bc saved frorrr i nj ~r l - y i s i r l v c ~l v c c l . ~
In b r i c l - , we f i n d t h e f o l l o wi n g o p i n i o n s r e ga r di ng the, f i x a t iorr
of p r i c e s by t h e s t a t e : -
a ) Nonc w i l l he ; i l l owed t o c1rarp.e a p r i c e inuch hi gh?
t ha n t h e e s t a l ~l i s t r c c l p r i c c . 111 t h e r i r s t c-nsc! i t w i
i n
e x p l o i t a t i on o f p e o p l e ' s need ari d/ t l re sccond r a s e , i
o t h e r s e l l c r s .
1- o r lowc' r
1 1 I,L,
t w i l l I ~ ; I ~ I I I
11) In (111 c a s e s , p r i c e c o n t r o l i s u n f a i r .
c ) l ' r i c c r e g u l a t i o n i s al ways nl l owcd.
d) I ' r i ce f l x a t i o n i s p e r mi s s i h l c o n l y i n c ~n c r g c n c i e s .
2. I1I1ICE FIXATION BY THE 1'1101'111:7'
Ihn i'a i mi yah i n t e r p r e t s t h e s a y i n g o r tlre Pr ophet which r c j c c t s
p r i c i n g i n s p i t e o f h i s f o l l o we r s ' r c q u c s t i n t h e f o l l owi ng manner.
-
, , I t was :I s p e c i a l c a s e and not 3 g e n e r a l r u l i n g . I t i s not i ~ r
t h e r e p o r t t h a t someone ha s r c ~ f r i ~ i n c d from s e l l i n g 01- doink:
s omet hi ng whi ch was oh1 i g n t o r y , o r cl~argc' cl more thirll t h e C O I I I ~ C I I -
s a t jon of7 t h e e q u i v a l e n t Accor di ng t u him t h e
I . .
bid. p. 40.
2T ..
l l l d . 1' . 4 7 .
-.
3 . .
r h i d . pp. 41-42.
-
p r i c e r i s e f a c i n g t h e P r o p h e t was c a u s e d by ma r k e t f o r c e s arid n o t
by i mp e r f e c t i o n i n t h e ma r k e t . T t was ;I c:ise o f s l ~ o r t a g e i . e .
d e c r e a s c i n s u p p l y due t o d e c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i o n a nd n o t ;I c a s e
o f 1i o; i r di ng o r wi t h h o l d i n g o f s l l ppl y by t h e s e l l e r s .
Ilc p r o v e s t h a t t h e p r o p h e t h i ms e l f i ~n p o s c d j u s t j > r i c c i n t wo
i n d i v i d u a l d i s p u t e s : Fi r s t when, i n ;I c ; l s c oL' g r a n t i n g r r c c d o ~n t o
R j o i n t l y owned s l a v e , he d c c r c c d t h a t t h e j u s t p r i c e ( l i mal ~ . 5 d l )
o f t h e s l : l vc s l i o u l d b e a s s e s t ; c d wi t h o u t any a d d i t i o n o r r c duc t . i on
( I n wakaba wa 13 s h i i r a ~ -- and e a c h o n e h e g i v c n h l s sl i , t r c a nd t h e
s l a v e s h o u l d he s e t f r e e .
1
The s e c o n d o c c a s i o n i s r e p o r t e d a s a d i s p u t e among t wo p e r s o n s -
o ~ t c I i a v i ~t g a t r e e i n t h e l a n d OF o t l t c r . 'I'Ite owner o f t h e l a n d was
har med hy t h e t r e s p a s s i n g o r t l t e t r e e owner . So he t o o k t h e
r n a t t c r t o t h e P r o p h e t . The l ' r ophct or der - ct l him t o s e l l t h e t r e e
t o 1; l ri downer and a c c e p t t h e c o ~n p c n s n t i o n , o r j u s t d o n a t e i t t o
hi m. 'The 111;iri d i d n e i t h e r . So t h e P r o p h e t a l l o we d t h r I ar i ~l owncr
t o c u t i t down. . .' i t i s n o t known From t l i c s o u r c e wl i ct hcr l ~ c
made t h e l a n d o wn e r pay t h e p r i c e o r t r e e . But i t a p p e a r s t h a t I hn
T: ~i r ni yah t h i n k s t h a t he d i d s o .
Al - t c r q u o t i n g t h e s e e v e n t s a t two (11 Tr cr c. ~i t p l a c e s 111 h i s I ~ooh
31 l l i s b a h , h e a r g u e s t h a t what t h e P r o p h e t 113s d o n e i n t h e s e two
c a s e s i s 11ot 11i ng b u t p r i c i n g . lle S u r t h e r s a y s , " I T p r i c i n g i s
done ilu' t o o n e p e r s o n ' s necs~l , i t i s mor e l o g i c a l t o d o i t f-or
t h e cors~oon p u b l i c ' s n c e d f or . f o o d , c . l o t h i n g and I i o u s i ~ t g , a s t l i c s e
p u l ) l l c n e e d s h a v e f a r g r e a t e r . i ni por t ; l nce t h a n one i n d i v i d u a l ' 5
ne e d.
, , 3
1 .
c l . , i h i d . p. 4 2 .
-. . . - . .
2 .
c l . , i b i d . . . p. 50.
3 c f . , i17ic1. -. p. 4 5 .
4 -
c l . , i b l d . p. 43.
~. . . . .
One more r eas on i o r t h e r e f u s a l o f t hy p r i c e r i x a l i o ~ l by t l ~ e
Pr ophct was t h a t "at t h a t t i me tlierc. was no p a r t i c ul a r . gr oup i n
~ n d Tn a h whi bengaged i n t r a d e . S c l l c r s and buyer s wc,rc: t h e sanlc
peopl e (min j i n s wal l i d) . -~-- Nobody c o ~ l l d I ) ? f o r c e d t o sell a11
o b j e c t . When s e l l e r c o u l d not hi . a s c r r t a i r ~ e d , on whom woul ~l
1
p r i c e b r i mposed?" That i s , 1) r i t . r r i x n t ion i s r e a s i l , l c onl y j i
therc: i s a known gr oup engaged i n i r ; ~d( z J I I ~ b11si ncss and due t o
h i s muni pi t l at i on, p r i c e i n o r e a s c s . In t h e : ~l ~s c n c t . o f t h ~ s c coi l di -
t i o n s p r i c e cannot be f i x e d , I ~c c a u s c i t cannot I ) ? i i x c d or1 t h o s c
who a r c not s u p p l i e r s . Ot hcr wi s c i t w i l l be r ~~e t r n i n g l e s s o r ~ l n j u s t .
-
Accor di ng t o Ihn Ta i mi yah, goods s o l d i n Mad intrh were no st l y by
i mp o r t e r s . Any c o n t r o l on t h e i r . p r i c e s i near~t o r c a t i l ~ g f f u r t h e r
s h o r t a g e and wor s eni ng t h e c o l ~ d i t i o n . It i s t h c r c l - o r c i mpor t a t i on
was encour aged by t h e s ay
goods 1 s 1';ivoured i n l i v c
So r c a l l y s pe a ki ng pc opl e
f ~ x a t i on. '
T t a ppe a r s from t h e a l ~o v e st;llc>lnent t l l at p r i c c l : i xat ion i s
a d v i s n h l c onl y i F t h e s t o c k l l ul de r s a t liornc o r inirl~llcrncn ivilisc
t h e p r i c e s . I f t h c whol e s uppl y ~ l c ~ p c ~ ~ i ~ l s on irnport an(l i n t h e
c a s e o f ] , r i c e f i x a t i o n , i mpor t - c ut i s f e a r e d the11 i t i s h c t t c r
not t o f i x t h e p r i c e and l c nvc t l i ~ s pctople t o i n c r c a s e t l ~ c s uppl y
o r goods and b e n e f i t each o t h e r . An u n l ' c s t r i c t e d i ~r l poi t i s
expcc-tccl t o i n c r c a s e t h c s ~ ~ p p l y and t l ~ u s b r i n g t h c p r i c e s down.
As Car l hn Taimi y a h ' s vi ews a r c c o n c c r ~ ~ e ~ l , llc has d iscussc,cl t l ~ c ~
prol,lcm i n d e t a i l . lie c l i s t i n g u i s l ~ ~ s 1)ctwcrn "two t y p e s ol - price-
f i x a t i o r i - u n j u s t antl i n v a l , ~ d , and j11st and v a l i d . " ' I' rohi l 1i t cd :I"
u r ~j u s l . price. i s t h a t whi ch 11;is l ~c c n e x e r c i s e d i n t l ~ c wake o i p r i c c
r i s e c a u s c ~ l h y t h e f r e e p l a y o f c o mp e t i t i v e inarket r o r c e s -
s l ~o r - t a g c o f s uppl y o r iricrecisc o f {IcunanJ, ; I S we 11;lvc : ~ l r e a d y
ment i oncd ( P. 7 6 ) .
' ~110~1gl i he never i l scd t h e t c r ~ n compct i t i on nor 11 i d 11c I I I C I ~ ~ i on a1 1
t l ~ e c o n d i t i o n s o f p c r f c c t c o mp c t i t i o ~ i a t one p l a c e and i n c l c s ; ~ r
t or ms yet , from t h e vi ews c xpr c s s c d : ~ t t l i Tfcrc-111 p l ; ~ c ~ . s ~ I I I i i s
book a1 ~ l j i s l ~ul i about mar ket i t i s cl ci i r . t l l a t tic had sorne o f t l i c
s o n d i t loris o f p e r f e c t con~pet i t i on i n h i s mind. For- exampl c, lic
q u o t c s t h a t " t o f o r c e peol l l e 011 s , ~ l c a f t h e r ~ b j e c t s which i s not
o l > l i g ; i t o ~ y t o s e l l , o r r e s t r i c t tliern From s c l l i ng ;I per 111i ssi l ) l c
2
o b j e c t i s i n j u s t i c e antl i n j u s t i r e i:; unlawCi11 ." I t I I I C; I I I S t hvy
have f ( 11l f r eedom t o e n t e r o r q u i t t h e n ~ a r k c t . Ilc ; ~ d v o c a t c s
e x c l u s i o n of' t t i c mo n o p o l i s t i c clcmelrr fro111 t h r mar ket anJ t l i csre-
. - >
f o r e ' he i s a g a i n s t any c o l l u s i o n among p r o f e s s i o n a l I I I ~ I I or. , ~ n y
.>
gr oup of s e l l e r s and buye r s . Ilc or nphr ~si zes knowleclgc of i ~~; cr kct
and t h e con~modi t y, a s t h e c ont I - act 01' s a l c, and p i ~ r s h ; ~ s c ( l cpends
on c o n s e n t , ' and c ons e nt r e q u i r e s knowl r dge and u ~ i l l c r s t a ~ ~ ~ l i n ~ . ' ' I
l l omogenei t y and s t a r ~ d a r d i z n t i o ~ ~ of t l ~ c pr oduc t i s ; ~t l vocat c, d b y
5
condcrnning a d u l t r a t i o n , f r a u d ; ~ n t l d e c c p t i o ~ r r egar d i ng p r o ~ l u c t .
Ile had :I not i on o f a we l l b e l ~ ~ v c d mi l r k e t of wliicli knowl edge,
hone s t y and f a i r p l a y , and (' rcctlo~n of c h o i c e wer e t l ~ c c s s e n t i a l
elements.
Bu t a t t h e t i me of emcrgcncy l i kc f a ~u i n e and s t n r v a t i o n , he
recommends Fi xa t i on O F p r i c e hy government ;11111 f o r c e d - s a l c 01' t h e
c s s c ~ ~ t i a l co~nrnoclit i e s I i k e Foods t uf f - s . Ilc s : ~ y s , " I t i s f o r t l i c
a u t h o r i t y t o compel 1 a pcrsorr t o s c l l h i s goods a t j u s t p r i c e
whc~r peopl e a r c i n need of i t . For exampl e, llc has s u r p l u s I'ooJ
and peopl e a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h s t a r v ; r t i o u , t he n i n t h i s c; l se I I C.
w i l l he f or c e d t o s e l l a t j t ~ s t p r i c e . " ' Accor di ng t o h i ~ n , coln-
p l u s i o n on s a l e i s not al l owed w i t h o ~ ~ t s u r l - ~ c i c n t r c a >o n , but i t
i s al l owed i f s u f f i c i e n t r e a s ou e x i s t s .
2
-
He seems t o have a s e n s e oT di f f cr cr l cc. bat wscn s t o c k and s uppl y
which i s a f l ow c onc e pt . We f i n d hi111 ;lwarc of t h e f a c t t h a t p r i c e
c o n t r o l would have a d v e r s e e f f e c t on s u p p l y , wl l c r e ; ~ ~ i f :I s t o c k
o f goods i s a v a i l a b l e p r i c e r e g u l a t i o n may not harm t h e buyer s .
As f a r a s p r i c i n g i n emergency c o n d i t i o n s l i k e r ami ns , war c t c .
i s concer ned, even t h e motlcrn economists a c c e p t t h a t p r i c e
regulation i s more e Lr e c t i v e a n d s ucces s Lu1 111 slich c o n d i t i o n s
t ha n o t h c r . To quot e t h e Nol ~el 1; i ur c; i t e I' :ILII A. Sai nucl son,
" l ' a t r i ot i s m i s more e f f e c t i v e i n mot i vnt i ng j wopl e t o brief : ~ c t s
of i n t e n s e her oi s m t ha n t o p u t t i n g 111' day ' a f t e r day w i t h :In
uncomCor t abl e s i t u a t i on. "3 Ile f u r t h c r s a y s , "Suclr e ~ ~ ~ c r g c r ~ c y
meas ur es work ve r y we l l i n rmcl-gc.nc. i c s but may c r c n t r rnori' i ~nt l
more d i s t o r t i o n s t h e l o u g e r t hey a r c i n c r r e c t . I: cor~orr~i st s
t h e r e f o r e t e n d t o rccommcntl t h a t s uch d i r e c t f i a t s hc rcst . rvet l Tor
emergency p e r i o d s and n o t he s q~l ; l nJ cr cd on mi nor pc;icc t imc s i t u -
a t i ons . 914
a . - l l l l pcr f cct i ons o f .. t h c . . -- M; i r kr t . -. . Apar t from t h e c o n c l i t i o ~ ~ 0 1 '
dr a ught and war , I bn Tni mi yah recommends p r i r c I ' i xat i on by t h c
government whenever imperfect i o n s , c u t e r t h c rnclrkct. For i n s t a n c e ,
i f s e l l e r s ( a r b a h a1 si 15 ) a b s t a i n i'rorn s e l l i n g t h e i r goods
-
exccpt ; ~ t a h i g h e r p r i c e t han t l ~ c norm:ll one (:11 ~ ~ -. l i n ~ a h .- : I I I I I : I ' ~~C: I I I ) ..
and a t t h e same t i me pe opl e r ~e c d t h e s e goods , t l l cy w i 11 hc
, , !;
r e q u i r e d t o s e l l them a t t h e p r i c e O F t h e ec( ui v; r l cnt .
r . .- i b i d . .-. - p. 2 4 .
2 .
i b i d . p. 26.
----
4. .
l b ~ t l . 1'. 3 9 3 .
i m i y a h . -. a ~ - i s i l p. 2.5.
An o b v i o u s cxnmpl e o f i mp c r r c c t i on i n t h r m; ~r Lc t i s t l i a t o r
monopol y i n f ood and o t h c r goods . 111 t h i s c a s e t h e a u t h o r i t y
Monopol i s t s h o u l d n o t h e l e f t t o c x c r c ~ s c h i 5 powcr ; o t h c r wi h c
h c w i l l s c t a p r i c e i n h i s ow11 f a v o u r , i ~ i v o l v ~ n g i n
t o people.
I
A t t h i s poi nl - , I bn l ' ai mi yah dcseri hc' : ; ; I l ) us i c pr i r i c
r cmoval oI' injustice. " I f a l i o l i t i o n o f t h c wl ~ o l c ~ o
n o t 1 1 o s s i b l c , o n e i s o b l i g c t l t o c l i mi n; i t c i t t o t h c
u s t
~ I I
can. " ' Th a t i s , i f monopol y c a n n o t I,<: p r c v r n t c d , i t must n o t I > c
l e f t t o victimize o t h c r s , hc nc c 11ric.c r c . gul ; ~t i or i hccomcs i nc, vi -
t a h l c .
Musl i ms i n t l ~ c mi d d l c a g e s wcrcx s o n ~ r ~ c h a g a i n s t hoar di nl ! nnJ
monopol y t h a t t h e y c o u s i d c r c d clcal l n g w i t h monopol i s t s '1.; s i n . We
- -
f i n d a number o f q l ~ c s t i o r ~ s i n h i s 1:atnw;l -~ - ~- i n whi ch l l i s o p i n i o n
was s o u g h t a b o u t i t s ~ a l i d i t y . ~ Al t l i oufi l i h e was a g a i n s t mono-
pol i cs , Irc a l l o ws t h e b u y e r s t o p u r c h a s e jiootls from mo~l opol i s t s ,
b e c a u s e i n t h c c a s e o f p r o h i h i t - io11 l ~c i >l >l r w 0 ~ 1 1 d C; I C-<, l i : ~~~~I s l i i p.
4
S
I n s t e a d he a d v o c a t e s p r i c e f i x a t i o n hy t h e s t a t c .
Hc d o c s 11ot a l l o w s c l l e r s t o ha ve a n a gr c r me nt t o s e l l ; i t a
p r e d c t e r mi n c d p r i c e , n o r b u y e r s t o co1111)ine s o t h a t t h e y form onc
0
p a r t y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i r , c o~nmot l i t i c s a t ;I l owcl - p r i c c , - - - ;I c ; ~ s e
s i m i l a r t o monopsony.
A s he i s a g a i n s t monopol y, s o hc o p p o s e s any p r i c e d i s c r ~ o ~ i ~ ~ a t i o n
' c T. , . i h i d . pp. 25-26.
2 . .
i h i d . p. 26.
3 - - 7
c l . , i dem. MFS. Vol . X X T X , pp. 2.38-h3.
4 c f . , i b i d . ~ pp. 240- 41.
5 .
c l . , i h i d . -. pp. 254- 55.
6 -
c f . , i dem. a 1 i i i s t ~ a h . pp. 25- 26.
_1-
a g a i n s t a buye r o r s e l l e r who docs not know t h e p r i c e p r e v a i l i n g
i n t h e mar ket . Ilc s a y s , "A s e l l e r i s n o t ; ~ l l o we d t o charp, e an
e x o r h i t a n t p r i c e , n o t common i n t h e s o c i e t y , from an un;iware
per s on ( ~ n u s t e r s i l ) - . .. -- - - but hc must s e l l h i s goods a t t h e ' ust omar y
-
p r i c e ( a1 yirnah e l mu' t udah) o r near by i t . I [ a buyer has been
char gct l s uch a n e x o r h i t a n t p r i c e he has t h e r i g h t t o r cvi cw Iris
b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t . . . . A pe r s on known t o discriminate i n t h i s wi l y
s h o u l d he puni s hed and d e p r i v e d of t h e rip, llt t o e n t e r t h e mar ket . ,, 1
l l i s o p i n i o n i s bas ed on a s a y i n g o f t h e pr ophe t quot e d a s "To
c h a r g e a v e r y hi gh p r i c e From nrl un;rw;ire pe r s on i s u s u r y (Ghahari
--. -. . . -
h. Commi t t ee ... . . I dea. I bn ' l ' ni rni yal ~ docs n o t F ~ V O I I ~ a u t l ~ o r i t : ~ ~ i a ~ i
f i x a t ion o f p r i c e s . lie a l l o ws i t s r i x ; ~ t i o ~ ~ a f t e r . nv!:ot i ; ~ t i o n ,
d i s c u s s i o f ~ and c o n s e n t o r t h e l)coplc! c u ~ ~ c e r ~ i c t l . 111 t h i s ~ V I I I I V C - -
t i o n he c x p l ; i i ~ ~ s a met hod pr oposed by one o f h i 5 pr t r dcccs s or s -
I n l l b l Accor di ng t o him "t I I V .- I I I I ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ( a u t h o r i t y - i n- cl r ; ~r . gc~) s houl d
c a l l a meet i ng o f mar ket r e p r c . s e n t ; ~ t i v c s ( wu j h l l . . all1 a1 ~ sLq. ). l' lie
o t h e r s a l s o s houl d he a ~ l mi t t c d t o t h e ~nc c t i i i g s o t h a t t hey co111d
v e r i l y t h c i r s t a t e me n t . Af t c r ncgot. i;it i on and j nvc s t i gnt i on ; ~ h o u t
t h e i r s a l e pur c ha s c h e s houl d persurl i l e t l i c~n t o a p r i c e t h a t
can s u p p o r t them a s we l l a s t h c common pe opl e . 'l'hus t hey a l l
mi ght ngr c c . P r i c e cannot he f i x e d wi t h o u t c ons c nt and ; ~ g r c c ~ n e n t . " '
To d c s c r i l ~ e t h e pur pos e o f t h i s cor nmi t t ce i dea he c l ~ ~ o t e s an ; r ~ i o t l ~ c r
j u r i s t Ab u l ~ a l T d who s a y s t h a t "t l re l o g i c l >e l ~i nd t h i s p r o v i s i o n
i s t o know, i n t h i s way, t h e i n t e r e s t s o r s e l l c r s and b u y ~ > ~ - s ; i n d
f i x ;I p r i c e t h a t s houl d t)c;lr ;I p r o r i t t o P u l f i l t h c i r needs and
t h a t would i n v o l v e no cml )nrrassrnent f o r pe opl e . I ( t i 11r i ce has
hcen irnposcd wi t h o u t t h e i I- r or l scnt lc%;~virlg them no p r o f i t , SUL- h ;I
p r i c e woul d be c o r r u p t , f o o d s t u r f s woul d be c. o~l ceal ed and p c o p l ~ . ' s
1
Idem-MFS, V o l . XXIX, P. 559,360
2 .
idem. a 1 l j l s bah. .- .- p. 4 1 .
goods woul d be d e s t r o y e d . " '
lle p o i n t s out c l e a r l y t h e d e f e c t s o r a r h i t r n r i l y r i xel l p r i c e s
whi ch do not el l j oy p o p u l a r s u p p o r t . For ex; r n~pl e, bl a c k o r gr a y
mar ket s o r down g r a d i n g t h e quai i t y vf t h e ' s amc' jioods t h a t arc:
s o l d a t a r i xel l p r i c e . S11ch I - car s wer e e x ~ ) r ~ s s e d a l s o by 1011
. ,
Qud31nah ;is we have s e e n i n t h c pr ecct l i ng pages . l he same d e f e c t s
a r e d i s c u s s e d hy t h e modern econor r ~i s t s t o o . Th e r r i s no llo1111t
t h a t t h e s e d e f e c t s can be r c~l ucet l o r relnovecl i I' pr i cc*s
b y mut ual <. o n s u l t a t i o n and hy r r e a t i ~ r g a s c n s c o f mora
t i o n rind d e d i c a t ion t o puhl ic. i n t e r e s t .
c . l ' r i c e R s u l a t i o n . in t h e 1:nctor ~ M;lrhut. Ther e r c ~ n ; ~
i ~ a p o r t a n t q u c s t i o n t o ans wer ; t h a t i s , whet her he s a i d
ahout c o n t r o l i n g t h e p r i c e s of f a c t o r s of pr oduct i on.
. ~ r c !"ix(xd
oh1 i g a -
11s ; I l l
a n y t h i n g
111 t h i s
mar ket t oo he a p p l i e d t h e salnc r u l e which he had appl icrl i n t l l c
goods mar ket . He s a y s , " I f pe opl c a r e in nccd o l t h c s e r v i c e s
o f a r t i s a n s and c u l t i v a t o r s , wh i l e t he y r e f u s e t o o f f e r t h c ~ o r
c r e a t e some s o r t o r j ~ n p e r i c c t i o n i n t h e mnr ket , t h c state, s houl d
fix t h e i r p r i c e s . And the? pur pos e of t h i s p r i c e c o n t r o l i s t o
p r o t e c t t l ~ e empl oyer s and el npl oyces from exploitation 01- each
o t h c r . "' What I b n Tni mi y; ~h h a s s a i d r e l a t e s t o l a h o u r h l ~ t t h c
S L I I I I ~ might be s a i d r e g a r d i n g o t h c r [ a c t o r s a l s o .
4. SUMMARY OF TIIli 1)ISCUSSION
'1'0 sum up t h e f or e goi ng d i s c u s s i o n wc can s a y , Ibn ' I ' : ~i ~ni ya h' s
s t a n d i s i n bet ween two cxt r cnl cs - - a l ) s o l u t e pro11 i h i t i on and t h e
uncondi t i onal s t a t e r e g u l : ~ t i on of t h c p r i c e s . I n p r i c e r i x ; ~ t i o l ~
130th upper and l ower l i m i t can bc f i x e d and i n t c r e s t o r 110th
1. .
t h l d . p. 41.
2- --
c f . , i b i ~ l . -. pp. 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 4
s e l l e r s and buyer s wi l l be p r o t c c t c d . A l l j u r i s t s ; ~gr cc! t h a t a
per s on w i l l he f or c c d t o s e t l h i s ,goods a t t l i c, p r i c e o r t h e
e qui va l t Ant i f he i s 1cg: i l l y hounil t o s e l l them. I I oi ~r dcr s and
no no pol i s t s conic unclcr t h i s rule. The I ' r ophet ~ e j c c t c t l p r i c e
f i x a t i o n becaus e t h e r e a s ons Tor r i s i n g p r i c e s a t t h a t t i l ne werc
n a t u r a l and not due t o p e o p l e ' s a c t i o n . So t h i s cannot b e quot ed
i n s uppor t of n e g a t i o n of pr i i . o c o n t r o l . 'I'hc Prophet . I1i111self
.. -
f i x e d p r i c e s i n sotnc i n J i v i d u : ~ l cascXs. 11111 Taimi yall does not
~ ~ I V O L I ~ p r i c e c o n t r o l when c o mp ~ ~ t i t i v e mar ket Corces a r e ; ~ l l o wc ~ l
t o work f r e e l y . Hc recommends 11ric.c i' c1;ul;ttion i n t h e c a s e oC
monopoly and i nl pe r f c c t i on i n t h e mar ket . 'The same principle wi l l
be a p p l i e d t o l a bour and o t h e r s c r v l c e s . The b a s i c poi nt i n t h i s
connect ion i s t h a t " i i p e o p l e ' s want s a r c s a t i s f i e d whi l e t h e y
a r c pr oduci ng i n a q u a n t i t y which i s c~i ough I'or t h e puhl i c xn~l
t he y Je:11 i n t h c i r pr oduc t s a t normal 11ric-c (:tl . -.. t11;1ma11 .~ a1 ~ h k h i ~ t . ) ,
no p r i c e r e g u l a t i o n i s needed. liut i T p e o p l e ' s want s a r c not
satisfied wi t hout r e s o r t i n g t o j u s t p r i c i n g ( a 1 t a s ' i r a l ' a ( l i l ) ,
t he n t h c p r i c e s w i l l he r c g u l ; ~ t c d , j u s t l y wi t hout any cxcc:ss o r
harm (1: wakas wn 1:... -~ . . s h a t a u -- t o ; ~ n y body. , , I
I B N TAIMIYAII AND I'IIOI'1:KTY I<IGIIT
P r o p c r t y r i g h t h a s b e e n o n c o r t h e h a s i c p r o h l c ms o f marl. I l i v c r -
s i t y o f economi c s y s t e ms c a n h e t r a c e c l back t o t h e v ; i r i e t y o f
a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y . Wl ~ c t h r r t h c r c s h o u l d b r
a b s o l u t e p r i v a t e o wn e r s h i p , o r a h s o l u t e s t a t e o wn e r s h i p , o r i n
he t wc c n a s i n t h e mi xed economy, o r some o t h e r t y p c o r o wn c r s h i p ,
t h e s e q u e s t i o n s c a n n o t h e n e g l c c t c d hy a n e c o n o mi s t .
P r o p e r t y i s n o t p c c u l i a r t o human b e i n g . I n the) wor ds o f Ernest
Be a g l e h o l e " I n a n unqunl i f i e d u s a g e o f t h e t e r m, p r o p c l - t y a p p e a r s
t o b c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f many f or ms o f ani m; rl 1 i c e , wi t h t h e
i mp o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n , h o wr v r r , t h a t o n c s h o u l d o n l y t a l k o f
p r o p e r t y r i g h t s when t h e c o n t r o l o f s c a r c e o b j e c t c a n l)c r c1at c. d t o
a u n i q u e n o r ma t i v e s y s t c m o r v ; ~ l u c s ; s u c h ;I s y s t c m i s Found o n l y
9 ,
i n human g r o u p s . ". . . . Onl y i n man w o c a n p o s t ~ ~ l n t o t h e emer gence
o f a s e n s e o f s e l f h o o d t h a t g i v e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l u n d c . ~ p i n n i n g r o r
t h e c o n c e p t o f r i g h t s , d u t i e s , r t . s p o n s i b i 1 i t i c s , and ol,l i g a t i o n s . "
Due t o t h i s , we c o n f r o n t :I nunl , cr o f c o n f l i c t s an11 d i v c r g c n c e s
among i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o t ~ p s . To r c s o l v c t h i s prob1c.m i s a dc.1 i -
c a t e t a s k t h a t h a s b e e n t r i e d by t h c t h i n k e r s o f e v e r y a g c .
A. CONCEPT OF PI<OPI~RI'Y IN LII1:FERIINT SYSTIiPlS
1 I'ROI'LR'I'Y KLGIIT 1N ROMAN LAW
To ex;lrnine a few a n c i e n t c o n c e p t s r c 1; i t i ng t o t h e i n 5 t i t u t i on o l
p r o p e r t y we come a c r o s s Roman !Law. I t s i n f l u c n c c was " i n t h c
d i r e c t i o n o f .!I r i g i d and i ndeccl i n somewhat I1: ~rsl i i n d i v i d u a l i s m.
eagleho hole, E . " P r o p e r t y " 1nt c r 11; r t i o n a l . l i n c y c l o ~. 1 )cJ -1 i . 1 - - 01' t h c .
S o c i a l S c i e n c e s (USA: The Mi cmi l l ; i n Company & T l e F r e e P r e s s ,
1 9 0 8 ) , Vol . XI I , p. 590.
'I'he Roman j u r i s t s had t h e p r e v a i l in>; t endency t o cons i r l cr t h a t
p r o > c r t y
each one had r i g l i t t o do what he l i k e d w i t 1 1 h i s own/ t j l at t h e
concept i on o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y n ~ c c s s a r i l y i n c l ~ ~ d c d t h e r i g h t not
mer el y t o e n j o y , b u t a l s o arbitrarily t o ; ~l ) u s e and d e s t r o y , and
l o g i c a l l y l i ke wi s c an ~ l l l t 1.ammei l ed r i g h t o f I >equc~s t . I l cr c, i n
t h e two g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s o f p r i v a t e PI - o p c r t y and compl et e f r c c d o l ~ ~
o f c o n t r a c t , Koal;~ns l e f t a b i a s t owar ds i ~ r ~ l ~ c t t c r r d i ~ n d i r r e s p o n -
s i b l e i r ~ d i v i c l u a l i s ~ ~ ~ a s a g a i n s t t l ~ e p o s s i l ~ l c c.1ai111 0 1 . thcL f a mi l y ,
1
t h e s e c t , o r t h e n a t i o n . " liven in t h e p r e s e n t age t h e s c l ~ o l a r s
have gener a11 y de l i n e d p r o p e r t y on t l ~ e p a t t e r n o f I(o~n;~ri I.aw. 1-or
exampl e, d e f i n i n g t h e p r o p e r t y o r domi ni on .Jolln A u s t i ~ ~ s a y s ,
" T ~ ~ L ' I I w i t 1 1 i t s s t r i c t S CI I S C i t d e n o t ~ s :I r i f i l ~ t - - - i ~ ~ d d i n i t e i n
p o i n t o l u s e s -- u n r c s t r i c t c c i i n p o i n t o l d i s p o s i t i o n and
1
u n l i mi t e d i n p o i n t o f d u r a t i o n - - - o v e r a de t c r mi n; r t e t hi ng. " -
Accor di ng t o t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , p r o p e r t y r i g h t i s all i ~ n r e s t r i c t c d
and u n l i mi t e d r i g h t on an o h j c c t t o us e o r d e s t r o y i t i n wl ~ a t c v c r
way t h e p r o p r i e t o r l i k e s . But none can i n s i s t t o- da y t h a t t h r
two c o n d i t i o n s ment i oned ahove must he f u l f i l l e d f o r o w ~ ~ c r s h i l ) .
Au s t i n h i ms e l f a d mi t s t h a t r e s t r i c t i o n mi ght he imposer1 b y c u s t o ~ s s
o r gover nment .
2 . PROPERTY RI GIIT 1 N G K I i E K I'IITI.OSOPIIY
The i n s t i t u t i o n oP p r o p e r t y was a gr c; i t c o n t r o v e r s i a l s ~ ~ b j c c t i n
Gr eece. Accor di ng t o P l a t o ( 430- 347 1 3 C) wa r r i o r c l a s s s houl d 11ot
have p r o p e r t y beyond what i s n e c e s s a r y ; t h c y ; I r e t o r c r - r i ve a
f i x e d r a t e o f pay, s u f f i c i e n t t o mcet e xpe ns e s and no more:
"Shoul d t h c y e v e r a c q u i r e homes o r l a n d s or. Inoncy.; ol ' t h e i r own, -
t he y w i l l become hous ekeeper s and hushandmer~ i n s t e a d of' { : L I ~ I ~ ~ ~ ; L I I S ,
~- ~ -
' ~ r a ~ , A. op. c i t . p. 28.
A ~ J O ~ I I ( 1 7 9 Cl 8 5 9 ) . . I . ect ur c . . . . - . . . - . o ~ ~ ~ f l ~ r i S J I - I ! ~ F ! ~ C ~ ; o r , I' hc
Phi 1os o) hy -. of I ' o5i t i vc i.-. . Law ~- e d , by 1I o) er t ComF>el l ( 5 t h ell-
revise , London: J . Mur r ay, I ) , V o . I , 1 . 790.
e n e mi e s a n d t y r a n t s i n s t e a d o f a l l i e s o f t h e o t h e r c i t i z e n s . ,, 1
One I ) c n ~ o c r i t u s ( 460- 370 H.C) s a y s t h a t s o c i e t y o r g r i n i z c d i n t e r ms
o f p r i v a t e o wn e r s h i p o f r e s o u r c e s w i l l e n j o y c c o n o mi i s u p e r i o r i t y
o v e r o n e whe r e communal o wn e r s h i p p r e v a i l s . 'l'lie p o s s i I > i l i t y o f
p r i v a t e o wn e r s h i p l e n d s t h e s t r o n g e r i n c e n t i v e f o r pl . ocl uct i ve
a c t i v i t y . Ilc s t a t e s t h a t " To i l i s s we e t e r t h a n i c l l c n c s s when
men g a i n what t h e y t o i l [' or o r kilow t h a t t h e y w i l l u s e i t .
P r i v a t e l y owned r e s o u r c e s a r c l i k e 1 y t o h e l ~a n r l l e d w i t l l g r c a t c r .
d i l i g e n c e t h a n t h o s e whi c h a r e p u t ~ l i c , s i n c e i ncome f r om co~nmu-
n u l l y h e l d p r o p e r t y g i v e s l c s s p l ~ ~ a s u r e ant1 e x p e n d i t u r c l c s s
7
p a i 11. " L His v i e ws a r c e c h o e d a l i t t l e l a t e r hy A r i s t v t l c ( 3 8 4 -
3 2 2 I1.C.) and e v e n t u a l l y hc c ; ~mc < c n t r a l i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h c
me d i e v a l s c hool me n.
A r i s t o t l c c r i t i c i s c s [ ' l a t o ' s communism i n s c c o n d book of ' the'
P o l i t i c s , . ~ a n d a r g u e s t h a t a s y s t e m o f communism woul d n o t wo r k ,
a n d t h a t i t v i o l a t e s n a t u r a l human i n s t i n c t s . He s a y s , " I f t1ic.y
do n o t s h a r e e q u a l l y i n e nj oyme nt a n ~ l t o i l s , t h o s e who 1: 1bour
much a n d g e t l i t t l e , w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y c o mp l a i n o f t h o s e who
l a b o u r l i t t l e and r e c e i v e o r consume much.
,, 3
Agai n i n ;In a r g u -
ment whi c h i s S i l l common h e u r g e s t h a t communi t y oC p r o p e r t y
woul d d e s t r o y t h e v i r t u e o f 1 i t ) c r t y . Ac c o r d i n g t o 1ii111 " t h e
p r e s e n t a r r a n g e me n t , i f i mpr ove d a s i t mi g h t be hy good c u s t o ms
rind l a ws , woul d b e f a r b e t t e r , and woul d hnvp t h e a d y a n t ; ~ g c s o r
b o t h s y s t e ms . P r o p e r t y s h o u l d be i n c e r t a i n s c n s c common, b u t ,
113enj:~min J o wc t t s ' T r a n s l a t i on. -- The ~- 1It y11hl ic., Hook I I I , 1, . 100
( q u o t e d by Gr ay S. A. , op. c i t . p. 'Jr-
ordo don, n . op. c i t . p: 1 4 .
The a u t h o r d o e s n o t g ~ v c r e f e r e n c e t o a n y o r i g i n a l s our ce. , hc
s i mp l y s a y s ' No s y s t e ma t i c t r c a r i s c by 1 ) e mo c r i t ~c s survives.
Ye t a v a r i e t y o f s h o r t p o l i t i c a l antl s o c i a l o h s c r v a t i on 1111
h i s p a r t , l i k e t h e a b o v e h a v c h c c r ~ t r a n s r n i t t c d by c) t hc, ~. ; t ~ ~ t l i o r s . '
3
P o l i t i c s , Uook 11, t r a n s l e t c ~ l hy Benj ami n J o we t t ( R r p r i n t c ~ l i n
r,..-. .- ..- r, -
a r l y c ~ mi c < l ' h o u ~ h t ) eel. by Monr oe, A. l i . , ( Ca ~nhr i c l gc ~: tla r var t l
L h l v c r s ~ t y ~ e s s % 5 ) , p. 2 4 .
a s a g e n e r a l r u l e , p r i v a t e . " I The i d e a l whi ch A r i s t o t l c s u g g c 5 t s
7
i s t h a t " p r o p e r t y s h o u l d b e p r i v , l t e , h u t t h e u s e 01- i t co11111io11."-
A s f a r u s t h e C h r i s t i a n wo r l d o f t h e Mi ddl e Ages i s c onc c . r nc d,
t h e t r n d i t i o n a l vi ew o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , wh i c h was s t i l l a c c e p t e d
a s c r i h c d i t s o r i g i n t o human s i n . Tawney s a y s a h o u t C h r i s t i : ~ n
i d c o l o g y a s " t o s e e k mor e i s n o t c n t e r p r i s e , b u t a v a r i c e , and
a v a r i c e i s a d e a d l y s i n . "3 And Gr ay w r i t e s : " ( ; o s p c l s had u n d e r -
l i n e d t h e t r ~ ~ t h t h a t we a l t h mi g h t h c a s n a r c , I-or is i t n o t
e a s i e r f o r a c a me l t o go t h r o u g h t h e e y e o f ;I n e e d l e t h a n f o r ;I
r i c h ma n t o c n t e r t h e ki ngdom o r God. ? T i i d e a l c~onl ~nr~n i t y was
o n e i n whi ch ' n o - o n e ' c a l l e d a n y t h i n g h i s own, b u t t11c.y had a1 1
t h i n g s common' .
El e ni c nt s o f P l a t o ' s t h o u g h t tiad I ~ c c n ; ~ h s o r l > c d wi t h i n t h e Ch r i s -
t i a n t r a d i t i o n i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s , Ihut A r i s t o t l c had he e n
' r e d i s c o v e r e d ' o n l y r e c e n t l y hy me d i e v a l l l ur opc t h r o l ~ g h t h e
mcdi um o f j c wi s h s c h o l a r s and Ar a b i a n c o m ~ n a t a t o r s Li kc Av e r r o c s
5
( I h n Kushd) and Avi ccnn; i ( I b n ~ r n n ) . I t was t h c i ~ ~ l ' l ~ ~ e n c c 01-
P l a t o ' s t e a c h i n g s t h a t t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h and t l i c
C h r i s t i a n 1 : a t h c r s we r e mor e p r o n c t o ;I c oi nmuni s t i c slodc oC 1 i l e .
A r i s t o t l e ' s P o l i t i c s , ~~. whi c h was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o L a t i n ; ~ h o u t 1250,
i n t r o d u c e d t h e me d i e v a l Wcst t o t h e vi cw t h a t p r j v a t e 1 1 r o p e r t y
i s a n e c e s s a r y i n s t r u me n t 01 good l i c e . ' Thi s vi ew b r o u g h t wi t h
- - -- ~. ~p~ ~.~ .. ~ -.- . --
1. .
i h l d . p. 24.
t b l d . 1'. 25.
3-
Tawney, I1.11. ~ ~ i g l ~ ~ a n ~ ~ ~ t h c .~ rise' o r C a l ~ i t ; ~ l i s m - ( t j n ) : La ~~d :
Pc n g n i n Hook, 1 9 x 8 ) . p. 4 5 .
4
Gr ay. op. c i t . pp. 35- 36.
5 ~ o r d o n . op. c i t . p. 154.
i t a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r ma t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y o f p r o p e r t y , a nd
Aq u i n a s was t h e f i r s t who comhi net l a d e f c n c c o f t h c A r i s t o t e l i a n
vi e w o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y wi t h a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n and c r i t i c i s m
1
o f t r a d i t i o n a l t e x t . P r i v a t c ownership 01' r c s o u r c c s c o u p l c d
wi t h communal u s e o f s u r p l u s p r o d u c e i s A q ~ ~ i n a s ' pr ogr amme l o r
t h c ma x i mi z a t i o n o f t o t a l s o c i a l p r o d u c t a nd t h c o p t i ~ n i s a t i o n
o f i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n f r om t h c vi e w p o i n t o f economi c we l f a r e .
The a d v o c a c y o f p r i v a t e o wn e r s h i p s i s h a s c d ma i n l y o n g r o u n d s
o f s u p e r i o r economi c e f f i c i e n c y . The p o l i c y o f communal u s e i s
-
g i v e n by mo r a l i mp e r a t i v e . Ilc w r i t e s ' Fc c d hi m t h a t i s p e r i s h i n g
o f h u n g e r , i f you f a i l t o do s o you a r e g u i l t y o f h i s d e a t h . , 2
I n s h o r t , on a l l i mp o r t a n t p o i n t s Aq u i n a s was d c c i s i v o l y on t h c
s i d e o f A r i s t o t l c . And t h i s p r o v i d e d t h e ma j o r r a t i o n a l e f o r
t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e o f a f r e e ma r k c t cconomy a s t h e Framework 1-or
economi c a n a l y s i s .
Th e s e a r c some o f t h e e a r l i e r vi c ws o n p r o l > c r t y . I . ct u s now
t u r n v e r y b r i e f l y t o t h e n a t u r e a nd s c o p e o f p r o p e l . t y r i g h t in
I s l a m, whi c h I b n l a i mi y a h c l a h o r a t e s and a d v o c a t e s .
H . I SLAMlC AI'I'ROACII
Ac c o r d i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g o P i s l a m, Al l a h i s t h e r e a l and
a b s o l u t e owner o f t h e Un i v e r s e and wl ~ a t e v c r i s i n i t . Ilc i s t h c
n o u r i s h c r and t h c ma s t e r o f man. Onl y llc c a n h c s t o w upon mcn
a n y r i g h t s o f o wn e r s h i p , ilc c a n i mpos e l i m i t a t i o ~ b and r e s t r i c t OILS
on h i s o wn e r s h i p . Man' s d i s p o s a l o v e r wo r l d l y goods i s i n t t r c
c a p a c i t y o f b e i n g t h e v i c c r o y a nd t h e t r u s t e e . Weal t h i s a means
t o t h e l i f e ' s c n d . I t s h o u l d h e i n s t r u me n t a l i n t h e c l ' f c c t i v c
d i s c h a r g e o f ma n ' s r e s p o n s i h i l i t i e s a s t h e v i c e r o y o f Al l a h . 'l'he
l c f . , Aq u i n a s , , I, . op. c i t . IT : 2 question, I.XV1, a r t . 2 .
2 . .
i h i d . 11: 2 q u e s t i o n , XXXII, a r t . 5 .
-
Qur an s a y s :
"And ( r emember ) when y o u r Lor d s a i d t o t h e a n g e l s v e r i l y I am
g o i n g t o make a v i c e g e r e n t on t h e Ea r t h . , , I
" Ea t o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f y o u r l.orll a nd r e n d e r t h : ~ n k s t o H i m . ,, 2
"And s t r i v e wi t h y o u r we a l t h and your l i v c s ill t h e way oT Al l a h .
, , 3
S i n c e p r o p e r t y r i g h t i s o f :I p u r p o s i v e nature and whole. manhi nd
b e l o n g s t o t h e one Cod t h c r e f o r c t h e b o u n t i e s o f nature and t h e
wo r l d l y goods s h o u l d be a c c e s s i h l e t o a l l men. T h c I' ropl t ct i s
r e p o r t e d t o ha ve s a i d :
"Manki nd a r e God' s d e p f ~ l d e n f a l l o f t hem, s o t h e rno.;t bcl ovct l o f
the111 i n t h e s i g h t o f Al l a h a r e t h o s e who a r e most h c n e l ' i c c n t t o
His p e o p l e . , , 4
P r o p e r t y i s a t r u s t o r t r i a l a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ha ve
been g i v e n s o l e discretion i n t h c o wn e r s h i p a nd d i s p o s a l 0 1 .
we a l t h , t h e Qur an s a y s :
"Your r i c h e s a nd y o u r c h i l d r c u may be b u t a t r i a l . Any corn-
p l u s i o n o r c o e r c i o n woul d ha ve he e n a g a i n s t t h i s t r i a l . Nc v e r t h e -
l e s s , s o c i a l i n t e r e s t a nd t h c c o l l e c t i v e a s p e c t o f l t uoi ani t y
r e a u i r e s k e e p i n g i n ~ l i v i d u a l f r e c dom wi t h i n c e r t a i n 1 i mi t s . 'I'hc
i n d i v i d u a l s u c c e s s i n t h e t e s t de pe nds n o t o n l y on h i s e l ' f o r t s
b u t a l s o on c o l l e c t i v e e P F o r t s t h r o u g h t h e me di a of s o c i e t y and
s t a t e .
' The @f i n I 1 :3O.
2 . .
l b l d . XXXIV:15.
3ibid. I X: 15. ~ ~
4- -
T a h r x z i , Muhammad b i n ' ~ h d u l l 5 h . ~ i s l t k a l ~ --h.iTT-~ :11 MasKb ill ( I ) ar nas cus : a 1
Makt ab a 1 l s l ~ m I , l Y6 l ) , Vol . 1 1 , p.
-
5 ~ h e Qur 5n LXIV: 15.
I n I s l a m d u t i e s come Ci rst a nd t h e n t h e r i g h t s . F,ach onc o r the*
t h r e e - i n d i v i d u ; i l , s oc i c s t y and t h c s t a t c - h a s some d u t i e s t o
pe r c or m. They have be e n g i v c n some r i g h t s a s b e i n g n c c c s s a r y
f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e d i s c h a r g e o f t h c d u t i e s . No douht t h e f o c u s
o f a t t e n t i o n i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l , who i s r c t s pons i bl c l' or l ~ i s
a c t i o n s and a c c o u n t a b l e d i r c c t l y t o God Tor h i s c o n d u c t . Hut he
i s n e c e s s a r i l y a s o c i a l b e i n g . Al l t l r c ma t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l
i n t e r e s t o f men r e q u i r e c o l l r c t i v e c l ' i o r t s f o r t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n .
Ma t e r i a l p r o g r e s s , s o c i a l r e i o r m, p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y and p e a c c ,
a s we l l s s e d u c a t i o n , mor a l r c g c n c r a t i o n a n d s p i r i t u a l g r o wt h ,
a 11 r e q u i r e a j o i n t a ppr oa c h on t h e p a r t o r t h e i r l di vi c l ua l s
c o n c e r n e d .
S o c i e t y i n [ s l a m i s i'or t h c i n d i v i d u a l s . I t er ncr gcs o u t o r t h e
n a t u r a l u r g e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ;and ar ows on t h e i r i n i t i a t i v e .
S o c i e t y p e r f o r ms i t s f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h t l l e s t a t e rind o t h r r s o c i a l
i n s t i t n t i o n s . 'l'o p r o t e c t t l ~ e 1 i Tc, l r o n o ~ ~ r , and p r o p c r t y o f t h e
members 01 s o c i e t y , t o e l l s ur e 3 d e g r e e o f f r e e d o ~ n t o a1 l and t o
do j u s t i c e i f d i s p u t e s a r i s e , a r c f u ~ ~ c t i o n s and c l u t i c s o f t h e
s t a t e .
Thus t h e i n d i v i ~ l u a l , t h e s o c i c t y and t h e S t a t e eac.11 11;lvc c l a i m
on p r o p c r t y r i g h t s in vi e w O F t h e r o l e s a s s i g n e d t o t l i e~n. The
p r o p e r t y r i g h t s o f t h e s e t h r c e a g e n c i e s s l l oul d n o t come i n
c o n f l i c t s wi t h o n e a n o t h e r , n o r s h o u l d i t s c x c r c i s e 11y ;111y OI I C o f
t hem j e o p a r d i s e s i mi l a r r i g l ~ t s o r t h e o t h e r s . I s l ; ~ mi c s t a t c
h a s ;I j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , b e i n g t h e c ml ~odi mc nt
o f God' s v i c e g e r e n c y on c r t r t h ;ind r c p r e s c n t n t i v c o f t h e p c o p l ? .
Itid i v i d u a l s s h o u l d n o t g r u d g e i . cas or ~r t l ) l e s t : ~ t c i n t c r v c n t i ~ r i
n e c e s s i t ; l t e d l >y I s l a mi c c o ~ i s i d c r n t i o n s and ili r c c t e ~ l t uwar t l s t h c
a c h i e v e me r ~ t o f t l i c c o l l e c t i v e c n d s l a i d down hy t l l c . .. ~l i a r T' a h . --
llav i ng d ~' s c r i l >e d t l i c b a s i c a r ~d l' ~cndamcnt ;I I concept o 1- pr opc r t y
r i g h t s i n I s l am we pr oceed t o c x : ~n ~i n c 1l1n ' I ' ai ~ni yah' s vicw i n t h i s
r e g a r d . A t t h c out s c >t , i t sl ~oul cl 1 , ~. not ed t h a t 11c docs not s a y
a nyt hi ng which i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t l i c I s l a mi ~ : r onc c pt 01' p r o p c r t y
and 11i s i d e a s and a n l y s i s ways rcl nai n wi t h i ~ i t h e l s l : l n ~i c I ' I . ~I I I C-
work.
Accor di ng t o h i m c l i s pos ; ~l o r p r o p c r t y i s p c r ~ n i s s i b l c o n l y u p t o
t h c c xt e l l t t h e r e i s no v i o l a t ion o f any p r i ~ i ~ - i p l e o r ~ h a r j l i h .
I
1) c s c r i hi ng h i s vi e ws , Pr o f . I . : ~ous t wr i t e s "Onc docs not i i n d i n
h i s works any o r t h c a r g ~ ~ me n t s whi ch Ar i s t o t l e lias I ~ r o u ~ h t ; ~ g ; ~ i r r s t
I ' I ; i t ot s (:ommnnism. Ile ne ve r s a y s t l i ; ~ t p r o p c r t y i ~ ~ ~ . r c . : ~ s c s t h e
ur ge [ or work i n t h e mind ol ' t h r owriel., t h a t comlnilriism i s no
g r ~ a r a n t c e Tor t h e s o c i a l order, : ~ n d t h a t tile i o i n t po.;scss ion ; ~ n < l
community o f goods r e a l l y C I I ~ i n t h c usur pi l t ion o f powcxr by t l ~ o
s t r o n g e s t . Not one o f t h e s e c o n s i d c ~r a t i ons i s found i 1 1 any o i
h i s books , f o r he t a k e s t h c i n s t i t u t i o n of p r o p e r t y T OI - gr ar ~t c. d
a t t h e vc r y o u t s e t .
, , 2
Accor di ng t o l hn Taimiyitll p r o p c r t y i s ; I power g r a n t e d Ily t h c
~h n r ? ; l h o v c r u t i l i z a t i o n o f an o l ~ j c c t . I t i s o r t l i Tl ' r r c r ~t t y p e s
- -. . . - -
a l ~ d d e g r e e s . Por exampl e, somet i mes i t i s compl ct c s o t h ; ~ t tic
can s c l l , g i v e nwny, pr s s cnt 3 s a gi l ' t o r l cnd ~ t ; i t i s i l , ~ l c ~ , . i t ~ , L ~
and can hc us ed f o r pr odur t i ve p ~ ~ r p o s c s , hut somr t i10c i t i 5
3
i ~ ~ ~ . o ~ n ~ l c t c and t l i c ownc5r ' s r i gl i t i s I i i n i t e d . Ile 113s not I ' o c ~ ~ s s c ~ d
a t t c n t i o l ~ o n l y on p r i v a t e ~ WI I C- r s l l i p . I l t ~t socic!t.y and s t ; l t e havc
a l s o : ~ t t r a c t c d h i s a t t e n t i o n . I t i s one o f t l i c J i s t i n ! : i l i s I i i n ~
f c a t ~ ~ r c s 01- l ~ i s economi c vi ews not I'ollnd i i i hny s c h u l a s t i c d o c t o r .
3' .
c l . , I l ~ n ' l' nimiyah. MFS. V o l . X X l X , 11. 17!).
A s Far a s t h c means o f a c q u i r i n g p r o p e r t y h y a n i n d i v i c l u ; ~l a r e
c o n c e r n e d , I bn Ta i l ni ya l ~ s i mp l y e i l umc r a t c s t hcx mcans r cco) : r i zed
by t h e ~I i a r Fa h, s u c h a s g e t t i ng possession o f unowr~ct l unc ul t i v ; ~ t c d
l a n d ( whi l e maki ng i t c u l t i v ; ~b I c ) , i n h e r i t e n c c and pur ~. I i : i s c, c t c .
An i n d i v i d u a l h a s t h e r i g h t t o c n j o y h i s p r o p e r t y , u s c i t pr oduc -
t i v e l y , t r a n s f e r i t , and 11r vt c c t i t f r om wa s t a f i ~ . I H I I ~ hi s
p r o p e r t y r i g h t i s n o t ; ~ h s o l u t c and u n l i ~ ~ ~ i t e c l . I t i s subject t o
a number o f l i mi t a t i o n s . Ilc cal l ri ot s p c n ~ l c xt r : l va g: l nt l y. Ilc
s h o u l d n o t s p e n d on t h e objects o r v i c e and I ~ o r b i d d e n luxuries.
I
I n r c g a r d t o t r a n s a c t i o r ~ s h e s l 10~11d n o t c ~ s c f o r h i d d e n me:lns e . g .
; ~ t l u I t e r a t . i o n , c h e a t i n g a n d u n f r r l f i l l ~ ~ ~ e ~ l t o r wc i g l ~ t s ; I I I ~ I I I C ; I S I I ~ - C S .
L
Ile i s p r o h i b i t e d t o e x p l o i t t h c ~~i ' ccl y p e r s o n s , and h o ; ~r d i r i g a t
3
t h e t imc o f d r o u g h t . Accor i l i nl : t o l l ~ n ' Tai mi y; ~l i orlc3 wl ~o s c ai m i s
t o amas s wc a l t l ~ i s l i k e Korah.
* 4
A p c r s o n C ; I I I I I U~ mahe any a l t c r -
5
a t i o n i n h i s p r o p e r t y t h a t inay har m h i s n c i f i h h o u r c r .
a. - 0 Ol i g a t i o n s . Ap a r t f r om t h e s e l i m i t ; ~ t i o n s on t h e 11r ope r t y
r i g h t some o b l i g a t i o r ~ s a r e a l s o imposed on :I p r o p r i c . t o r . Ilc
s a y s , "011 c v c r y p e r s o n t h c r c a r c c c r t ; ~ i r ~ obligations, [ ' or cx;rmpIcX,
t o s u p p o r t h i ms e l f and h i s r e l a t i v e s and t o pa y t h e i r d u e s e t i .
, , ( I
1
c c . , i dem. l ' a f s Tr SGr ah .. a 1 ..~.. Nu,-. . . - . 4 5 .
' c f . , i dcm. -- a l t l i s hnh. p. 2 2 .
3 c f . , - i h i d . - .- p. 2 1 .
4 c f . ~ L I C I I I . - H I S i y 5 s a h ~- . . n l ~ h ; ~ r ( r n h . p. 180.
* h o r a h ( Qa r un) : ,411 ~ ~ n b e l i e v i n ~ mill i s t c r o f I' l i nro: ~h ( l : i r!16n) , l ~ e
t )J~Tved p r o u d l y t o wa r d s t h e 1s r ; l e l I t c s I ~ c c a ~ r s e ol ' h i s ~ I I I I I I C I I ~ C
wc a a l t l ~. Ilc made :I g r e a t p u l ~ l i c s l ~ow aF hi . ; wr a l t h : I I I ~ I was
s wal l owcd up 11y t h e c a r t 11 wi t h l ~ i s p i ~ l a c ~ ('l'lrc QIII.' :;II, X X V I I I : 7b-
8 2 ) . Ilc i s an e x n ~ n p l o o f t l i osc- who p r e r c r t hca Fl e e t ills w c ; ~ l t l ~
o r t h i s wur l d t o g a i n i n g by ;11111s ; ~ n d h u mi l i t y : ~ n d ~ - i y l i t c ~ o ~ ~ s ~ ~ c s s
t h e n h i d i u g r i c h e s g i v e n I I ~ A l I n11 ill thc: I i Fi. h c r c ; i i ~ t c r .
5 .
c f . , i(lcm. MFS. Vol . X X X , pp. h , 8 , 1 1 .
6 . .
~ h l d . Vol . X X I X , p. 280.
Ile e x p r e s s e s t h e vi ew t h a t . " 1 t i s p e r f e c t 1 y o b l i g a t o r y (1:ar.d <] i n )
on a p e r s o n t o s p c n d i n s u p p o r t o f h i ms c l f and h i s l ~ o u s e h o l d .
A s f a r a s t h e e x p e n d i t u r e on thc? p o o r and c o n t r i b u t i o n i n war i s
conccr nccl i t i s b a s i c a l l y ;I s o c i a l l y o b l i g a t o r y d u t y (I:;lrd
k i f i y + ) o r d e s i r a b l e d e e d ( mus t nha bh) . Hut i t . 1)ccomcs i n d i v i -
.-.. ~- L-.
d u a l l y o b l i g a t o r y i f n o o t h e r p c r s o n comes f o r wa r d t o do i t . '1'0
f e e d a h u n g r y p e r s o n i s o b l i g a t o r y [ wSf i ) . -- ., 1
Zak5h i s p e o p l e ' s r i g h t i i i t h e p r o p e r t y 01. man. ' l b n ' I' ai mi ynh
- --
s a y s t h a t t h e p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o a p e r s o n ' s p r o p e r t y a r c t l c t c r n ~ i n c d
by two f i l c t o r s . F i r s t f a c t o r i s i n t e r n a l , 2nd r e l ; j t c s t o t h e
p r o p e r t y r e a c h i n g t o a c e r t a i n minimcln~ ( i . c . The n i s a h ) . : l t whi ch h c
1)ecornes 1 i abl c. t o Z:1k5h. The s e c o n d f a c t o r i s c x t c r r l ; ~ l . Ex p e n ~ l i -
t u r e on wi f e and c h i l d r e n and o t h e r dependent r e l a t i v e s , h e l p i n g
t h e p o o r arid p e r s o n s i n troubles, c t i . a r e n o t subject t o t h c
minimum me n t i o n e d a b o v e . l i ver y p c r s o n h a s t o make t l ~ c s c c x p c n -
d i t u r e on o t h e r s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e v e l o f h i s i ncome 2nd e x t e n t
o f h i s p r o p e r t y . I n t h e f o r mc r c a s c c, xi st enc. c o f we a l t h i n ; I
c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y i s a c a m e o f o b 1 i g ; i t i o n wh i l e i n thc, 1 ; i t t e r
3
c a s e e x i s t e n c e o f money i s n o t a L-: IIISC h u t a c o n d i t i o n .
I f we p r o b e i n t o J bn ~ a i mi ~ : l f l k t l oct r i n c s wc wol l l d Fi nd t h a t 11e i s
i n c l i n e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e ownership o f p r o p e r t y t o be me r e l y ;I
s o c i a l I u n c t i o n . When a n owner f a i l s I n h i s d u t y t h i s ~ i o c s n o t
me r e l y r e a c t on h i s p e r s o n a l c o n s c i e n c e . The ma t t c r i s n o t
r e g a r d c d :IS s i mp l y o n c be t we e n God ; ~ r ~ d h i ms c l P f o r i t comcs
d e f i n i t e l y wi t h i n t l ~ e s c o p e o f s o c i e t y t o c a l l him t o or cl cr . l' he
f u n c t i o n o f t h e S t a t e t o o r d e r what i s good a n d t o 1-orbi l l what i s
1.
~t l c m. ... a 1 Si yRs a h . a 1 ~ h a i i a h . p. 1 h 0 .
2
-
f . , idem. Ki t u h a 1 T; i wassul wa'l Wa s i l a h ( Ca i r o : i l l M;~n:ir,
-- ~ ~ .~~
1327 H . ) , p. 50.
-
3 c 1 . , I hn Ta i mi ya h. Ki t s b a 1 rm3r1 ~. ~~~. ( I l c i r u t : a 1 mokt ab a 1 I s l ; i mi ,
1392 A . 1 1 . ) , M17S. XXIK-pT-~I G.71
Ihn ' l ' ; ~ i 1ni y: r I r c l i s c ns s c s i n sornc. d e t a i 1s t l l e property or- t l l c s c r -
s c r v i c c ~ s c ~ x t c n d c ~ l t o g u e s t s , r x~i cr r di t u r c on r c l a t i v c s ; ~ r r ( l h c l p
i n c ont i n j i c n c i c s . Ilc i r1l crrc. d a l l 111t.se [ our 0111 i ~ - , a t i ons irorn ;I
4 . p c r t y : ~ ( . r o l ' ~ l irlg t o 11 i s own
I . , i l l . I). 1 W.
r f r e e w i l l .
s a y i n g o f t h c Pr ophet .
1
A s f a r a s t h e oh1 i g n t o r y s c r v i c e s w i t h o ~ ~ t r emuner at i on a r e
conc: crr~cd t he y a r e t e a c h i n g , e n j o i n i n g t h e guud an11 lo1.11 i di ng
1
t h e e v i l and h c l p o f t h e s u l ~ p r c s s c c i . ~
Tl1e1.e i s c o n t r o v e r s y wh r t h c r t l ~ c bent-[its o r t r i v i ; ~ I goods
s houl d lie pr ovi de d wi t h r c ~ ~ ~ u n c r ; ~ t ion o r wi t l l o ~ ~ t i t . 1 I)!) ' l ' a i ~ n i ya11
..
i s o r t h e view t h a t t hc y s houl d hc proviclc.d rr.t%o o r c l ~ a r ~ e . . ' Ilc
f i ~ r t l ~ e r l ~ o l d s t h a t i f a number o r good.; s houl d hc p r o v i ~l e d wi t h-
i l S
o u t any c h a r g e , j u s t / a l ~ a c t of h c n c v o l e ~ ~ c e , some o t h e r goods may
I,? r c qui r c d t o p r o v i d e on 1 1 1 ~- p; ~y~nt \ i l t o f C I I ; I ~ ~ C S . I ~ X C ~ I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ o f
goods on ronnmernt i on i s o f fotrr. t y p e s , t o 1,rov i dc l:ou~ls i n
cxchnngc o f goods a s happens i l l t r n d r , t o s p c n ~l monc.y or1 s e r vi c . c s ,
t o p r o v i ~ l c s e r v i c e s agai n. ; t money and t o cxchi ~ngc I ~ c n r ~ f i t s [ or
h c n c f i t s a s i t h; ~pl i cns in p: i r t ncr s t i i p - t h e T i r s t rnnn s pcnds t h c
1;1l,o~1r and t l ~ c o t h e r s pe nds money. Al l t hcs c cxcl ~anj i es a r e
nccess: i r y i n r e l i g i o n and f o r wor l dl y p ~ l r p o s c s , 3 s 111an can not
(1
g e t on hy I ~i n~s cl l T, 11e i s hound t o s c~ck l ~ c l p r r o~n ot l l cr-5.
~. ~ .~ -. - . - . . . - - -- . - - ..
I .
I . i l >i d . p. 185. "' l' hcrc~ a r c l o u r I l r i ~ ~ ~ s . I f ;I person Jots t h c s m
Ilc c: ~i l not be 11 1:111icd 0 1 ' 111isc.1.1 i ~ ~ c s s , onct who !lays :'.;1I.5t ; I I I L ~ 110st s
g u e s t , s t ~ p p o r t s r c l ; ~ t i v c s ~ I I J I ~ c l 1)s t h r n c r d i e s i n c u ~ ~ t i n g c n c i c s .
2 . .
1 1 1 1 1 . 1'. 1Rb.
3 : '. .
hid. p. I Rb
4 - - 7 '..' .
I . , .~ ~I i i cl . 1). 18!1.
I1 .
I 1 185-89.
b .
f . I . ~- 1 . 189-!lo.
propc' rt
can oh1
1) ccause
wi t hout
y from whose proc.c,eds t l ~ e J c h t can he p a i d , t l ~ ' go
i ge 1i i 111 t o s e l l ~ h c ~ ~ r o p c ' r t y ;111d ~ : I V t h e d ~ I ) t . '1'11
t h e payulcnt o f de ht i s o h l i i : ; ~t o r y ;ind t h i s i s n o t
t h e s a l e 01 t h c p r o p c r t y ; +nJ wl~cn t h e " f u l r i lrrrcnt
V C I ' I I I ~ ~ I I t
is i s
pos s i h l c
o f an
oh1 i g a t i on depends on some ot l i c r t h i n g s , hot11 L~ecornr ol)l i g a t o r y . "
I n t h c same way t h e Xovcrrlrnent can o l ~ l i g c :I p r r s o n t o s c l l f ood a t
;1 j u s t p r i c e when a n o t h e r pc*rson i s i n d i r e need xntl t l ~ c ownvr
o f I'oocl r e f ~ ~ s c s t o s c l I i t e xc e pt ;it ;I h i g h c r price,. I ' T ~ L I S i t
may be s a i d t h a t j u s t i c e : ~n d cl 1; l r i t y l o i n Ii;~nds t ~ Li mi t moral l y
a s wel l a s j u i , i d i c a l l y t h c r i g l ~ t o f f r e e d i s p o s i t i o n wl ~i cl i
p r o p e r t y s:ce;.ls t o c o n f e r on t h e owner of :~ri ol)jcc.t.
' Tl~c, s econd t y p e o f p r o p e r t y i s c-ol l c c t i vc c~wncr sl i i p 0 1 - p r o p e r t y
or. s oc- i al p r o p e r t y . Th i s raay tahc: di Fl ' c r c nt i ' or ~ns. T1ur cs; i mpl c
:In ul)jc~c.t [nay he owncd hy two I'cw ~ ) c ~ s s o n s , o r a n o r g n n i ~ i i t ~ o n
o r n s s o c i a t ion m;jy he t h e oul l r r . 'I'hc.rc ;I r c n few oh, i cct s 1 11;1t
a r c owricd 11y a c o mm~~n i t y l i v i n g i n I t ~ i a r e a or- l ~ y t h e
s o c i e t y ; I S :I whol e. Such p r o l ) ~ , r t y r i g h t i s n c c c s s i t a t c d . ; ~ I I I ~ -
t imcs b y t h c s o c i a l requ i relncut s.
I T t h e p r o p e r t y i s owncd h y two o r I I I U I ~ ' p c ~s 0 1 1 s tiicy w i l l us(?
i t ~ i c ~ o r d i i ~ f i . . t o t h e r ~ 1 I c ai10[1tcd Il y tl~crn. N u O I I ~ w i 1 1 I ) ( - p c r ~r l j t -
t cd t o harm t h c ot l i cr . On t h e otlic-r I i ; i r r cl , i f one o l tlic~rl f r i e s
t o m; ~hc some ; i d d i t ion which i s 1)encPi ci : i l I'or h o t l ~ , ~ I I t h i 5 c ; ~ s c ,
t h e o t h e r w i l l a l s o hc pr cs s cd t o c u ~ ~ t r i b u t c h i s sh: ~r c. ; l n d co-
o p c r ; ~ t c w i t h h i s : p a r t n e r . Once h i s ~ f:itwL . was sought i n c: ~sc. oS
a g a r d e ~l owned b y two pe r s ons wl i i c l ~ wa s d i y iclcd het wcc. ~~ them : I I I ~
one o f them want ed t o e r e c t ;I wal l i n thc. ~ni dt l l c whi l e tltc o t h c ~ r
o b j r c t e d t o i t . I bn 'I'a i n~i ya h ; ~ s ~ ~ s wc r e c l t h a t t h e o l l ~c i ' pc>l-son
wo~i l d b c cor npcl l ed t o concede.
2
, - .
The c x a n ~p l c o f t he s p e c i a l c o l l c c t i vc p r o l wr t y i s t h c t r u s t
(Waql' l. Whrn a p r o p e r t y h a s l)ecrl i l cdi c; i t cd t o s p c i i l' ic p ~ ~ r p o s e s
o r f o r r c r t a i n p c r h o n ~ , i t i s 01, li)::ltory t h a t i t must h e s pc nt Tor
t h e sakv of t h a t pur pos e. 11>11 ' I ' L I ~ I I I ~ ya11 hol d5 t l i at :I t r u s t pr o-
p c r t y can he r c l ) l a c c d 1,y ar i ot l ~cr . i f t l ~ c i : ~ t t c r i s morc h t . ~ l c ( ' i ~ ' i a l
and 1-1-ui t ful f o r t h e pe r s ons t o w l i c , ~ n i t i s d r d i C; i t c ~ l - - a vicw
not a dopt e d generally by t l i c . d o c t o r s o i I s l ; ~ ~ n i c j ~ ~ r i s [ i l ' u d c n c c .
IIe p e r ~ n i t s t h c s a l e o f clcd i c n t c d t r c o s wliosc o u t p t ~ t i s rcduccl(l
a n d t o ~ ~ u r c t r a s e o t h e r s whose o ~ ~ t p ~ ~ t i s g; r vat er . '1'rcc.s ;1rc I i k c
bui l t l i ngs t he c a r e - t a k c r h a s r i k: l ~t t o c11:ingc t h e s h ; ~ p c n f a t r u s t
t o ;I iorm more h c n e f i c i ; i l t 11: i l l thc' existing one.
I
An i mp o r t a ~i t c a s e o r c o l l e c t i v ~ . ; I I I L I s oci : l l 1 ) r o p ~ r t y i s t h e ! , , i l - t ~
o r n a t u r e c . g . wa t e r , g r a s s i ~ n d f i r e . ~ I I C S C t l i r i ~ r ~ h j c c t s I I ; I V C
I ~c c n mcnt i oned s pe c i I ' i s i i l l y i n :I p - ~ ~ - ~ ~ I j a d i t I ~. ~ ~ ' l' l~c r eas on f o r t l i ci r
I ) ei ng col l c c t i ve s o c i a l property m:ly be t h a t t l ~ e s c a r e t h e f r c c
g i f t s o f n a t u r c , man h a s no t r o u h l c i n a c q u i r i n g thcm and makc.
them i ~ s c l ~ u l . The o t h e r r e a s on m:iy i)c t h a t r l ~ c s e a r c o b j e c t s 01-
~ l c c c s s i t i c s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l o c c u p ; ~t io11 and owr1rrshi 1) mi ght c r c n t c
I i ar t l shi p ; ~ n d t r o u b i e t o t h e soc i c t y . Acco~. di ri g t o I b n ' I ' : ~i n ~i y : ~l ~
t l ~ c s e t hl - ec o h j e c t s have hcc.11 i ncnt i or~c. d a s c3xalllplcs; ot hcsr t h i n g s
havi ng t l ~ e same c h a r : ~ c t c r i s t i c s inay a150 hc i ncl uded i l l t h i s
1 ; . [ I ( . rtzg;trcl5 :111 mi n e r ; ~ l s coming out o f e a r t h a s r o l l c x c t i v c
p r o p e r t y , c . g. p e t r o l , na pt hn, g o l d , s i l v e r , s a l t c t c .
2
1
c f . , i h i d . -~ Vol . X X I X , p . 22!).
2 -
c k . , -- i h i d . ~. ..~ Vol . X X I X , p. 218.
law and o r d e r anel, i n g e n c r a l , p r o t e c t i o n ol' a l l t l ~ e i n a t c r i a l ; ~ n d
s p i r i t u a l i n t e r e s t ol' t h e people,. A c l c t : ~ i l c J s t u ~ l y of t h e nlcarrs
o i puhl i c p r o p e r t y and tire rcl cv; l rrt nhl i l : ; l t i ons a s l l ) n ' I ' a i n 1 1 y ; ~ h
s e e s tllern, w i l l he di s cus s c~el i n t l l C c l ~ : ~ p t c ~ ~ - o f I ' ul ~l i c l : i n; ~nce
bcl ow, hut a b r i e f ment i on may he made. I ~ c r c : ~ l s o . Acc. o~, ~l i ~i j : t o
hi m, t h c main s o u r c e s o f s t : ~ t e property a r c Z:~h:ili, t ~ o o t y :lnd
~~.~ ~ ~ . . .
s p o i l s o i war (M:strnnim - ~.~~ and l.;~'i - ~ ~ ) . " ' A p a r ~ 1:ro111 t h i s t h e S t ; ~ t c
can a l s o i n c r e a s e i t s r e s o u r r c s hy i n~pos i ng o t h c r t ; ~ x e s wlrcn
2
necdcd n r g c n t l y. Los t and t - o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l wlrosc? owncr is I I O L hnuwn i s
3
s t a t e p r o p e r t y and s i mi l a r i s t h c cast o f t h c pr oper . t y h ; ~ v i n g no
4 tl
i n h e r i t a n t ; t r u s t , g i i t s 5 and r i l l es arc, :11 5 0 i ~ i ~ l ~ ~ ~ l c ~ l ; I S a
s o u r c e for. s t a t e p r o p e r t y .
S t a t c p r o p e r t y i s a c t u a l l y p i ~ l ) l i c pr opr r - t v, t h e hc;lcl 0 1 ' t h c s t : ~ t c
is o n l y ; I c o r c t a k c r o f i t . I t i s tlrc , 111t y oS t h e s t i l t ( : t o i l i s -
7
b u r s c i t i n t h e way 1110st heni ~l . i c i a l t o t h c 1i ul ) l i c . I t shou I LI
avoi d c x t r a v a g a n c c and wa s t ; ~ g c . ~- %ahSt ~- -~ . ;lroul~l be, cl i s t
-
among I r s hen i r i c i a r i c s a s prescl-il)c*cl hy t h e Qur'an.
dut y o l s1: l t e t o s t r i v e For t h c r c. onon~i c p r o g r e s s 0 1 .
pr uv icle s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and ~ C ~ I I C C d i s p : ~ r i t y i n LI i s t r
inco~nc:. A 1 I t h e s e l aci t t er s wi l l lbr il i s c us s e d i n d c t ; ~ i
t h c c h a p t c r on ' r o l e 01' t l ~ e s t a r e i n cconoolic I i f e
on ' pub1 i c f i n a n c e ' .
From t h c Foregoing a n a l y s i s i t i s clt, :ir t11:it t o l hn ' I ' L I ~ I I I I ~ : I ~ I
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3 . .
l h l d . . Vol . X X X , p. 113; Vol . XXIX, p. 263.
4 i c t y ~ ~ ~ . a 1 ~ - Si y Zs a l ~ .~ . a1 Shnr ' r ah, ~~ ~- p. 5 4 .
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~ ( l e n ~ . a l ~ Siy;is:111 - -~ a1 ~ -- - - S l ~ a r ~ a l ~ . ~~ 1 . : 7 , h 4 .
r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y i s n o t a h s o l u t e b u t 1 inii tcbd and qu:r l i f i c t l . I I I
t h i s way h i s t h e o r y i s t o t a l l y ur11iAc t h a t o f t h e l<nri~:~nr;. l l i s
e l a h o r a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y r i g h t i n t o t h r c c c . : ~ t . e g o r i ~ s oi- p r i v a t e ,
s o c i a l a n d s t a t e i s a l s o u ~ l i q u ~ . I No Joul , t i t i s I I t t i ~ ~ i l u
c nc u ol: I s l a m t h a t h a s gi vcl l e v e r y ; Ispc, rt ol ' L i l c i t s d u e illlpor-
t a n c e .
I b n T i ~ i ~ l ~ i y a h ' s vi e w on p r o p e r t y r i g l i t i:; c o n l p l c t c l y d i f l c r c n t
f r om t h e a l i s o l u t e i n t l i v i d u : ~ l , c : i p i t ; ~ l 1 s t i c vi ew o f p r o p e r t y r i ~ h t .
~' I I c? i n d i v i d u ; l l i s f r e e t o a c q ~ l i r c p r o p c r t y s ~ ~ h j c c t t o mo r a l
c o n s t r : l i n t s b u t t h i s r i g l l t h a s her11 g i v c n t o f u l f i l r c%I . t ; l i r ~
d u t i e s . As s o o n a s o n e g o e s a g ; ~ i n s t t lie Sl i ; l ri ' ; ~h ~ ~ p ~ ~ p ~ - h i s r i g h t s w i l 1
hc s ~ l l h j c c t t o intervention lhy t h c S t a t c . Hut h e ; i r r c l i t s p r i v a t c
p r o p e r t y a s a b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o i ~ :rnd i t woul d be i n c o r r e c t t o
t h i n k t h a t t h c S t a t c i s a l 1 suprvtnc, i n t l i I I I i n d i v i d ~ 1 ; 1 1
r i g l l t s a r e i n v i o l a b l e a s l o n g a s o n e i s wi t h i n t h e bounds s e t liy t h
I ~ r ' l i . I n t h i s way Itin Ta i mi ya l l ' s vi cws on p r o p c r t y a r c
- - -. - .. .. - .
d i f f e r e n t f r om t h e s o c i a l i s t o r communi s t a p p r o a c h t o owners11 i l l .
11111 ' l ' ; l i n~i yah Il as h u i l t a 1 1 11ossi l 1Lc s : ~ f c g u a r i l s a g a i n s t i 11di vi du; r l
o wn e r s l ~ i p hccomi ng ;I t o o l ol ' e x l i l o i t a t i o n . ' I i s i s d c mo ~i s t rated
by t h e me t i c u l o u s c a r e wi t l i whi ch h c J i s c u s w t h c l i m i t s and c o n -
s t r a i n t s on t h e s e r i g h t s . L x p l o i t n t i o ~ i liy :In i n d i v i d u a l o r ; I
c l a s s i s a t y r a n n y a n d i t i s t h e d u t y o f t l i c S t a t e t o s t r i v e t o -
e l i mi n ; ~ t c i t .
Co n t r a r y t o t h e vi e w o f . .s i l l s , ~. ... .~~ i l i n l ' ai mi ynh p r r f c r s wc a l t l i t o
p o v c r t v . Ilc r c g a l c l s wc,il t h t o bci :I rvt.ans t o good 1 1 2 o r ~ l 1: I i c.
2 h c r c arc. f u n y re l i g i ot i s rlut i t.5 wl i i c l i r . a l r r l o t b c pt:r i' o mcrl w i h n r ~
tticans. Onc's 0111 i g; i t i on to stlppo r t h i r n h c i l l' n n J h i 5 dc~pciiclc' ilt :;
, 1 1 5 0 ~ C ' C I I I ~ ~ C S worldly r nc1; l ns , l l <. ~i t c t h v i t - ; ~ c ' q ~ ~ j i i t i o ~ ~ i h i 111l w1. ; 1-
t i v p . ' i h n 7' a i a l y: l h s t l . cr ~~t hr n. - . Ihia o p i i ~ i u ~ ~ b y q i ~u t i r l f i orlc o f
t h e c; l r l icst j t i ~ i s t s - ~ : t ' i ~ l hi11 ; [ I P*lus, ivvil? w h u s ay s r l l ; ~ t t h c r c
LS 110 good i n 3 pe r s on wh o d i s ) i Lt 1. s w ~ a L 1 1 1 ;15 : 1 ~ C ' ~ S U I I c Li n
serve l l i s Lor d w ~ r h i t , r c . p a y t h c h clue..;, p r n t c c t I i i n ~ ~ c ~ l C a n d
7
hccuu~e i r l cl cpcr ~~l cnt o l- otlrers. "
r i g h t s , wei i l t h i mpuse< u b l i g i ~ t icirrs. 111: i s dc:f i n i t c t l l ~ ~ t most ol '
t he o \ ~ i . i g n t i o n s whi ch dcvolvc L ~ ~ C I I I ;i prt -sot i t l i r ~ ~ i g h ~ h c ~ U S ~ C S S ~ U I I
'The irist i tilt i on o r i n t e r c s t h a s t ~ c ~ c n
t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y . I n t h e wor ds ol -
i n t c r e s t i s s t i l l i n a s t a t ? o r g r e a
a c o n t r o v e r s i ; I I s ~ l b
Co n a r d , "l'lic t h r o r y
t c o n r u s i on. I I i i h1
I'h i 1os opl i i c ; i l n t t i t u d e s a r e n o t unknown, n o r t h e y : ~ r r m~ ~ c l i c o n -
c c r n c d w i t h o u r t he me . Hut i t i s wo r t h wl i i l c t o 1i;lve ;I 11i rd; e y e
vi ew o f t h e h i s t o r y o f i n t c r c s t i n d i f f e r e n t religions and
s y s t e ms a s we11 a s i n Tsl om, I hef or e d i s c u s s i n g I bn T a i ~ o i y a h ' s
a t t i t u d e t o wa r d t h e p r o h l c m.
1. JIJ1)AISFI AND CIIHTSTIANT'I'Y O N 1N'SI:llliS'I'
T n t c r c s t t a k i n g h a s a l wa y s hccn c o n s i d c r c J a s i 11lii1111an and
unethical by a1 1 t h e r e 1 i g i o n s and phi 1osnpl l e1. s " I n t h e 0 1 d
Tcst : l mcnt many p ; ~ s s s g c s lor11 i d i n t c r c s t c h a r g c d on 1o; l ns t o t h c
p o o r o r t o Cel l ow J ews and ~ ~ o n d r mn t h e gai ni l l !: o f wc a l t l i hy
o p p r e s s i n g t h e p o o r wi t h U S L L I . ~ . " ~ ' l l i i s p ~ ~ o l l i t ~ i t i o n is 11;iscd on
L e v i t i c ~ ~ s 2. 5: 37 "'l'l1011 s h a l l n o t c i v e him t h y nori icy u l ) o ~ ~ I I S L I I . ~ ,
n o r l c n d hi m t h y v i c t u a l i o r i n c r c s s e " , a nd on Ueut er onomy 3 : L I ,
"'Thou s l l a l t n o t l e n d upon i c s i ~r y t o t h y l hr ot l i cr . " 111 t l i c S ; ~ I I I C
way, t h e J u d a i s m o f Tal mud and b l i s l ~n ; ~h f o r h i d a n y Jew t o h e an
' ~ o n : l f J , W . J . 1\11 111t r o d u c t i on t o t h c 7' 11eom. of T n t r r e s t (1.0s
_ .. _ . . ~~ .. .- . ~' - . . - - ~~~ .~~ -
An g e l s , I!)hb), p. xi.
L
Tho111:1s I:. Di v i n e , S. J. ' 1l s ~11. y' I ~ n c y ~ . l o p ~ ~ c ~ ~ l
YorL: Amer i cana Co r p o r a t i o n , 19h. l ) Val. XXV
i n t e r me d i a r y o r a ge nt ol' s ~ ~ r c t y o r wi t n c s s i n any u s u r i o ~ ~ s
t r a n s a c t i on bet wecn Jew and Jew. ' l' l~c K:~l)l)is d c r i v c d t h i s pr oh i -
b i t i on Si-om Exodus 2 2 : 2 5 , " 1 I' t11o11 l i ~ 1 1 i 1 money t o any 0 1 . my
pe opl e t h a t i s poor by t h e e , thou s h a l t not be t o him ;is an
u s u r e r , n e i t h e r s h a l t t hou 1; 1y upon him u s u r y . "
1
These v e r s e s g i v e t h e i mpr es s i on t h ; ~ t t h e p r o h i b i t i o n ol- i n t r r c s t
was l i mi t e d t o t h e poor o r t o t h c J cws , but t h i s i s not t h e c a s e .
Summing up t h e r e pr oa c he s l c v c l l c d a g a i n s t t h e .Jews t h r (!ur'Sn
s a y s , "and becri usc t h c y t a k c i n t c r c s t , wh i l r i t was f or l ) i i l den
2
them and devour u s e l e s s l y t h e s u l ) s t ; ~n c e of peopl e". ' l ' l ~ ; ~ t
t h e y t wi s t e d and d i s t o r t e d t h c wnrds of t h e i r l)ooh, so t h a t t l i c y
c oul d e x p r e s s t h e i r t e n d e n t i o u s whims and a p p e t i t e s , i s c l e a r
from t h e f a c t t h a t "; t ccordi rrg t o M;iimonidcs, ;I Jcw I c ~ ~ i l i n g mo n c y
t o a Ge n t i l e i s r e l i g i o u s l y bi i l dcn t o c h a r g e i n t e r e s t . Mai ~noni i l es
r e g a r d s t h i s a s one of t h e a f f i r ma t i v e p r e c e p t s of .111daism,
d e r i v i n g i t from 1)euteronorny L.i:ZO,which a c c o r d i n g t o h i m ,
s houl d he t r a n s l a t e d ' u n t o a s t r a n g e r t hou must l c ~l i l money on
i n t e r e s t .
,, 3
The Ch r i s t i a n wr i t e r of ~- ~ l l ' e r a t u l .. - .~ .~ i.l;fiiriI-(arl -- Arlahic e n c y c l o p ; ~e d i a )
wr i t e s "'l'hc Mosai c l aws t ' or hsdc l l c l ) m~s c h a r g i n g i n t e r e s t
i n c a s h from t h e poor even t110~1gh t h e y l e n t t o an a l i e n ; t he n
t h c r e s t r i c t i o n nar r owed upt o t h c I s r a e l i t e s even t h e y l e n t t o
t h e we a l t hy. They wer e e n j o i n e d t o l el ~i l t o t h c poor t o 11elp
them i n d i s t r e s s and t h c y wcr c w; ~r nr <l a g a i n s t t a k i n g i n t c , r c s t l )y
any t r i c k . . . . R u t when t h e u a r k c t cx teridc~d ; I I I ~ t r a J c : I I I ~ c v ~ ~ ~ mc r c c
de vc l opc d, t h e p r a c t i c e o f i n t e r e s t and mor t gage b e c ; ~o ~c col ~r ~~~or l
1 .
c l . , Ahtrl s on, .J. "Usury (. Jews)" Encyc 1op:leilia ~y 9.0 o f Ilvl i2ii111 ;ind
l i t h i c s (Ncw York: Cha r l os S ~ r i l ~ w r . ~ < R SOI I S, , Vol . Xl f , ~ p . 559.
- -
1 0 1 I . IV : I h 1 .
3
c f . , Abel s on, J. op. c i t . Vol . X T I , 1). 5 5 7 .
mnong them. But t h e y al l owed t h e t a k i n g o f i n t c r c s t I'rom t h c i r
.Jews b1.ctthrcn l ong a f t e r t h a t .
1
A s f' ar a s C h r i s t i a n i t y i s c onc e r ne d, i n t l ~ e New Te s t a me nt , we
f i n d no d i r e c t p r e c e p t s a hout i n t e r e s t . But t . hcse words o l
J e s u s " l e nd f r e e l y , hopi ng n o t h i n g t h c r e h y , " Luke, 6 : 3 5 , c o n t a i n
t h a t c h a r g i n g o f i n t e r c s t i s f a r a g a i n s t t h e Ch r i s t o n ~ l u r ~ ~ and i t
i s c o mp l e t e l y f o r b i d d e n . Accor di ng t o Sp i c g c l t h e e a r l y l : ; ~t her s
l ooked up011 u s u r y wi t h s c v e r e t l i s ; ~p p r o v a l . They f o u ~ ~ d t h e con-
f i r ma t i o n o f t h c i r vi ews i n s c v c r a l p ; ~ s s a g c s o f t h e Old Te s t a me nt ,
and t h e Gener al I ' r i n c i p l e s o f t h e New l ' r s t ament t e a c h i n g appr oved
t h e i r s t a n d , more e s p e c i a l l y t h e above c i t e d v e r s e o f Lokc.
2
The p r a c t i c e o f i n t e r e s t was common i n a n c i c n t G ~ e c c c ; ~ n d Home.
The R O I I I ~ I I l awyer s had al l owed a11 a n n u ; ~ l r a t e o f 1 2 l ) t ?r ccr ~t OI I
l o a n s ill k i n d . 3 But t h e Roman t h i n k e r s l i k e Ci c e r o ( l Oh- 43 1 I . C. )
and Scnc:c-a (4 H . C . - 05 A.I).) c~ondemnril t h e t a k i n g o f i ~ ~ t c r c s t and
d c s c r i h c d i t a s inhuman.
Thc Greek p h , i l o s o p l ~ c r s I I I a t o and Ar i s t o t l c a l s o s t r o ~ ~ g l y opposcil
t h e c l ~ a r g i r ~ g o f i n t e r e s r . 'I'huy I I I O L I ~ ~ I T i t t o he ag3i11st t h e
we1 f a r e o f t ~ h c s t a t e . Accordi np, t o t hem, i t i s U I I ~ U S ~ a1111
u n n a t u r a l t o s e e k g a i n from h a r r c n me t a l .
4
They d i d not differentiate 11ctwecn c o r ~s l l ~n p t i o r ~ l o; l r ~ ancl l oan I'or
-
, . a I Host;111 i . "a1 K i I)at q ICl eraI~ a I Id25 -- 1 . i r(l3c i r u t : ~at l >: ?h a I h 6 r i I-,
l R8 4 ) , Vol . VI I I , p. 513.
L .
c 1. . , Spi e gc l , 1 1 . W . Thr Crowth o f llconomic ' l' houel~t [ l i ~ ~ g l e wo u ~ l
- ~- ~
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i f N . . : ' e n t 1 c e - 1 l l 1 , 1 9 7 1 ) p . 6 3 .
7
3
c f . , i h i ~ l . p. 03.
4
c f . , 'l'llomas, l l . l ) . op. c i t . Vol . S X V I I , 1). 8 2 4 .
t h c t r a d e , n o r d i d t h e y d i s t i ngu isli he t we e n i n t r r c s t ; IIIJ L I S L I ~ Y .
S t a t i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s v i e w S c h u ~ n p ~ ~ t c r . w r i t v s , "llc d i d n v t c, ver ~
c L , ' ~ s s l f y - : l o a n s a c c o r d i n g t n t h c v ; ~ r i o l ~ s p ~ ~ r p o s e s t h c y a r e cap; l l , l e
o f s e r v i n g and d o e s n o t seem t o I I R V ' ~ ~ n t i c e d t h a t :I I o i ~ n t h a t
f i n a n c c s c o n s u mp t i o n i s something v e r y d i f l ' c r c n t f r o r a L O ; I I I t h a t
I' inilncc5 ma r i t i me t r a d e . He c on~l c mne d i n t t t r e s t whi ch h e c q u ; ~ t e d
t o u s u r y i n a l l c a s e s - on t l ~ c g r o u n d t h a t t h c r c was n o j u s t i f i -
c a t i o n f o r moncy, n me r c incdiulr o f e ~ ~ l l a ~ ~ g ~ t o L I I C ~ C ~ ~ C . i n g o i n g
f r om hand t o hand ( wh i c h o f c o l l r s c i t d o c s n o t d o ) ."
I
011 t h c p a t t e r n 01' S c l ~ u mp e t c r , a t p r e s e n t i t h a s bccomC ;I r a s h i o n
t o t a l k a h o u t t h c d i f l ' c r c n c c h e t w c c ~ ~ c o n s u wp t i o n l o a n s xnd l o ; ~ n s
f o r p r o d u c t i o n p u r p o s e s . l i ut ;I d e e p a n3 I y s i i shows t l l a t act 11i 11 1 y
t l l c r e i s no s u h s t ; i n t i a l d i f f c r c ~ ~ c e h e t we e n t l ~ c t wo, a s f i n a l l y
t h e I ) ur dcn i s b o r n e by t h e p o o r o s common p e o p l e . Irlorc, ovcr, how
i t c o u l d be j u s t i f i a b l e t o c n s u r c t h c s l ~ a r v o f t h c c a p i t a l i s t and
g i v c no s u r e t y o f r e t u r n f o r t h e p e r s o n wo r k i n g wi t h t h ; ~ t c a p i t i l l .
' Hl i nki ng a b o u t i n t e r e s t t o o k :I ncw t u r n i n t h e Nj dcl l c Ag r s and
ana l y t i c a l t r c a t me n t o f t h e pr obl e m s t a r t e d . A g r a t l n ; ~ 1 hr cakdown
o r t h e r e s t r i c t i o n a g a i n s t i n t c r c s t s t a r t e d and a t t e 1 9 p t s we're
~n a d c t o l e s s c n t h e s e v e r i t y o f p r o h i l ) i t i ~ r l o r f i n i s h i t o u t r i s h t
by g i v i n g a ncw i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o t h e R i h l i c a l t c a c l ~ i n g s and by
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i n A r i s t o t l e ' s s t a n d a ~ ~ d Roman l a ws .
l ' xpans i on o f c o mmc ~ c c a n d t r : ~ d e , I i n c r c a s i n g economi c ; I L . ~ i -
v i t i e s r e q u i r e d f r e q u e n t c a p i t x l borrowing. C I I U ~ ~ I I I I I C I I t h c ms e l v c s
nc e dc d l a r g c sum f o r b u i l d i n g and Tor crusades. And l a t e r , t h c
1
Scl ~ur npr t c r , A. ,I. op. c ~ t . 11. 6 5
'l:or s u c h d c t a i 1 s s c e t h e col l t en1porar. y t h i nhcr . b l i ~ ~ d i j d ? ~ s work ' Sf i d '
(l'I!Jc?re~t') - . -. ... . . . ( 1 1 i Mar kazi hl ; ~ht a l , ; ~h : i 1 9 0 8 ) , 1 1 1 ~ . LI i - ! . ?l .
Chur ch hecame owner o f l a r g e p r o p e r t y and s t a r t e d moncy l e n d i n g .
T h i s i ~ l a t c r i a l i s t i c h e n t o f Ct ~ur cl i mcn pcr . s uadcd t hem t o r e a d j u s t -
and i n t e r p r e t t h e B i b l i c a l l aws i n ;i way t h ; i t may s u i t t h c i r
a c t i v i t i e s . They g a v e LI P n o t o n l y t h e o l d v i e w t h a t I ) u s i n c s s was
a n e v i l a nd i t s r o o t s a r c i n ; i v a r i c e h u t t h e y p u t t h e s c c d s o f
c a p i t a l i s m by h a v i n g s o f t c o r r ~ e r i l l t h e i r h e a r t s r e g a r d i n g i n t c ~ r e s t
'l'llc Scl i ool i non we r e p i o n e e r s i n t h i s r e s p e c t , p r o mi n e n t among wl1o111
s t a n d s 'l'homas Aqui na s . Ile (I i s t i n! : ~~i s I i cd he t we e n t h i i i g s t h a t ; i r e
consumed a s t h e y a r e u s e d , f o r m l f ood ; ~ n d t h i n g s t l i a t mi i y
h e u s e d wi t h o u t b e i n g cons umed f o r c x ; ~ ~ n p l ~ ;I 1ic)usc.. " l Accor di ~i k:
t o hi m, o n l y i n t h e s c c o n d c a s e ' u s c ' c ; ~ n Ire s e p n r a t c d l r om
o wn e r s h i p . S i n c e money comes i ~ n d c r t h c f i r s t c a t e g o r y , t l i e r e So r c ,
he who : ; el 1s money mus t s e l l i t once, o r I I ; i nd h a s n o r i g h t t o
c h a r g e e x t r a . One who demands a p r i c e i n t hc, Corin 01' a n a n n u a l
payment and t h e n i n s i s t s on a ret 1l r. n O F h i s c ; i p i t ; ~' l i s j : i ~ i l t y oS
b e i n g p a i d t wi c e f o r t l l e same t h i n g . t l s e l l e r is e n t i t l e d t o
r e c e i v e o n l y c q u n l t o wha t he h a s g i v e n up - - a c o n c c p t s i m i l a r
t o t h e " j u s t p r i c e " .
Hut Aq u i n : ~s a g r e e s t h a t t hi ? s e l l c r o f inoncy m;iy r f c c i ve d a ~n a g e
t h r o u g h l o s s o f e n j o y me n t g r e ; ~ t c r t h a n tile sum o f 11101111y i111111cdi-
a t e l y i n v o l v e d , (damum e me r ge nc e - l)ctm:igc5 SuCPcr cd) ; o r s a c r i f i c c
o f ~ ' r o f i t t h a t mi g h t h a v e been e a r n e d , had p r i n c i p ; ~ l l ) ccn i nvc s t e c l
r a t h e r t h a n l o a n e d , ( l e c r u m ces: r ns - csc:lpcxd g a i n ) . ' Mah i ng
t h e s e mod i l . i c a t i o n s Aq u i n a s 11 i d n o t c o n c e i v e t l ~ : ~ t t l i i s ~ ~ ~ a h c . s :I
s e r i o u s i ' r cak i n h i s g e n e r a l ar gl r mcnt t h a t money i s a commudi t y
whi ch c a n be u s e d o n l y b y h e i n g cons umed. llc: s ~ ~ r r e n c l c r c d h c f o ~ ~ i ~
t h o , r i s i n g c a p i t a l i s m and f on. cs a g ; l i n s t r el i ! : i on : ~nrl c ~ t l i i c s . l l c *
pa ve d t h e way f o r t h e br eakdown o f t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of i ~ s u r y o r
I
Aqui i r as. o p . c i t . 1 I : ?, quc bt i on X I 1 I I . I .
' c f . , 'I'liolsas, F. 1). S. J . op. c i t . V o 1 . XXVI I , 1). 8 2 4 .
i n t c r c s t . I n t h c wor ds o f 11011 " once o n e g a p i s matlc i n t h c hct l gc
o f r e s t r i c t i o n , o t h c r g a p s a p p c a r a s tile i e n t u r i c s p: l s' -; , u n t i l
I
i t l ) ccon~cs a q u c s t i o n wh e t h e r t h e r e i s ; I hc dgc a t a l l . " 1:ounJii-
t i o n was l n i d down f o r a d c m: ~r c : ~t i o n he t we e n u s u r y ant1 i n t c r c s t ,
a nd a d i s t i n c t i o n b c t wc c n 1 o ; ~ n f o r c o n s u ~ ~ ~ p t i on a11d l o a n f o r t r u d e .
And t h i s p r o v l d c d a h e l p i n g ha nd f o r r i s c o f c: l pi t ; l l ism.
I s l a mi c t e a c h i n g s a h o u t i n t e r - e s t a r c v c r y c l c i l r . T l ~ e ~ . c i s a l ) s o l u t
p r o h i b i t i o n o f i n t c r c s t i n t h c Qur'n'n, a11d i t condcnrns t l l o s c who
t a k c i n t c r c s t and wa r n s o f f c n t l c r s a g a i n s t doom o f t l l e F i r e . I t
r e g a r d s i n t e r c s t a s a p r a c t i c e o f unl ) c l ~ ( ? V I , I . ; I I I ~ de m; ~nds a s ; L t e s t
o f b c l i r l ' t h a t i t s h o u l d be a b ; ~n d o n e d . S t u d y t l l c Col l owi ng v c r s c s
-
o f t h e Qur' im:
"Thos e who s wa l l ow i n t e r e s t (;IJ - l ( ~L) 5 ) - c a n n o t rise up
1
o n I . , 0 1 . c i t . Vol . 1 2 , 1). .55 I .
canin in^ and S c o j e o f t h c word A - I : 'I'hr wor d u s e d i n t h e
--
@r a n t o expr~)ss-th~711can111~UrilltC'l.est i s ' a I r i b whi ch
l i t e r a l - i l y means ' i n r c i s e . I n Ls i ami c j u r i s p ~ . u J e n ~ c r i t i s
d e f i n e d a s " an increment i u money o r goods h a v i n g no compcns at i on
i n ;L t r a r ~ s a c t i o n . a M a l s t , I : M t I Saf%dah, n . d . ,
Vol . X I ] , p . 1 0 9 ) . The d o c t o r s of ' I s 1a111i i .Jur.i s p r u d c n i c a r c
d i f f e r e n t i n o p i n i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e s c o p e o f t h e wor d ' a 1 l ( i h 3 ' .
Fo r cx; l ni pl c 'l'aq i o d d i n Suhk; ( 7 0 1 - 7 4 4 All) n con temp or;^ 1.y o r i h n
' I ' ai mi yah, s a y s t h a t " t o some p e o p l e t h i s t c r ~ l ~ i n o l o g y ( a 1 - r i b 3 1
i n c l u d e s a l l p r o h i b i t e d t r a d e s (I'ak111i I d 1 a 1 hI ; ~j mi , I:;1;3l a h : a 1
Maktab:lh a l Xl n mi y a h , n . d . , Vol . X , p. 2 2 ) . Shah ~ : ~ l ~ u 1 1 5 1 1
Ui h l a wI ( 1703- 1762) says " a 1 l ( j l ) i - - -~ i s I i n t wo ways : ~ I L r e a l
mcani ng a nd i n s j mi l i t u d c n 1 m 1 - - - ~. . ' 1 1 1 i h ) ~ - . J I L rei 11 inearl i ~ ~ g i t i s
u s c d i n l c n d i ng a nd b o r r o wi n g ; l n( i - - t hat was c.ommon i n - -.J:II i I f i l l 1
---
( t h e p e r i o d h e f o r e I s l s r n ) a nd i t was p r o l l ~ l ~ i t c r d i n I I 111
s i mi l i t u d e i t i s u s c d i n c a s e o r Hi113 a1 ~ .-- I:;i?l - whosc p r o h i l ) i t i o ~ ~
i s known by t r a d i t i o n o f the. l ' r o $ ~ e t . I I er c t h c wort1 l <i l )a i s u s c d
d u c t o s i m i l a r i t y [ t a s h l > ? h ] . b e t we e n t h e t wo a nd a l s o t o c x p r c s s
t h c p e r v e r s i t y (t:;"*) q f s u c h t ansa sac ti on, and d u r t o tl:$
f r e q u e n t u s e o f t ~ c word l o r t h e l ; ~ t t c r , i t c n u g h t thc? ~ s h a r ~ ; ~ l ~ ~
c o n t d . . . / . .
-
s a v c a s h c a r i s c t h whom t h c d e v i l hat 11
prostrated hy ( h i s ) t o u c h . Th a t i s l >r ~cr l us c
t h c y s a y : ' Srerle i s j u s t l i k e i n t c r e s t ; wh e r e a s
A1 l a h p c r mi t t e t h t r a d i n g a n d f o r h i d ( l r t h
i n t e r e s t . Ile u n t o whom an ; ~cl moni t i on f r om
h i s Lor d c o me t h , and ( h e ) r e f r n i n c t h ( i n
oherlience t h e r e t o ) , h e s h a l 1 k e e p ( t l ~ c p r o f i t s
o f ) t h a t whi ch i s p a s t and h i s a f l ' a i r ( h c n c c -
f o r t h ) i s wi t h Al l a h . A s f o r hi m who r e t u r n e t h
( t o i n t c r e s t ) s u c h a r e r i g h t r u l owne r s o f t h e
F j r c . They wi l 1 a h i d c t h c r c > i n .
Al l a h l i ; ~ t h b l i g h t e d i n t e r e s t and made ;11ms g i v i n g
f r u i t f u l . Al l a h l o v c t h n o t t h c i mpi ous :1nd g t l i l t y .
Lo! t h o s e who h e l i e v e and d o good wor ks and
e s t a b l i s h wo r s h i p and pay t h e poor , - due, t h c , i r
r ewar d i s wi t h t h e i r l . ord ; ~ n d t h c r c s h a l l no
f e a r comc upon t hem n e i t h e r s h a l l t h e y g r i e v e
0 y c wh o h c l i c v e ! Ol ) s cr vc y o u r d u t y t o Al l a h ,
a nd g i v e up what r e m; ~ i n e t h ( d u e t o you) From
i n t e r e s t , i T ye a r e ( i n t r u t h ) b c l i c v e r .
r c n l i t y i n t h i s s e n s e t o o ( ! l uj j ; ~t ul Of,- i ~i l?ih ~ a 1 .~. .~.. L i X l i u ! , B e i r u t : I ) a r
a 1 Ma' rif:~li, n . d . , Vol . I I , pi).
n e s c r i h i n g t h e s c o p e o f t h e word I i 71111 ' I ' ai mi yah w r i t e s
t h a t t h i s wor d i n c l u d c s a l l - t y p e s L f ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ Y c r c s t r e s u l t i n g J u e t o
I a t c pay~nc' nt - r i h z a 1 ~ 11as i nl l ; o r d u c t o u n e q u a l c x c h a n g c o r t h c
samc commodi t y ( . r i h a a l Vr i d l ) ~~ ~~~~~ and i t a l s o i n c l u ~ l c s c,vc>ry l o a n
c a r r y irip, b e n e f i t e t c . ; t h e t e x t i n c l ~ d e s 3 11 t l l c s c ki ncl s". (bli1j11111tY
Fat 5wn Sh n i k h a 1 I s l I m, Vol . N I X , p . 2 8 4 ) .
' l' lius t h e t c r m ' a 1 l t i l ); ' c o v e r s o s u r y ; I S well ; I S i n t e r c s t i n t e r ms
-.
oC modcr n c c o n o ml c s , and i t a l s o c o v e r 5 some c s s c s o r I ) a r t c b r
whi ch i n v o l v e u n e q u a l exchanges i n t c r m O F q u a n t i t y or- t imc o f
d c l i v c r v .
And i l ye do n o t , t h e n be warned of war
( i l g a i l ~s t you) from A1 1311 and h i s mes s enger .
And i l . yc r e p e n t , t h e n ye have your p r i r ~ c i p ; ~ l
( wi t l i out i n t e r e s t ) . LVrong n o t , and yc s11;11 1
not hc wronged (I.: - t aql i mi n - w ; ~ 1: t uzl ; ~~nCr Q. ' ~ .- - .-
And i f t l i c d e h t o r i s i n s t r a i tc-ned c i r c ums t ; r nr c s ,
t h e n ( l e t t h e r e he) p o s t p o n c ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ t t o ( t h e time o f )
c a s e ; anil t h a t ye reni i t t h c d e b t ; I S al ms i : i v i ~ l ~ :
would hc l ~ e t t c r f o r you i S yc d i d hut know.
And guar d y o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t n day i n whi ch
yc w i l l 1)t: l ~ r o u g h t back t o A 1 l s h . 'l'lien ever y
Soul wi l l be pa i d i n f u l l t h a t wl ~i cl i i t hat11
carncvl and t h e y wi l l not be wr onged. "l
A t anot l i cr p l a c e t h c Quran s a y s :
"0 ye who
( t h e 511111
s ~l c c c s s f l l
- -
h e l i c v c ! Ucvour not u s u r y , doul i l i ny: and C I L I ; I ~ ~ I I [ ) ~ i ~ i g
I c n t ) . Oh s e ~ v e your dut y t o Al l a h , t h a t yc rn;ty he
L .
'1'1ie S c l ~ o l i ~ s t i c ph i l o s o p l ~ ~ ~ r s wer e : ~l ) l c t o p o i n t o u t t 11 i s e c o n wi i i
rc.;isori o f tll.: proliil, i t io11 ol' i n t c r c s t ( i . e . I = W I i n j l ~ s -
t i c c ) a s l a t u us i n Twel f t h crritLlry o n l y . A~i Tt t h e W<, s t c r ~i
wr i t e r s t hought i t ;I gr e; l t J i s i o v e r y . 111 t h c wol.ds of' O' Rr i c n ,
"A1cxandt.r I 1 I Iinving gi ve n mu<-11 a t t c n t i u11 t o t hc sul l 1i xct 01:
us ur y' , I1a3 come t o t h e c o n c l u b i o ~ ~ t h a t i t ' V;is a s i n a : : ; i i ~~s t ~
j u s t i c c . ' l ' hi s r c c o g n i t i on oS t 11c e s s c n t i a l i l l j us t i cc ol 11si1ry
marked a t u r n i n g p o i n t i l l t h r h i s t o r y oS t h c t r - c ; ~t ~nc ' ~i t o l t l ~ e
su1, j c. c~ , and Al exander T 11 seems c11t i t l ed t o lic d c s i xn; l t cd t h e
pioneer oS i t s s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y . " [ O' Hr i e n, 01) . ( i t . 11. 1 7 5 ) .
1..
I hc Qurdn. I I : 275- 281.
And ward o f f ( f r om y o u r s c l v c s ) t h e F i r e
pr e pa r e d Tor di s be1i ; ver ! And ohey Al l a h and
t h e Messenger t h a t ye may f i n d mcr cy. , , I
These v e r s e s l e f t no s c ope Tor cloc~ht r ~ - g ~ ~ d i l l g t h e p r o l i i b i t i o n o r
i n t e r e s t .
The pr ohi l 1i t i on o f i n t e r e s t 112s -.a130 l , ~, en r e p o r t e d i n t l ~ c t r a c l i -
t i o l ~ s o f t h e Pr ophe t . I n t h e l a s t -~ I , I ; I ~ the. I' roplict dcsclarc, J :
"Lo t h e i n t e r e s t o r ~ a l ~ i l i a t i . ( p r ~ - l s 1 ; 1 1 1 1 p e r i o d ) 11;~s he-en ~ c [ I c ; I ~ c , ~
. . . . . "' and i bn ' l . ni ~ni y; ~I i s: i ys, " t h e i n t c r c s t of ' . l i hi L T ; I I I ' was
t h t ~ t a per s on hxvi ng l oaned ;111oi11cr f o r a p e r i o d ashc.cl a t clue ~ l : ~ t e
wl ~ c t h c ~ r lie would r epay o r pa)' i n t e r e s t . I T t h c l a t t c r p ; ~ i d t h ~ \
p r i n c i p a l i t was a l r i g h t oL11erwisc t h e f or mer gave tinic3 and t hc
l a t t e r i n c r e a s e d t h e amount p; ~y; ~l >Lc. ' I' hi~s t h e moncy used t o
" 3
i n c r e a s e . Th i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n pagan Ar abs c l e a r l y
shows t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t was ch;irgctl a ~ a i n s t t i me. And i h i s was -
e x a c t l y t h e same i n t e r e s t wh i c l ~ i s wcl l h~~own t c i a1 I n n t i ons ~ I I I L I
t h a t was p r o h i b i t e d a l s o i n t h e r e v c a l c d books of t h e p a s t .
t i o n t h a t t h e y would c h a r g e ;I l ' i x c ~ d ;tmounL circli mont h, w1 1 1 l c .
c a p i t a l would r emai n s a f e . An(l ; ~ t t h e t i me i t Pel 1 du' , i T t l i c
I >or r owcr col l l d n o t pay, t hey ~ I I C r.casc.il t11' anlount w i t l ~ t l ~ e cxxtcLn-
t i on o f t h e d a t e o f payrnenl. ' This was t h r i n t c r c s t p r ; ~ c t i ~ . ? d l >y
A i n J a h i l i a h ( p c r i o d h c r o r c l s l i l n ) . , , 4
T l i u r n . TI I : 130- 132
. >
Ibn 'I';lirniyali. MFS X X I Y , pp. 418, 440
Bes i des t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f t h i s corlvellt i o n : ~ l i n t e r e s t , I sl am
f or ba de two t y p e s ol' b a r t e r excliangt, s a r ~ J tcsrmcJ 1lie1n a s i l l t c r e s t ,
-
. ,
v i z . I 1 1 F a a 1 I N I S ~ I I . I l l i s i s s t r e s s e d hy n
. . . . . .
gr oup o f t r a d i t i om t h a t rclport. t h e r o l t s i n I ' g o l d Tur
g o l d ' , s i l v e r f o r s i l v e r , w l 1 r ; i t f o r wheat , l ) ; ~ r l c y (01. I > : ~ r l ~ y ,
d a t e f o r d a t e and s a l t Tor s : r l t l)o c ' xc l ~; l ng~~~l , t h e S ; I I I I ~ t h i n g Tor
t h e S I I t i , I e ~ l I I I I L I I I I I ~ t u d . Onc ~ 1 1 0 den1311-
1
ded e x t r a o r p a i d e x t r ; ~ , IIL. i n ~ l l ~ l g e d i n i n t v r ~ s t . T'IIL. t racl i t i on
r u r t h c r r e p o r t s : ". . . .when t l ~ e s e k i n d s d i f f c r , t h e n s c l l them ; I S
you l i k e ( wi t h t h e d i f r c r c n c c o f q u ; ~ n t i t y ) pr ovi ded t h a t i t i s
hand t o Iland ( i . c . t h e t r a n s l ' c r of' ownc~r s hi p t a k e s p1;tc.e a t o n c e ) .
I I I U I I I ---- can bc dcSi ned a s cl r c~r gi ng c x t r a q u a n t i t y i n
h a r t c r cxch;lnge o f t h e same co~n~nocl i t y . For e x ; ~mp l c , t o s c l 1 o r
pur c ha s e onc q ~ l i n t a l o f wheat w i t h olle q u i n t a l 31111 f i v e k i l o s o f
llib: . .. .. . a t - - .- ~ : ~ s i ' a h ~ c a n bc d e f i n e d a s b ; i r t e r exchange o f c e r t a i n
com~l ~odi t i c s ( namel y: g o l d , s i l v c r , wl ~ c a t , b a r l e y , d; l t cxs, s a l t c t c .
f o r t h e .;;llnc o r s i mi l a r commodit i t as i n whi ch one com~ou[l i t y i s
For ex;lmple, t o exchange t e n grams gol d now For t. en grams go1 J t o
he p; ~i t l : ~ f t e r two weeks, o r t o s r ~ l l one ~ ~ u i n t ; l l w I I c , ; ~ ~ a t p r e s r ~ l t
wi t h two q u i n t a l s b a r l e y t o bc pa i d a f t e r one mont h.
3
I 1 I and ~ i h n a1 N; I . ; ? ; I ~ . . ~. A l : i q h ~ c I i s r ~ ~ s s i ~ - n : A11:11.t
.r-~~-p. -. ~ ~.
roo1 rhea S I X co~nn~orK t i c s enr ~mer . : ~t vd i l l - ~ 1 1 t h b ; ~ < l r t l ~ , - . 1 l ~c. r e ; I rc* ~ O I I I C .
o t h o r c o ~ q ~ n o d i t i c s ;11so ral,;,h l c u f i 1 1 t e 1 ~ 5 t [ ~ I < I 1 1RiI)t"' i) ~IcLI~~cc~LI
~. .- . ~ - -~~ - -
I)y t h e j l l r i s t s i l s c e r t a i ~ ~ i n g t h e I . CR>VI I I I I ) ; 01' 1 1 1 1 s i n t l ~ ~ s e
s i x comnl odi t i es. Gold a1111 ~ i l v e r f o r ~ n unt* gr oup ; I I I LI ot l l e r ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 -
d i t i e s I'onn a n o t h c r gr oup.
Ihn ' Tnimiyah ha s anal ysccl ver y i l r i c r l y t l i c p r o h i h i t i o n of- i n t c - r e s t
s;11~1 111
nut wli;ltcver l i . t t l c he h a s / t . l ~ i s i o ~ i ~ i v ~ t i011, i s ver y s i g n i r i c; l r i t .
Ilc s a ys t h a t " t h e p r a c t i c e 01' i n t c r c s t i s pr ol i i l ) i t cd I I Y c l e a r .
v e r s c s of t h e Quriin and t h c r e i s no c l i i l ' c-reni c? o l opi ni on aniulig
t h c Sol l owcr s of l s l a m on t h i s question,"' ; ~ n d t h a t " i n t c t r c s t i s
l-orl>iclclcn l)ec;tusc i t i s h a r ml t ~l t u the, nc~cdy and aniounts t o
a c q u i r i n g p r o p e r t y I)y w r o ~ ~ g i u l mcX;~ns. ' l' lris rcasot i i s i'ound i l l a1 1
u s u r i o u s c o n t r a c t s . " '
Mor eover , l i k e a l l Muslim t h i n k e r s , lic dovs not rnahc. a c l i ~ l ~ c r c l l c c
1)etween l oa ns [ or pr oduct i on 1) ~i r pos r s and 1 o ; ~ ~ i s 1-01. con.<umpt i on
purposes. IIe mi ght have t hougl rt t l l nt i i ' t11c1-c wc:rct ;111y s u l ) s r ; ~ n t i a
d i I t t , r c r i c c , t h e Qu&n must have. c l i Sf e r c ~i t i n t c d i)c:twcc~i then1 ; IS i t
was ~ s v s ; ~ l e c l t o a pe opl e who wcr c t r ; ~ d c r s a11d t l i ci r I~orr-ow i ng
i nc l ude d horrow i ng Tor hus i r l es s pi~rlwsc' s t o o .
Musl i r n t l i i n h e r s were not or11 y ; ~ w: ~ r c of t h e two t y p e s 01- i o ; ~ r ~ s but
t hey a l s o knew t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g n a t u r e 0 1 ' 1)otli were v r l u ; ~ l l y
n o t o ~ i o u s . imam Faklir al - l l nz i ;i t l i i ~ i h c ~ r pr e c e di ng Ihn ' l' oimiyah
l a s h e s o u t ; i t t h e t r e n d o f j u s t i Cyirig t h e c o ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ c r c i a l i n t c r c s t .
Anal ys i ng such l o a n s he s a y s , "po. ; si l ) i l i t y o f l c nr l c r ' s i nve s t irig
h i s moncy and e a r n i n g p.rof i t i s a mn t t c r o f c o n j s i t u r c (;inlr mauhiin~ -~ -
I' or whcat . I f t l i c coinlnorlity i s n o t t h e same, t h c cxcl i ange wi t h
i r ~e q u a l i t y i s p e r mi t t e d p ~ ~ o v i d c d tlic. i l cl i vel - y i s a t t l ~c . sanlc t imc
1
1l)n l ' a i ~l ~i y a h . MFS Vol . X X I X , I). 4 1 8 .
2. .
i I > ~ d . pp. 419, 455.
i t may o r may n o t ma t e r i a l i z e . 'To e x a c t a h i g h e r arnount ove r
and a bove t h e sum l e n t , on t h a t c o n j e c t u r a l 0; 1s i s i s ;I h i n d o f -
i n j u s t i c e a n d e x p l o i t s t i on ( d a r a r ) --- . Anot he r cconor ni c h a s i s o f
t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f s u c h i n t e r e s t i s t l ~ r f a c t t h a t i t hccl l s t h s
c a p i t a l owner away f r om e n t e r p r i s e . T h i s i s s o b c c a ~ ~ s c whc~i money
l e n d e r wi 11 ha ve t h e r i g h t t o e a r n mor e moncy i n c a s h or i n
d e f e r r e d pa yme nt , h e w i l l sh(111 o t h e r ways o f economi c : ~ c t i v i t i e s
a nd w i l l n c v c r h e r c a d y t o c r l t c r t l l e t r a d e , comrnercc a11d i ncl ~r s -
t r i e s i n v o l v i n g r i s k and t o u g h I nl >our . 'l'liis means t h e c nd o f
-
p u b l i c h c n e f i t s ( ma r l ~f e ' a 1 n a s ) ;is i t i s a known f a c t t h a t t l l c
we l t a r c o f p e o p l e i s o r g a n i z e d o n l y by t r : l t l c and col nrocrce, I I I ~ I ~ L I -
f a c t u r e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n s . ,, 1
The : ~hcl ve p a s s a g e i s ;I c l e a r 11rool ' t h a t Mus t i m t hi nkc s r s unc xc e p-
t i o n a l l y p u t a l l k i n d s o f l o a n s i n one c a t e g o r y .
The f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h c r i b: .- .~~ - a1 - j 3 l 1 i l f ~ i 1 l l , ~ ~ - ~ t h ; ~ t
i s , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r e s t known i n a11 na t i on. ; i n whi c h ; I n
a d d i t i o n a l money i s c h a r g e d on l o a n s a f t c r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d . We
ha vc s e e n t h a t i n I s l a mi c l aw t h e r e a r e t wo o t h e r c n s c s whi ch
a r e prohibited. They a r e c a l l e d ' r i b s . - s l f a( 11 and ... r i b; .~ ~ . . iil - -
n a s i ' r ~ h ' , t h a t i s , c e r t a i n c a s e s o f b a r t e r whi ch i n v o l v e uncql i al
-. -. . . . .
e xc ha nge i n t e r m o f q u a n t i t y o r t i me o f d e l i v e r y . The I - e: ~s on f o r
t h e p r o h i h i t i o n o f t h e s e t wo excl l nnj i es i s t o rel novc t h c p o s s i h i -
l i t y o r c x p l o i t n t i o n a nd o f a c q u i r i n g o t h e r s ' p r o p e r t y wr o n g f u l l y .
R u t t h c r c i s 3 d i f f e r e n c e bet weerr c onve nt i ona l i n t e r c s t and r i h ;
a 1 f a d l ~ . The e v i l s o f i n t e r e s t a r c obvious i n f o r me r , wh i l e t l ~ e y
a r e h i d d e n i n t h e l a t t e r . 1b11 T a i ~ n i y a h s a y s t h ~ t t h c p r o p h e t h a s
f o r h i d d e n many t h i n g s t h a t m i k : l ~ t hc a s o u r c e o f c v i l wh i l c i t i s
n o t v e r y d i s c e r n i h l e i n t hem. For e xa mpl e , r i l l s .- a l f;~c!l - ~ ~- i n whi ch
~ . ~ .... . ~ ~
-
' a1 R Z z i , Fa khr . op. c i t . p. 9 2 .
1
t h e r e a s o ~ i of p r o h i b i t i o n i s sol oct i oi cs ~ i n c l c ; t r . I n o t h c r wor ds ,
-
r i b ; a1 f a dl a nd r i h 3 a 1 ~- n ; ~s i ? >h . a r c p r o h i l > i t e d ; I S :I ~pr c c ; i ut i or i a r y
me a s ur e . The c l e a r p r a c t i c e o f i n t e r e s t and t h a t whi ch mi ght
l e a d t o i n t c r c s t s h o u l d n o t he t r e n t e d e q u ; ~ l l y . I t i s t h i s r e a s o n
t h a t t h c l a t t e r i s a l l o wc d whcn n e c e s s i t y ~l cmnnds i t a nd t h c r c i s
no f ear - o f i n d u l g i n g i n i n t e r e s t p r o p e r . I hn ' l ' : ~i ~ni y: ~l t g i v e s t h c
exampl e o r permitted e xc ha nge o f f r c s h d a t s f o r d1.y onc; i n s ma l l
q u a n t i t y ( w- i t hout a c t u a l l y wei l : hi ng t l i c ~o) t ncr el y by c s t i n i a t i o t i .
2
The p o i n t o f a r gume nt i s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h c r u l e ol ' r i l ) i ~~ ~ a1
l ' adl , e xc ha nge o f d a t e s s h o u l d b e i n e x a c t l y e q u a l t l ua i i t i t y.
But i t liws be e n a 1 l owed t o exch: i ~i j i c t hem by a ppr ox i ~ n : t t i on ( k h ~ t r s ) . -
whi ch i s more l i k e l y t o c o n s i s t i n e q u a l i t y .
3
Hi s p u p i l [ bn Qayyi ~ri i s mure c xpl i c i t a nd mor e c l e a r o ~ i t h i s
p o i n t . Ile p u t s t hem i n t o t wo c : ~ t e g o r i c s : I 1 I . ( o p c n
i n t c r c s t ) and -. Rj h i - -- r r l .. Kh a f i ( d i s g u i s e d i n t e r e s t ) and s a y s t h a t
Ki t ) : a 1 ~ a l ; i s p r o h i b i t e d s s p e c i f i c a l l y w h i 1'. r i h a a 1 h11af1 i s
-- --- .- ~ ~~ .~
p r o l i i b j t e d t o s t o p i t f r om I ~c c o~ni ny: a rncans t o i n t e r e s t . Ilc
c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e t h i n g p r o h i b i t e d a s a p r e c a u t i o n n r y me a s ur e i s
p e r mi t t e d Tor g r e a t e r h e n c f i t s ( a 1 ~ n ; ~ s l ~ i l l ah l- a 1 r 5 l i h a h ) . . PA- ~. " 1l)n
Qayyim s a y s t h a t t h e s a l e and p u r c h a s e o f gol dei i o r s i l v e r or1i;l-
me nt s wi t h g o l d o r s i l v c r ( I , ul l i o n ) i s p e r mi t t e d , d e s p i t e i n-
e q u a l i t y i n we i g h t . llis o p i n i o n i s h a s c d on d i s t i n c t i o n bct wcel i
r i b i 31 f a d l a nd r i b ; a 1 n a s j l ~ l i . [ I t , s a y s t l i a t i f wc p r o l i i h j t i t ,
-- ~.
5
p e o p l e w i l l f a c e g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y . Ilc a l l o ws t h i s cxc11:111gc\ a l s o
b e c a u s e i n h i s o p i n i o n g o l d ,tnd s i l v e r , a l t e r t h e i r t l . : l ns f r r i n
or na me nt , become goods . And a s t h c r c i s 110 quest i on of i n t c r c s t
. ~ ~ .~~ - ~
1
I b n Ta i mi ya h, MFS Vol . X X I X P. 24
2
. , i d . pp. 25- 26.
..
3 c ~ . , i b i d . pp. 428, 454.
4
--
-17
c . , I l ) r ~ Qayyi m. 1'larn a 1 Muwaq~ 111 ( y t : I I I I I 1 Ti j a r i a h
a 1 k u l ~ r a , 1 9 5 5 ) , Vol . 11, pp. 135- 42.
5 c f . , ---- i b i d . p. 140.
-
i n t h e s a l e o f goods wi t h p r i c e s , s o i s t l i c c ~ s c h e r e .
1 ..
I h c samc
i s t h e o p i n i o n o f I bn Ta i mi a yh.
2
I
2 . 1 B N QAYY IM ' S IlliCOCNITION 01: ' I ' l l l i li(:ONOMI C IlAS l S 1;OH ' l ' l l t i
I
Wc pr occct l t o exami ne l hn Qa yyi i n' s vi cw a s t h e y r e f l e c t , i n a l l
p r o h a l ~ i l i t y , t h c vi e ws o f h i s t e a c h e r 1011 ' I ' ni mi ynl ~. I ~ I I Qayyim
o b s e r v e s " I f p e o p l e we r e a l l owe d t o cxch: ~rl gc~ t he t ' oodgr: l i ns on
c r c d i t , none woul d do i t e x c e p t when i t was p r o f i t : l h l c and t h e y
woul d n e v e r s e l l t h c i r . r, oods i l \ s t ; ~ n t 1 y I ~ o p i ~ i ~ : r I i t I ; ~t vr on
Tl ~ u s t h e ne e dy p e r s o n c o u l d h a r d l y g c t t h e f o o c l s t u f l ~s 01' h i s
c h o i c e , h c c a u s e t h e g e n e r a l puhl i c d i d n o t have c a s h vc r y oVt cn.
I ' eopl c, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s , c a r r i e d 1 i t t l c casl i a nd
g e n e r a l l y e xc ha nge d one k i n d o f roudgl -a i n f u r a n o t h e r . So i t was
wi s e a nd me r c i f u l o f t h e l . ; ~ w g i v e r t o p r o h i l l i t ~1cTer. 1-cd p;iyrncnt
o t
i n e x c l ~ a n g c / f o o d s a s l i e h a s done i l l c n s c 01' pr c s c i ous me t a l s . , , 3
Thc p o i n t I bn Qayyim i s maki ng d c s c r v c s a t t e n t i o n . The I' rol i het
p r o h i b i t e d d e f e r r e d d e l i v r r y hy one of t h e p n r r i c s i n s uc h c a s e s ,
t hough h e a l l o we d i n e q u a l i t y i n t h c q u a n t i t y of f oocl gr ni nt ;
e xc ha nge d. Shoul d d e f e r r c d d c l i v c r y he a l l o we d , t h e i l l equal i t y
woul d, i n a 1 1 p r o h a h i l i t y , become n I' u~l ct i o n o l t h e t irnc ; i l l owed
t o t h e ot he r ' p a r t y , t h u s p a r t a k i n g o f t h e c r u c i a l Ccat ur ' e oC r i h 3 : ~
increase i n q u a n t i t y d u e t o i ~ i c r e a s c i n t i mc : l l l owed.
The a l ~ o v e a n l y s i s i s r e l a t e d t o rl i e cxrli;cn!:c o f o n e ki nd o f f ood-
g r a i n Tor a n o t h e r . Accor r l i ng t o l hn Q; l yyi m t h e r e i s rnucli r casor i
t o a l l o w d i s p a r i t y i n t h e i r q u a n t i t y , ; I S t h e n : ~ t u r e , q ~ ~ a l i t y a r ~ d
1 .
c f . , i h i d . p. 2 4 1 - 4 2 .
' 1hn 'Al)dul 115~7. op. cit. p. 3 2 3 .
3cC. , I hn Qayyi m. op. c i t . p. 158.
-
pur pos e o f t h e two k i n d s o f g
may be exchange o f some cl ual ~t i
f o r some q u a n t i t y y l h e samc f o o d g r a i n , pr esu~n; l bl y bccaus c o f
d i f f e r e n c e i n q u a l i t y . The l ' rophct p r o h i h i t s bot h i necl l ~; i l i t y i n
q u a n t i t y a s wel l as d e f e r r e d d e l i v c r y i n t h i s c a s c , a d v i s i n g pcopl
t o s e l l what t hey had f o r cas h a n d t hen h i ~ y what t he y w : r n t c ~ l .
1
The r eas on l i e s i n t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s i nvol vcd in : ~s s es s l ncnt o f
t h e d i f f c r e n c e i n q u a l i t y . Mor eover , i f i t were al l owcd i t would
I1 r
l e a d t o t h e same cons equences , t h a t i s , t o) exchangc O F the same-
k i n d s o f f o o d g r a i n s wi t h d e f e r r e d c l e l i v c r y , hopi ng f o r f u r t l i c r
i n c r e a s e i n q u a n t i t y , h e c ; l ~ ~ s c ;I man l i kc s t o e a r n morc and i t
'1
g i v e s him p l e a s u r e t o l ~ a v e morc p r o f i t . &
3. ASCCIITAINMI~N'I' 01: A COMMON I I C O N O MI C ANI ) JUHl STIC CAIISA'I'ION
( ' 1 1 ~~1 1 ) IN COMM0I)ITIIIS OF A N U l < l R I \ Al . ...- ~ ~ A ~ i h l l ~ ~.
Whi l e a n a l y s i n g i n t e r e s t , l hn '1.3 irniy;rh n o t e s down d i i f e r e n c e s o r
o p i n i o n s o f t h e d o c t o r s o f 1sl ; l mi c j u r i s p r r ~ d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e
i n t e r e s t i n exchange o f cornmodit ics. '1'11at i s , w l ~ r t l l ~ r t h e
r e s t r i c t i o n i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e s i x commotlit ~ c s ment i onct l in t h e
h a d l t l ~ o r arc, t h e r e some b a s i c r e a s o n s f o r t l i c i ~ p r o h i h i t i o n in
~ - - . . -
whi ch c a s e i t w i l l a ppl y wher ever t h e r e a s on i s f ound. lhri
' l' aimiynh hi ms el l ' i s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t tlrc pro hi hi ti or^ i s ]t ot
c onf i ne d t o t h e si x commodi t i es , hut t h e o t h c r commodi t i es a t t c n -
ded h y t h e same . r eason a r e a l s o i ncl uded in p r o h i h i t i on. Accor di n
, - .
t o him " t h e r e a s o n f o r pr ohi l 3i t i on i n c a s e o f t h e two precious
me t a l s , i s t h e i r c a p a c i t y o f 1,cing stclnduril o f v a l u e , [ t l i ~ ~ n , ; ~ n ~ a l ~ ~ ~ .
1 . .
1111<1. 11. 139.
2 7
~ b ~ d . p. 138.
3----
c C. , I hn Tai mi yah. MFS Val . X X I X , p. 4 7 0 .
4 .
i h i d . N1:S Vol . X X I X , p. 471.
I-: xn~ni ni ng the, vi ews of o t h e r t h i n k c r s Ire s;Ty$ t h a t " t o c o n s i d e r
thamanTah ~ a s :i r e a s on o f r i h a i s r r ; l ~; o ~r a l ~l c and j u s t i Si a h l c ,
-
hccaus c athman . . . . ( moni es ) a r c meant t o be s t a n d a r d s o r v:llirc t-or
o t h c r goods ( n ~c ' y s r ~ n l amwsl ) and t l ~ v o ~ ~ g h tlrem v a l ~ ~ e s o f goods
a r e n~c a s ur c d and t he y a r c i i evcr meant t o bcs useel [' or t h e i r own
u t i l i t i e s . So i1 somc o l tlrcm i s s o l d f o r somc o f t h c ~ r ~ , i t i s
t r a d e i n money whi ch v i o l a t e s t l ~c, I - ; ~t i o n ; r l e o r moncy. I ' h e i r
cxchangc must he si mu1t ; i nc~ous ; I I I ~ i n 1111ys i c a 1 t er ms S O t h a t t h ~ i r
power t o e x e r c i s e command o v c r o t h c r goods i s pr cs cr vct l . T11e
c o i n s wi l l a l s o be t r e a t e d 111 tlr? same way i r ' t hcy a r r ~ ~ s c d Sor
me; ~si l r i n~1, p r i c e and t hey w i l l not be c x ~ . I r ; ~ n g ~ d OI I ; I clcl' crrc,d
b a s i s .
,,I
Ibrr i' airni y a h ' s p r e s c r i p t ion of ni o~r cy- ncss ;IS tile r c: ~s on o f [)roll i -
h i t i o n oi' c~xchangc of p r e c i o u s me t r ~ l on a dcl ' cr r ei l 11; 1si s has
g r e a t economi c s
4 . TI'CtiN IQUliS TO
I s l ; ~r n dawned on
al ways pr; l i sccl o c c u p a t i o n s l i k e t r x d e nncl rommcrcc. I t ncvcr
r cgar i l ed 1) us i nes s t o be e v i l , a s d i d t h e Ch r i s t i a n i t y i n e a r l y
bl i ddl c Agcs. On t h e cont r ; r r y i t . r cg; r r Jed i t a s :I m: l t t cr o f
v i r t u e . I n s uch errvi ronmcrrt , I sl ai n p r o h i h i t e d i ~ ~ t c r e s t , ;rnd tlrc
Sol l owcr s s t opped t h e pr a c t i 1. c ol' i n t c * r c s t . ' l' l~cy l ~ c v e r t - cl t t l l i s
p r o l r i l ~i t i o n t o lw a n o h s t n c l c i n tlrc way o f t r i ~c l c anrl colrmcrcc.
' Trade and commerce cant i n l ~e d t o r l O I I ~ i sh ~ I I T O I I ~ ~ I O I I ~ t h e eti1.1 y
' e n t u r i e s o r Tslxin. Muslims i l cvor t r i ccl t o ~I r noi l ncc t h e 11roll i h i t i o n
of i n t e r e s t , i n p r i n c i p l e o r r e j e c t I l l i s I>:rrr I t i c I I i s t ~ > -
r i ; ~ n s a r c s i l e i i t ahout p r a c t i c e o f i n t r r c s t alnorll? Musl ims. 7' 11~
j u r i s t s who wcr e al ways c r i t i i . c i l o f tire nun- l s1; i mi c p r ; ~ c t i c e s
~ .., -~ . ~ - ~.
' 1hn Tai mi yah. MPS X X T X , pp. 471- 72.
among Mus l i ms n e v e r q u o t e ; I s i n g l t . c x; ~ni pl c o r i n t c r c s t t a k i n g by
Mus l i ms . Ac c o r d i n g t o J o s c p l ~ S c h a c h t , "They we r e : ~ l w : l y s c o n s c i o u s
t h a t a d i r e c t b r e a c h o f t h e p r o h i b i t i o n ol ' ..r i l l 5 ( i n t . c r e s t ) was a
d e a d l y s i n . ~ e v e r t t r c l e s ; , sorrrc p c o p l c s t : ~ r t c d t al i i nfi interest
by s11c.h i ' r a u d u l e n t t r i c k s t h ; ~ t d i d n o t come J j r c c t l y unde r t h e
d c f i n i t i o n and p r a c t i c e o f i n t e r e s t .
I bn 1' ; l i mi yah h a s d c s c r i h e d somi: ol' t h e s e t r i c k s . Par e xa mpl e ,
~ a i ' a l ~- s i n a h ( c r e d i t s a l e p a r c x c c l l e n c c ) i n whi ch A s r l l s : I I I t ~ r t i
c l e t o I% o n c r e d i t a g a i n s t t h e t o t : ~ l slim o f r a p i t a l ; l nJ i n t ~ r c s t
whi ch a r e t o be p a i d :it a S u t u r e c l , ~ t e , a nd a t t h e same- t i l nc A buys
1
t h e a r t i c l e back f o r t h c c n p i t ; l l o n l y whi ch 1 1 : 1 1 ~ 1 i l l < . ; I s I I t o 1 3 . -
T h i s p r a c t i c o was p r e v a l ent a l s o i n rncclicvul lillropt. 11n1Irr t h c
name o r . Mokhaf r a. ' -. . . - - - . Such t y p e s o f p r - a c t i c c 0)' a l s o n;11ne3 ~ ' ~ - y ~ ! : k ~
meani ng by ' t r i c k t o o b t a i n s i l v e r ( money) .
Anot he r met hod t o c i r c umve nt r i h 9 ; i l - . . f ; ~<l - - - 1 - i s c a l l c ~ l 'b111dd - - ' Ai wah, .
i n whi c h, f o r exnr npl c, a p e r s o n c x c l i ~ ~ r ~ g e s s i l v c r mi xc . d w i t 1 1
c o p p e r wi t h u n e q u a l we i ght ol ' p u r e s i l v c r g e t t i n g t l ~ c c ~ x c c s s of
s i l v c r i n e xc ha nge For c o p p e r .
4
Ibii '1'ainliy;lh corrdemns s t r o n g 1 v n l 1 s l ~ c l i p r s c t i c e s :111d c o n s i d c r s
t hem a g a i n s t t h e s p i r i t o f l s l : ~ mi c t e ; l c h i n g s or1 i n t . c r e s t . Ilc
s a y s , "A1 1 e v i l s ( s u c h as injustice a115 e x p l o i t a t i o n v t c . ) , J LI C
t o wt ~i cl r i n t e r e s t i s f o r b i d d e n , e x i s t i n t h e s e t r; i ns: l cl i o r ~ s ,
perhaps wi t h a g r e a t e r d e g r c c o f f r : ~ u d , c h c n t i n g and t r o t ~ l > l e s .
The s e p c ~o p l c a r e s ~ l f f c r i n g i n t h i s wor l d : i s we1 I a s i n I i f c h c r r
a f t e r . Ile wr o t c a book i n t h i s c- onr l ect i on ;is hc hi r ns cl l - mentions.
Ihn ' l' ainriyah does n o t a g r e e wi t h t l ~ c j u r i s p ~ ~ i ~ d e n t s who v:11 i d; l t e
s uch practices. lle g i v e s wei ght t o t h e i n t e n t i o n i n somi, c a s e s ,
and sciys t h a t i S S I I C ~ practices were done wi t hout any p r i o r
agr comcnt o f t h e two p a r t i e s , o r tlrc i n t e n t i on i s r e a l l y t o t I - ; I L ~ ~
i n goods and n o t l end o r borrow money a t i n t e r e s t i n t h i s way,
i t can be p e r mi t t e d .
1
I t i s c l e a r from t h e ahovc mcnt i oncd p e t t y t r i c k s t h a t t h e i ~ n d r r -
l y i n g r e a s on behi nd them was n n t any v i t a l cconomi c Sa c t o r l i kc
unavai l ; ~ l ) i l i t y o f c a p i t a l f o r t r al l c and i n d i ~ s t r y c t c . huT i t sccnls
t h a t p c o l ~ l c who l o s t t h e s p i r i t o f r c l i g i o ~ l nrloptcrl tlrcm j u s t t o
s a t i s f y t h e i r l u s t f o r inoncy wi t l ~ o u t r c s o r t i n j i t o t h e direct
v i o l a t i o n o f t h e p r o h i b i t i o ~ l of interest. I t would hc. i n t c r e s t i n s
t o n o t e what i hn ' l' aimiyah has t o s ; ~ y i n t h i s i . cgar d: "Al l t r a n s a c -
t i o n s ~ ; I J I be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e categories: t o l ~ u r c l ~ : ~ s c ;I t l ~ i n g
f o r consumpt i on; t h i s s a l e and p u r c l r ~ s e i s p c r mi t t r d by Al l : ~l r ;
s econd, t o pur cl l ase a good t o s c l l it. i n t h a t c i t y o r somcwhc.rr~
e l s e , i t i s t r a d c o r commerce, a l s o p e r mi t t e d b y Al l a h ; and ill
t h e t h i r d t r a n s a c t i o n none o f t h e two i s i ~ ~ t c n d c d , i t i s doue on1 y
t o a c q u i r e money. The hor r ower I ' a i l s t o y e t money, s o hc ; ~ d o l ) t s
t h i s Corm o f t r a n s a c t i o n . ' l ' hi s l i i s t Corn1 i s ca1 lctl -~.-~ ' l' ;lwarruq . ...
( t r i c k t o o b t a i n money) and i t i s i n v a l
j u r i s t s . Ile q u o t e s 'Umar b i n 3hd11l 3zTz
b a s i s o f i n t e r e s t .
,, 2
'I'hus Ibn Taimiyelr i s a g a i n s t not o n l y d
d i n t l i c or)
s a y i n g t h a t
ol' i n t e r e s t b y any t r i c k . Apa1.t I'rom t h e ohvi ous and l ogi i . al
r e a s oni ng tlrilt ill s uch t r a n s a c t i on a l l evi l . ; o f i n t c r c s t f u l l y
e x i s t ,' h i s opi r l i on i s Onsccl on ;I nu~nhcr o f t r a d i t i o n s wliicli h c
q u o t e s ver y f r c q u e n t l y .
4
. ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~~ . ~ ~ ~ - ~ - -
1 . .
~ b l r l . MPS Vol . XXIX, 1). 4 1 7 .
2 . .
I ~ I J . MI:S Vol. XXIX, p. 434.
3:
~ h ~ d . MFS Vol. X X I X , p. 28.
4
I I , I L I . IMFS Vol . XXIX, pp. 2X, 2! ) , 3( l , 31, 33, t 1?, 132- 31, 4: i ( 1, . 4. 10, 441, 4. 17.
11c f o r l ~ a d r o n l y t hi t t t h i n g whi ch i ~ i j u r c s tthcm."
I
5
4 - ( ; e nvr os i t y and I r c nc vol c ~~l c c I I I U S ~ p r c v : ~ i l i ~ r t h e r o c i c r y .
tl
l ' copl e s h o u l d pr c f c r o t h e r s nc3ccls t o t h e i r own nect l s. 0 1 1 t h c
I . .
1l 11d. I 4 5 5 - 5 6 , 5311-11.
7-- - --
" c f . , I b n ' I ' ai mi yah. a1 I.lisbn11. -. ~ p. S.'; h1I:S V n l . N I X , I ) . ! l l l .
7
c f . , i t l r ~ ~ ~ . 1 i s 1 1 1 11p. 8 , I J t ) .
4 .
c l . , i l l i d. 1). 1ClO.
i;
1dc111. 1 . ~ ~-. I . , I 5hn1' I;1h. . - ~ 11. I S?.
has n o pI:~cc* i n such ;I s o c i e t y , ; I S i t i s I 01: t l ~ c tl11:11 i t i es 1
1 i k o sel ii .;llncss, ~ n i s ~ r l i ~ l c s . ; ; ~ n d l us t of r ~~ol l cy. I l ; r t c r s ~l , j ~ * i r l ous) .
'I'hus 111 h i s o p i n i o ~ ~ , t he oh
tine i n t e r e s t 1 s t o rcmovc
harmony wi t h n vc r s e of t l l c
11)n ' I' ain~iyalr hol ds t h a t t h r wt . 1 Tart. ( 11 bot h t h e I-i ch ; ~nc! he paor
cannot 11c a c hi e ve d, ~ ~ e i t l r e r i n t h i b wo1.1d no11 i n tlrc l ~ c ~ - ~ . ; ~ C t c r ,
wi t hout t l r i s approach. 'i'lic r i ght o f rile poor i n tlrc f o ~ x o r z;lh;h
i n tllc properly o f t hc: r i c h i.; l i k e ; I ~l c l l t ilpon thcln. So i l - ;I
prl -son i s char gi ng i n t e r e s t , it I NI L. ; I I ~ S lrc 1 5 not onl y ~1 ~1 1 y i 1 l g what
I I P orics t he ] l OOT. , he i s a l s o ~ n J u l ~ ! i ~ r g i n f l l r t hc r i ~ r j i l s t i ~ c ( : ! l l i l l l j -
h y t:rhing i n t e r e s t . So i t i s t !i c mosl r i gor ous t ype o i I I I J L I S ~ i c e . '
1). l l l S I(I:I:I.I:I'T IONS O N MONI ' Y
Modcr11 c c o n o f l ~i s t s agr ee t h a t t h e i nvc nt i on o l' il1onc.y was t h e most
s i g n i i i c a r ~ t i n c i d e n c e i n t11c c.conomic h i s t o r y of- Inair. I t l a i d
down t h c f o u ~ l d n t i on s t o n r f u r - c*conoln i c dcvc 1 o l m ~ n t ; ; I I I ~ I iclc i l i t ;it
d i v i s i o n oC l a l l o ~ ~ r , e s t a l ~ l i s l ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ r t of indust l-it.s, i ua~' hc*t i ng o l ,400
ancl s e r v i c c s c t c . Sh e d d i n g I i t OI I i t s i ~npor . t ; ~ncr - L:t3oCiri.y
Cr owt hc r s a y s , "Money i s one o l t lie most l ' u i ~ d : ~ ~ n c ~ ~ ~ t a l ot' :I 1 1 M:III's
i n v c n t i o n s . Ever y l >r anch o f know1ecll:e I I ; I S i t s f u ~ r d ; l r r ~ c ~ ~ t a l d i s -
c o v e r y . . . . . I n e c onomi c s , i n t hi . wlrolc c o a ~ ~ n e r c i ; ~ l s i d e 0 1 ' k n ' s
s o c i a l r x i s t e r ~ c c , money i~ t l l r x e s s r n t i a l i n v e n t i o n OI I wl ~ i i h : I \ 1
t h e r e s t i s 1, ased. "'
] ( : ~. o wt h c r , GcoTf r ey. An -- O u t l ~ i ~ l c - -- o i . ~ ir1onc.y - ~ (Il cv. I . , I n l c Rc ~ { ~ r i n t
Nc1s r 111, 6 , 1 . 4.
2
I , A . I . O u t 1 i ric o r ~ hlonct ( l r y -liconolniC.i -. ~ ( Oxl ' or d: L: I :1rc11doi1
p r v s s , l ! l ! i 7) , p. 3 .
Cr owt her , "Money must s e r v e ; I S ;I measur e of v a l u e , a s ; I ~ ~ i c d i ~ ~ ~ n
o l exchange, a n ~ l a s ;I s t o r e of wc; ~ l tli. Of t l i es c t h r c c f unct i o n s ,
t h c S C ' C ~ ) I I L I i s t h e most e s s c n t i ; ~ l . . . . blon~.y rn1ls.t be so~lretlr i ng t l l : ~t
per f or ms a11 t h r e e Func t i ons , and prc-c!mincxntly t h c St met i on o f
be i ng a medium of exchange. "' A . I 1)ay h:is ;I 1 so cmli11:1s i zcd
t h e s;llnr p o i n t a s lie s a y s , "'l'lic inost i mpor t ant use (11- nioricy i s
i n s c t t 1 i ng b y f a r t h e l a r g c r p;ii.r of t r at r snct i r ~ ~ i s I ) el wc~*n
1
different i n d i v i d u a l s o r o r g a n i s a t i ons in moclrrn trconomios. "-
'The two i mpor t ant f u ~ ~ c t i ons o f mo~ley - ~n c a s i ~r c ~n c n t ol ' v a l u ~ , and
when lie i s ~ l i s c u s s i n g t h c n ; ~ t u r c a n ~ l Silnct i ons of rnoncy. Ilc s a y s ,
" ~ t h n ~ n n - - ( s i n g l . t h ~ ~ m: ~ n , i11:lt i s , p r i c e 01. whicli i s p a i d a s l > r i c e ,
nloncty e t c . ) a r e meant t o 1,e mt.asurcmcnt o f o h j c c t s 0.1: val l l e
-
(rnryar : i I amwzl) , t hr ougl l whi ch [l i e t[tlilnt i t i c s of o1) j cct s oC v;11 I I C.
fnrlc-t ion of money i s t o measurct t h c val uc o f goods and T O he
p a i d i n cxchange o l cl i f' l ' crcnt ~ L I : I I I ~ i t i c s 01' #oods. I t i s pupi 1 11)n
Q i ~ y y i l ~ i b t a t e s the samc f a c t I I I OI . <' c 1 ~ : l r l y a s lie s a y s "lilonry ; ~ n d
c o i n s a r c not meant Tor t hcr nscl ves hut t hey a r c meant t o he i ~sccl
4
f o r a c q u i r i n g ~o o t l s ( t h a t i s , t hcy ; i r e mc.d ium o f encl i : ~ngc vnl y) ."
l a y , A . I . 'I'hc - Economics ~ ~ . . . ~ ~- ~~ ol- Mr~ircv ( Oxf or d l l n i v c r s i t y I ' r c s s ,
1! ) 73) , 11. 1.
"
1 T i i i y ~ h . I S I . X X I X , 11. 1 7 ? .
4
1 i 1 . i t . 1) . 137.
5
( : r owt l ~[ r r , 01). c i t . p. 83.
1
I . I l 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 i y i l i MFS Vol . X S I X , 1. 1. 4 7 2 . .
As t l ~ e p a s s ; ~ g c ql i ot cd hcl ow s l ~o ws h e c o n s i d c r c c l i t r ~c. cc, s s : ~~. y
t h a t t h e i l l t ~ - i n s i c . val u' o f c o i n s , i . c . v a l u e o f t h c mc t ; ~ l s l ~ o u l ~ l
mi ~t cl r i t s p ~ ~ r c h a s i n g power i n t h e r nar kct s o t l r ~ t nonc ( i n c l u d i11g
t h c r u l e r ) c o u l d p r o l ' i t by c i t l ~ c r I I I C I ~ i ng t h e c o i n s : ~ n d s e l l i ng
t h c 111ct a1 or. hy c o l l v c r t i n g 111t ' t ; l l i l l t o c o i n s a11d 11ut i ng t l l c 3 m i n t o
c i r c ~ ~ l ; ~ t i o n .
I1)n l ' ai mi y;rh a s k s t h e r u l e r n o t t o ~l c~mon. l i LC* t h e ci ~r . r cnc. y i n
p o s s e s s ioti o f t h e p c o ~ ) l e and t o mi nt marc* Inoncy i i nccdccl w i t l l
i t s r c ; ~ l v a l u e , wi t h o u t maki ng any p r o p i t I:or l ~ i r n s v l i . Ilc s p c c i -
i i c ; r l l y p r c s c r i l ) c s t h a t t h c c o s t O F mi n t i n g i n S I I C ~ C; I S C I J C 1 n ~ 1
by t h e 1, ouhl i c t r e a s u r y . 1'01. e x ; i ~n p l c , t o mi n t c o i n s wi t h ;I l.i~i-c
V H ~ U L > I C S S t11:111 i t s i n t r i n s i ~ V ; I ~ L I ~ :ind t l i c . ~ ~ Iluy w i t 1 1 tllcnl pcopl c. '
h o l d i n g o f g o l d , s i l v c r a n d ot l i c. ~- v s l u a l ~ l c t h i n g s wo111d I I C 2 1 ki nd
ol ' dch: rscment o f c u r r r n c y ~ I I I ~ W O ~ I l ~ l result i n t o I 11 I ' l i ~t i on a1111
' l h n I ' : ~i mi yah. MFS Vol . X X I Y , p. 45!)
c o u n t c r f e i t j n g . fle c ons i t l c r s t h r t ratlc i n moncy a s i n j u s t i c e
ulm) t o peopl e and r c g n r d s h i s s ugge s t i ons I I i i n t c>r - est .
(L.._--
LIut I I C docs n o t e l a b o r a t e thcm. I f we an;l l ys c h i s S L ~ ~ C I I I C I I ~ ,
t h e f o l l o wi ~ r g p o i n t s l ~c c o n ~e c 1 c a I..
b- I.:~zk o r confidence i n t i l e s t ; ~ l l i l i t y o r v ; ~ l u c oS I I I OI I CY ~ l i s -
cour ugcs l ong t cnn c o n t r a c t s i 1 1 1 ~ 1 r c s ul t s i r r i i ~ j u s t ic-c t o 1,copLe
w i t 1 1 f i xc d income e. g . p c ~ ~ s ion I i t , r vnt i c r , c t c .
c- I n t e r n a l t r a d e i s hi ndcrecl l i y Pr r q ~i ~: n t c11;1ngcs i n c u r r e n c y
and r at . i o bct ween two c o i n s . 'I'hey get had m0ni . y I ~ L I ~ onl y ( ' or
t h c i r r ncr cl ~andi s e o f f e r e d f u r 5:) l c , I I L I T t h e value o l r h c i r carried-
irrcome a l s o d e c r e a s e s . Tl i cr cFor e t h e i ~ ~ c c n t i ve t o er1tc.r t r : ~t l c
o r t o c o n t i n u e i t i s d e s t r o v e ~ l .
d- Fr e q c ~r n t debasement ol' cur r ct i l cy h i n ~ l c r s l o l ' c i g ~r t r a d e . Good
ni ercharrdi sc from abr oad j s not l ~ r c ~ u g h t i l l t o a c o u n t r y i n whi c l ~
money i s i l ebased as t h e ni cr cl ~; i ~r t s p r c f e r t o s c l l t h c i r goods i n
t h o s e c o u n t r i e s where t he y r ccei vc. sound and good lncinoy.
e- I t r e s u l t s i n f l i g h t oF p ~. c c i o u s Inc>tnls from t h e c o u n t r y t o
somcwherc e l s e whcrc t h r y i.o~nrn:~nd ;I h i g l ~ e r v a l lie.
Cor t l ~ i s pur pos cl i s ver y s i g n
means i nc r c a s e i n money s uppl y
and s i l vc r ) t o meet govcr.n~llc*rrt
f i n ; i n c i r ~g i n t h e prc?s<,irt c l : ~y.
means 11s i ng t h e lnollcy a l r e a d y
t r e a s u r y :IS k h a r 5 i and otllc.~. r ~ ~ ~ c i l i t s . Th i s w i I1 not li:~vc t h e
i n c l a t i o n a r y e f f e c t , t h e us e ol- newl y mi nt ed monry wol ~l d have.
3 . "RAD MONEY DRIVES OUT COO]) MONl i Y"
I b n TJ imiyah ment i oned t l l c i c W I I I I i s in t l ~ c IVr?.t
a t t r i h ~ l t c t l t o Thomas Gresham i n I857 ; l n d hnown ; I S ( ; r c>sl ~; i ~n' s
l aw. ' l' l~e law s i mpl y s t a t c s t h a t wllerc two c.oi11.; I i i l v ~ . t 11c% saluc.
nomin;il v a l u e h u t a r c mndr from 111c.ta 1 o f uncqua l v a l lie, the,
c h e i ~ p c r w i 11 t e nd t o d r i v e t l ~ c o t h e r orit 01' c i r . c. ul ; ~t io11. 'I'lic
gooJ muuey i s hoa r de d, me l t e d o r cxpor t ccl - w l ~ a t c v ~ r c; l sc i s
rnorc b e u e l i c i a l . s e c i 1 u n l c I i - t 11 I w I i t r at . i o
d i f l ~ c r ~ from t h e mar ket r a t i o , Grcsl l am' s law o l i c r ; ~ t c s i nt Cr n; 1-
t i o n a l l y and good money n l i g r i ~ t c s t owar ds t hose count r i e s whcl-c
i t i s more va1ual ) l e. The s;llnc h; ~ppr nc<l i n Alncric.a d u r i ~ r g the,
p e r i o d I'rom 1792 t o 1 8 3 4 , whcn t he l l ri i t ed S t a t e s ~ ~ ~ ; ~ i n t ; ~ i n c c l ; I I ~
e x c l r a n ~ c r a t i o I ) C ~ W C C ? I I s i IVI' I. and !:<Id 0 1 ' 15 t o 1 , wh i l e t h c I ' nt i o
o f l i uropcan c o u n t r i e s ran):cd iron- 15. 5 t o I t o 1 b . h t o I . 'l'llc
r e s u l t w;is t h a t gol d i'towcil out and s i l v c r Slowed i n t o t h e i l n i t c ~ l
' I
S t a t e s . -
Ilin ' I ' a i ~ni ya h' s cl esc. ri pt i on o f t l ~ c law i s ; I S f o l l o ws :
"Lf tllv r u l c r canc. el s t h e use. ol ' ; I c - c r t a i n c o i n ;lntl mi nt s nnnt he r
hi nds o f moncy f o r t ~ h e p e o p l e , he, w i l 1 s p o i l t l l C r i c l l c s (amwG1 ~~ ~ I
whi ch t hey a r c h a v i n g , by d c c r c ; ~ s i n g t h e i r v a l u r a s the% o l d c u i ~ ~ s
w i l 1 I I U W licc.olnc rncrcl y a co~nmorli t y. Ilr wi l 1 do i ni l l s t i cc t o thc.111
hy d c l ~ r i v i n g then1 o f t l ~ c h i gl i er v; ~l uc. s or i gi n; r l l y o w~ ~ c d l i y 1hc111.
Morc~ovcr., i f t h c i n t r i n s i c v;1111cs o f c o i n s a r c d i r l e r e n t , i t wi l l
become ; I s o u r c e o f p r o f i t f o r t h e wicked peopl cb t o ~ o l l c i t t h e
s mal l ( ha d) c o i n s a ~ ~ d C X C I I ~ I I ~ C them ( wi t h good money) :1n5 t l ~ c n
t he y w i 11 t a k e them t o o t h e r c ount r y an(l sh i S t t h e 5111;) 11 ( I ) : I ~ )
money 0 1 ' t h a t c o u n t r y ( t o t h i s c. ount r . y) . So ( t h e value% (10
p e o p l e ' s goods wi l l be s p o i l cd. ,, 1
111 t l ~ c a l ~ o v c s t a t c mc n t , he f i r s t I ~ ( % I I ~ i o n s t l ~ e el ' f cct ol' ~ l 1 c
i n t r o d u c t ion o f a bad money on 1,enpl c ' s prc,v i o ~ ~ s 1 y enr ncd money-
irlcomc. I f t h e o l d c o i n s a r c dCrnor~ct i z e d, t h e y wi I I 11c t ~ . c a t c d
a s a c.o~nmod i t y t h ~ t may n o t h ; ~v e t l ~ c same v ; ~ l u e a s wl1c.11 i t was
used a s money. 011 t h e o t h e r hand, pcol , l c wi l 1 jict l e s s I N ~ C C f01-
t h c s i r guods i n t er ms of t h c ncw moncy. In t l i c l a s t 1 i n c s , he
d c s c r i h c s t h e i d e a whi c l ~ i s ~ I I ~ W I I i n cconom i c s a s Cr c s l ~a m' s L ; I W .
Hut he, mcnt i ons onl y t h e Fl i g h t o f good muncy :il)ro;id ; ~ n d s ; ~ y s
n o t h i n g ahout i t s di s appear ance. (111c t o hoar di nj i or. mcl t i ng.
l l b n Tai mi yah. MI:S Vol . X X I X , I,. 4 0 9 , p a r a n t l ~ c s i s aclilcd l ? y 11s
i s c o n s i d e r e d t o hc t h e f i r s t t r c a t i s e e n t i r e l y de vot c d t o ; ~ I I
ecoriomic pr obl em. I ( ut , i n t h e words of Sclrrimpctcr. ' i t i s 111:iinly
1 1 ;uid p o l i t i c a l i n n a t u r c ;rnd rc>al l y does not c o n t : ~ i n n~ucll
s t r i c t l y economi c ma t e r i a l - i n p a r t i c i ~ l a r , not hi ng t l 1 ; i t was
not c u r r e n t d o c t r i n e among t h r Sc . hol ; i s t i c ' s oV h i s t i 111c1. , I
Nc ve r t l i c l c s s , i t hiis i t s own i ~ n p o r t a n c r , c s pc c i : i l l y Ihc~c.;~usc i t
nppcar cd i n a p c r i o d when ctcoriornics 11:1~I riot bccoinc : i n i ndcpcnt l r nt
s u h j c c t , and wr i t i n g s such :IS t h e one 1)y Orcsme pr oved t o he
..
foulrclatiori s t o n e s f o r t l i c 1; i t e r wor ks.
1 L
Orclsmc was bor n i n l a s t days o r I h r i l ' : ~i mi yat i , hut : i t a ~l i f f c . r e n t
p l a c e - I' ar away from S y r i a , t hoy L ivetl i n il i i l ' er c3nt c ~ i v i r o n mc . ~ ~ t s
>
and spoke cli I' Eercnt l nr r guages. " Or csl ~l c coul d n o t 11;lvc l)ccri
aw;li-e of ibn ' l' aimiyalis wr i t i n g s o r even hear d h i s r i ; ~ mv , ; I S t h r
communi cat i on and CUI t ~ 1 r a 1 exchange bet ween two r cmot e n a t i o n s
was n o t qui c k o r ver y common.
Oresmc S i r s t o l a l l , J e s c r i b c s tli? n a t u r c :rn<l purpose. o r money.
'Tllcn hc d i s c u s s e s t h e ma t c r i a l s t o he usrrl a s ino~iey. i l c r o r ~ l i ~ r g
t o him t l ~ c mn t c r i a l {rom which mo~~c.y i s made s houl d hc i i c i t h v r
t oo scarce, n o r t o o p l e n t i l ' u l . Gold ;ind s i l v c r a r c s u i t ; i h l c .
Whcrc t l r es e two me t a l s J o not s u l ' i i c r , t l ~cr i inonex, s l i oul ~l he sl:ide
o f a l l o y o r s i mpl y of hns c me t a l s . Ilc t n k c s t h e prol)lcni o f alter-
a t i o n of money i n c l e t a i l s . Al t e r a t i o n slroulll not l>c ~na~lc, i n
monet ar y s ys t ems e xc c pt under t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f gr a ve nc Tc r s s i t y
o r f o r t h e c l e a r a J v ; ~ n t a g r of t h c wliolc culnlrlonity. 'i'lrc r r s t u i
t h e hook i s concer ned wi t h t h e p r o l ~l r m o r n l t c r : ~ t i o n i l l one w:iy
o r o t h c r . Ile d i s t i n g u i s l i c s f i v c d i f i c ~ r c n t t y p e s o f ; i l t c r i +t i o n
oC c o i n . 'l'llc p r o f i t from a l t c r a t i o r r o r ~l c h a s c ~n c n t i s 111rjt1st
heci t usc i t i s made a t t h e c o s t of t h c community t h a t o w ~ ~ s t h e
' ~ c h u p c t c r , J . A . op. c i t . p. 9 5 .
Z O I'
Orcsme bor n i n 1320 i n / n e a r ( : ; ~r n (Normancli) wl i i l c 1I)n ' l ' : ~ imiynh
d i e d i n 1. 328 a t l)a~nascu:; ( S y r i a ) .
money. 'I'he a l t e r a t i o n wi l l t end t o l e s s e n t h e q u a n t i t y o r t h c
~~~~~~~~~~~y ~n i r t e r i a l in t h e c ount r y hec: ~us e gol d ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 s i l v r r wi l l I ) ?
c a r r i e d ; i l >r o; ~d where t he y col nm: ~~~J Iriglrcr p r i c c s - - :I concept
s i 111i 1ar t o Crcbam' s law. 111% t l i s c us s c s d i f f e r e n t bad cSf cc. t s o r
a l t e r x t i o u and debasement on t h e ccono~ny. Ilc hcstowccl t l ~ c r i g h t
t o ~l c l >a s c c ur r e nc y on t h e comaun i t y r a t l ~ e r t 11;irr t o t l ~ e 1 , l . i I I ~ L , .
I
As wc have s e e n t h e s e i de a s have 11ec.11 expr c. sscd a l s o h y l hn
Taimiyulr, t hough riot i n such de t n i l s . I' resu111a1)ly t11;it d i s -
c ~ ~ s s i o n on money came LI P Llurinfi LI 1; 1r ger d i ~ ~ u s s i o n 0 1 1 s e c ~ l r i n g
j u s t i c e f u r t h e colnlnon marl. ~t i s ;I l1ity howevcr t h ~ t 1~1rl i h c tlrc
work o r Or r s l ~ ~ c ~ , , 1l)n 'I'aimi yahP iclcas on tlrc s ~ ~ h j e c t r'crf~nifrcd l a r g e l y
unnot i c e d even t i l l flow.
A. ECONOMIC AC'I'IVI'I'ILS I N ISLAM
I s l a m i s p e r h a p s t h e o n l y r c l i g i o ~ i t h a t g i v e s Rr c a t v i l u e t o t h e
I nwf ul economi c n c t i v i t i e s . The [:nin from economi c ; l i t i v i t i c s i s
c o n s i d e r e d ' b o u n t y ' f r om God. TIic f u l l o wi n g v e r s e s o f t h e Our an
a r e n Scw exani pl es :
"So t h e y r e t u r n e d wi t h g r n c c a n d b o u n t y .. -~ . f
a nd no har m t o u c h e d t hem. They S o l l owcd
p l e a s u r e o f Al l a h , a n d Al l a h i s o f i n f i n
"And l e t n o t t h o s e who p o s s e s s h o u n t y .- -.
you s we a r n o t t o g i v e t o t h e n e a r o r
n e e d y a nd t o f u g i t i v e s f o r t h c c a u s e
l-om A1 la11 ,
t h e i:ootl
i t e l)our~t:,y. ,, 1
. . -. . . .
"And wlier~ t h e p r a y e r i s e n d e d , t h e n tl I
l a n d and s e e k o f Al l a h ' s houri Q, -. . - . and
much, t h a t ye may be s u c c e s s f u l .
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and c a s e among
k i n a n d t o t h c
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o f A1 1;iIl."-
o t h e r s
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"lle knows t h a t t h e r e a r e s i c h f o l k :lmong y o u , wh i l e
t r a v e l i n t h e l a n d i n h e a r c h o f Al l a h ' s
......
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i t h t h e c ~ w~ ~ r wh e l t n i n ~ ma j o r i t y oC Mu. ;li~n j u r i s t . ; Ihn
1.
I'hc Ql ~ f l n 1 1 1 : 1 7 4 .
2 . .
I h e Qur5n XXIV: Z Z .
3
I'hr Qur 5n LXI I. : 10.
"l'he (?ur.fin LXXI I I : 2 0 .
'I'aimi yah r egar ded a l l economi c a r t i v i t i e 5 t o he p c r n ~ i s s i b l e
e xc e pt t h o s e e x p l i c i t l y p r o h i b i t e d by t h e s ha r pa h.
--
I t s houl d be not ed t h a t t h e t r a d e was c o n s i d e r e d a s a s i l l i l l
s c h o l a s t i c phi l os ophy u n t i l t h e 1 2 t h c c n t u r y . Compared t o t h i s ,
t h e ; ~hovc s t a n d i s v e r y r e v o l u t i o n a r y : ~n d p r o v i d e s a v ; ~ s t iirona
f o r economi c a c t i v i t i e s .
Ihn Ta i ~ni ya h c l a s s i f i e d human conduct i n words and deeds i n two
c a t e g o r i e s - "wor shi p t hr ough which t h e i r r c l i gi on i s ma i nt a i ne d
and cust oms t o which t h e y t u r n i n inundxiic n f S a i r s . " lie s a y s
l u r t h c r , "From a s ur ve y o f t h e p r i ~ ~ c i p l c s oF .- - - ~ l i : ~ r ? ; ~ \ l -. . wc i n f e r
t h a t t h e wor s hi ps made o b l i g a t o r y hy Al1:ili o r t l ~ o s e l i k e by l l i ~ n ,
cannot be s o cs t r i hl i s l i ed e xc e pt hy t h e ~ h ; ~ f i ; i h . ~ As f a r a s cust onl s
a r c conccr i l ed, t h e y a r e hehavi our pt t t t e r ns adopt ed by pe opl e i n
t h e i r mundane a f f a i r s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r needs . l ' I i cy a r c e s s on-
t i a l l y p c r mi s s i b l c e x c e p t t l l osc f o r h i d d e n hy Al l a h . . . . . ,, I
1. DIVINE GUIDANCE ABOUT liCONOMl(: A(X"Vl'l'lliS
As an cxp1an: i t i on of t h e ahovc hc s a y s , "l ' copl e s t : ~ n J i n need of
t r a d e , x i f t , h i r e and o t h e r p r a c t i c e s i n t h e i r economi c l i Fc i n
t h e same way a s t he y need f o o J , d r i n k and r l o z h i l ~ g .
The ~ h a r z ~ h ~.~ ~ .
has 1 a i d clown pr ope r gui de 1 i nc s f o r t h e s e p r a c t i c e s . 'I'lius i t has
f o r b i d d e n such p r a c t i c e s a s a r c c o r r u p t ( r as i i d) . and c n j o i ~ ~ c d
t h o s e t h a t a r e d e s i r a b l e . I t c1is;ipproves of t h e u r ~ d e s i r ; ~ b l c ones
and p r e f e r s t h o s e i n whi ch t h c r c a r c g r e a t h e n e r i t s . . . . . .
8 ,
"From t h i s i t f ol l ows t h a t pcoplt. may engage i n t r a d e o r h i r e i n
what evcr manner t he y l i k e , 50 l ong a s t h c ~l i ar ?' ; t h <loch i ~ o t f o r b i d
i t . And even i f some of t h c s c a r e d c s i r a h l e whi l e solnc o t h e r s
2 .
I ~~I I I . - I . I - L ~ ~ W L I -pi.9 I 5.1 I I . . . . I .- - . I ((:;I i r u : Mat l f a l ~ ;I 1 Sunnal ~ ;I L
Flu~~arnmacl I ya h, , 1 . 1 4 3 .
.,
r e f e r r e d t o me. 'Illc prcs- I s l ; ~ n ~ i c mcthotls ; i nd t e c h n i c l ~ ~ c s o l
t r a d e s and o t h e r t r a n s a c t i ons wcrc r e t a i n e d 11y I s lam i I- tlicy were
not i n c o n t r a d j c t i o n t o I s l a mi c p r i n c i p l e s . For. e x; ~mpl c , l l ) r ~
T;tirr~iyah r e f e r s t o M u ~ ~ T ~ I , ; I I I -- ( p ~ ~ t n e s l ~ i ) t h; l t was p r ; i c t i s e d
by pcopl c i n r e - 1 s l n 1 pe r i od i - - ~ ~ h . ~ llc s a y s , ". . . . . .
Ml ~l 3r ahal 1 was coni~noll anlong t IIC-111 C S ~ I J C i ; ~ I Ly i n (!111.:1 i 511. - ' l ' rade
-- - -~~ ~- ~
was t h e i r mai n o c c u p a t i o n . C; ~pi t ; ~ L O W I I C I . ~ U S C ~ t o h; 111cI i t over.
t o wor kcr s ( t o t r a d e w i t h i t ) . ' I' l ~c a pos t l e o f A l In11 I ~ a s 1111dcr.-
t a ke n t r a d e e x p e d i t i o n s wi t h t l l c c a p i t a l o f o t h e r s 11efoi.c li i s
3 41
pr ophet hood, aud a l s o wi t h tlic. ~ - : r l i i t;i l o f i(lladi j a l ~ . 'l'llc <.:I 1;v;in
- 4
headed by AbG Sufycln ( on t l i t . cvv ol ' a 1 1l;itlr ha t t l i ! ) ct i ns i s t t ' ~1
Lar gel y o f c a p i t a l in p ; ~ r t n c r s h i p wi t h Ah t i S~ll-yZn or. o t l i c r s .
IVhen I sl am camc, i t r o t a i ~ ~ e d r l l i s form of t r a n s a c t i on. 'I'hc
p r o p h e t ' s compani ons used t o unt l e r t ; ~hc t r a d e c x l ~ c d i t i ons wi t h
t h e c a p i t a l of o t h e r s on t h e b a s i s o f p ; ~ r t n c r s h i p a ~ l d Iic i l cver -
f o r l ) ; ~d e i t . 'l'hc p r o p h e t ' s teachings i n c l ude l ~ i s s ayi ng5 h i s
acri orrs an11 h i s appr ov; ~l s. And s i n c e I I V appr ovci l o f i t , i t i s
v ~ ~ l i d by h i s t e a c h i n g ( : t l s u n n ; ~l i ) .
,, 5
... .
Tt i s interesting t o n o t e 11rr.c t h a t i n t l l c rnedi cv; ~ l I + I I ~ U I I C * ti111
p; wt ne r . s l ~i p was t h e mai n form 0 1 ' ~ . ; ~ l i i t a l i 11vrsl mt . nt . I.ct us
shed a l i t t l c 1il:ht 011 t h i s : t spcct lic.rorc wc c . x a ~n i ~~e l l l r l Tai t ni yal i '
vi cws 0 1 1 p a r t ~ l e r s l l i p and o t l ~ c r l orms o f li11si11css o ~ . x ; ~ n i z ; ~ t i o n s .
g o o ~ l s t o a n :lgeriC ; ~ n d mi g h t l ) a r g i ~ i ~ ~ f o r :I s h ; ~ r c o r t h e p ~ . o l . i t 01'
t h e v c n t u r c . ' l ' l l i s p a r t n e r s h i p as s umed nl;lny for-111s. I <ut i n a1 1
c a s e s , t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e c a n o ~ ~ i s t s r e q ~ ~ i r e d t w ~ i . ~ r ~ c I i t i o n s :
1 ) t h e i n v e . t o r rcm: l i nct l t h c ownc.r o r l l i s c : ~ p i t a l , ; I I I ~ 2 ) 1 1 ~
s h a r e d i l l t h e r i s k . ' l ' hi s m; ~de hi m mo r i ~ l l y e n t i t l e d Cur ; I s l l i ~ r e
u f chc p r o f i t .
I
A n u ~ n l ~ r r o r e c onomi c h i s t o r i a n s have d e s c r i h c d t l ~ ? f or m and
i n l p o r t ; ~ n c c o f p a r t n c r s h i p i n t h e Mi ~ l ~ l l c Agcs . A l 1-red Ma r s h a l
w r i t e s , "'l'he o l d e s t and s i mp l c s t p l a n f o r r enovat i r l l : t h e er l cr -
i : i es ol' ;I b u s i n e s s i s t h a t o f t : ~ k i r ~ g i n t o p a r t n c r s l l i l > some o f i t s
a b l e s t c ~ n p l o y c e s . " 2 Gr ay s ; l y s , " . . . . . t l ~ e ~ n c d i c v : ~ l d o c t r i n e d i d
n o t con~i cmn i n v e s t me n t w11t.11 i n v c s t mc n t t o o h t h e i or m o f a p a r t n c r
s h i p , p r o v i d e d t l ~ e p a r t r l c r d i d i n f a c t s l ~a r ' c tile r i s k s o f t h c
b u s i n c s s .
'She - -. . .
comme~l d; ~, . ... . . . . . t h e n r i g i n : ~ l Corm o f p a r t n c r s l ~ i p , 11ad
a l wa y s l ~ c e n r e g a r d e d : I S c n t i r c l y l e g i t i r ni l t c, anll h c r c O I I C p a r t y
mi g h t ; ~ d v a n c e money t o ; ~ n o t l ~ c r a ~ ~ c l s h a r e i n h i s p r - o f i t , w l ~ i l r
r e f r a i n i n g f r om t a k i n g a ny d i r e c t p : ~ r t i n t11v c ~ ~ t e ~ ~ p r i s c . "" 1r 1
t h e Ca ~ l ~ b r i d g c Ii conomi c I l i s t o r y o r Mi d d l e Agc s ' , t h c r c i s ; I
d c t ; ~ i l c d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ~. o ~n ~n e n <l a - a n d o t h c r f o r ms o f p i i r l ~ l c r -
s h i p . l l e r e i s a n e x t r ; ? c l : "I:ro~n. . . . . Gc ~ l o c s c a n d Vc ni t i a n r c c ol - <I s ,
i t ; ~ p p c a r s t h a t t h c t wo mos t t y p i c a l c o n t r a c t s i l l o v e r s c a t ;
t r a d e wer e t h e c o ~ ~ m c n d ; ~ ; I I I C I t h e s o ~ i c t a s m; i r i s -- t h c y W C I . ~
.--- .. .~~~ , ~ . ~ .. . . ~~
c a l l c d col l c g a n t i n i n Veni cc, , b u t the. rlalni. h a s L i t t i c , i C : I I I Y ,
~~ ~ ...~. ~-
i m p o r t ; ~ ~ ~ c e . ' Bot h c o n t r a c t s wc r c p a r t n e r s h i 1) a Rr c i ~r n c n t s , c o n c l u .
dc.d n o t f'or a p e r i o d o f y e a r s , L ) I I ~ Tor ;I s i n g l c v e n t u r e or
I .
c 1 . , ]lo 11, J . , "Usur y" a r t . i n 1: 11cyrl o p a c ~ l i : ~ o f r c I i i on xnil
_ . . . . - - - . .. _~Op- -
c t h i c s , Vol . X I I , p. 551.
-
L~ ; I r s l l ; l l , A . , I1rincip!~cs_~"!. 2 ~ 5 l i corl orni ci -.-- ~ . ~~ ( 1. on~I o11: M ; I ~ I I I ~ I & Co. ,
I . 1!164), . fi t l l -; J. , 1) .
7
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Gr a y , A . , .- Thc c l c vc bl o$~~~c nt - ~- ..... o r ~-~ i l conol ~~i c. -~ I)ocrt . r i r r os , .. p. 4 7 .
' 011 t h e o r i g i n o S t h e C o m~ ~ ~ e ~ l d a 67. ~. . . ~ s c c ( : ; ~l n h r i ~l g c Il conomi c l l i s t o r y o f
I l l r e , V o l 1 1 , p.
l y a r ound t r i l l t o t l i c ~ I . cvant , Af r i c a , Spa111 or voyage, us ual
r ven l ' rovcncc
t h a t i s r c l a t
u r ~ d c r t ; ~ k i n g s ,
. Ther e wcrc a l s o c.olnrnc.~ld;~ c ont r ci ct s p c r t c r r ; i ~ ~ ~ ,
. . . ~ ~ ~~ ~. ~~~~
i ng t o t l i s t : ~ n t t r ; ~ d e overland, o r even t u l o c a l
but t h c s c wer c r c l a t i v c l y Fcw.
111 t h e c. ; ~sc
t11e s t a l l s ; .~~
he t ook t h e
t o endur e a
, h i s 1 a l ~ o u r s
o f t h c p1.01'
o f t h e co~nmcrida ~. - ~ . . t hc v e n t u r e was 1'i11anct~el c n t i r(- l y l i y
hc t r a v e l 1 i ng p ; ~r t n c , r d i d not s11pp1 y ~ I I I ~ c-api t x l , l 111t
r i s k of' c ~ ~ ~ b a r k i n g upon tl;~n[:'rous s ca voy:~!:c, and 11i 1, l
1 t h e di s comFor t s t h a t wcnt wit11 i t . A s a rcw;rrtl I' or
and h i s h a r d s h i p , I I P i ~ s u ; ~ l l y r c c c i vc d onl y o n e - f o u r t l ~
t s ; and t h c i nves t i nl : p : ~r t n c r - , who r;in o111y t l ~ c r i h k
"111 t l ~ c s o c i e t a s n a r i s , ~ p r o r i t wer e sl r ar cd c q u a l l y Iiy L I I C two
p a r t n e r s , h u t t h c t r a c t a t o r .~ s ~ ~ p p l ictl one - t l l i r d of t h c c ; ~ p i t ; ~ l a11J
t l i c ~ t a n s , t wo - t h i r d . t : s s c ~ ~ t i a l l y , t h r two c o n t r a c t s wcr c t h e
same, s i n c c i n l >ot h c a s e s , o n e - f o ~ ~ r t h o f t h c p r o f i t s wcnt t u tiit'
t r n c t ; ~ t o r - -~ f o r h i s l a b o u r ant1 t l ~ r c e - f o u r t l ~ s t o t h e investors nl'
c a p i t a l . T r r t h e -- s o c i c t a . ; , . .. . howevt. r, t h e t r a c t ; l t o r . . - r c c e j ve d a11
a d d i t i o n ; ~ I I ' our t l i , o r one-t rnl f o f t h e p r o r i t s i n i l l , l >t : c ; ~u ~c I I C
had s uppl i cd o n e - t h i rd o f t h c capi t a l . Thc on1 y clif Tcl.(!~~cc is
r c: l l l y t h a t t h e Genocse n o t a r i c s c ; ~ l l e d onc c o n t r a c t a io111111t.11c1a ~- . ..
and t h e o t h e r a s o c i c t a s ma r i s .
,, 1
. . . .~
In t h e Mi ddl e Ages, i n Ellrope l il,c I 15l al ni ~. worlcl, t l ~ c 1) at - t ner -
s h i p was ;I pr cl ' cr r ed form of i n v ~ ~ s t ~ n v n t , and ol1e t h a t was not
t a i n t e d b y u s u r y . I t wa s e x a t . t l y t h e i i s s ~ ~ n p t i o n o r t h ~ , r i s k ol:
f a i l u r e hy t h e c a p i t a l i s t t h a t r l i s t i n g u r s h c s t h e p e r mi s s i h l c
p : mt n e r s h i p fro111 t h c d i s a l l o wc ~ l i n t v r s t l > c : i r i i ~ g 1o; l n. I l Cf l c c t i ng-
o n p r i v a t e p a r t n e r s l ~ i p , Ma1.sliiil s ; l y s , " Lt i s v e r y s t lronfi a n d
v e r y e l a s t i c ; i t 113s p l a y e d a g r e a t p; l r t i n t l ~ e p; r c; t , :111~1 i t i s
f u l l o f v i t a l i t y now. , , I
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I ' n r t n c r s h i p i n p r o p c r t y o r 5 h i r k ; i h . .... a 1 ~ . . ; ~ ~ n l > k i s a tcrm ~l sccl f o r
colnrnon p r o p e r t y . We h a v e d e ; ~ It w i t h h i s v i c ws ; i h o ~ i t cnlnnlon
p r o p e r t y i n o u r c l i a pt e r on p ~ . o p e r t y r i f i h t . l l er e w c s11;rl l c o w
c e n t r a t e o u r a t t e n t i o n on 1i ; ar t ncr s hi p cont r ; j e. l o r hhirh;111 . . a1 -
ducj - -. d .
1) ( S I I I I a 1 1 1 n ) ~ I t I ~ I ~ ; J I I S two o r rnorc pcbr sons p o o l i ~ ~ g
t h e i r c a p i t a l t o g e t h e r t o work j o i n t l y and : ; l l ari ng i n t11c pr of i t s .
- -
3
3 ) l r t s ~ i p i n c r e d i t ( 1 1 r h i 1 1 1 . - - I I I I . ~~~~e OI I C o r I I I U ~ C o r t h e
members p r o c ~ ~ r e goods on c r c ~ l i t and s e l l t hem, and t l ~ c y d i s t r i h u t c
t h e 11r ol . i t s.
1l)n l ' a i n ~i y a h was n o t o r i g i n a l i n p o i ~ ~ t i n g o u t t h e s e I'orms o f
p n r t n e r s l r i p . 'I'liey we r e p r c v a l r ~ ~ t i n h i s a g e : IS wcl I :IS l ~ c r o r c
him a n d e a r l i c r j ~ ~ r i s t s d i s c l r s s c d them i n g r c a t dc. t a i I . T l r ~ r c -
f o r e h e a v o i u e d d e t a i l s . Ilc)wc.vc%~., i l l h i s o p i n i o n t h e h ; ~ s i c
t h i n g i n a l l t h e s e f or ms o f ~ ) ; ~ ~ . t ~ r c . r s h i p i s t h e j u s t i c c t l ~ a t
s l i oul d h e n ~ a i r ~ t ; ~ i n c t l and ol ~s c~r vc. t l . Ilc s a y s , "'l'lre I):rs i s o f
h11s i ~ r c s s and p a r t r r c r s h i p i s j115 r i c v I'rom both p a r t i c s . T h e r e f o r e
i t i s a g a i n s t j u s t i c e t h a t o n e p; r r t y r c - s e r v e s t h e p r d i t o r some
p a r t i c u l a r commodi t y o r soInca s pcxci f i t . q u a n t i t y o f p r o f i t t o
i t s c l l ' , o r t h a t o n l y o n e p a r t y s h o r i l J I)c.;~r t h e l o s s .
,, I
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I t ~ n e n n s , i I' t h e r e is p r o f i t , b o t h p a r t i e s s houl t l s h a r e i t ; aud
s i m i l a r l y i f t h e r e i s l o s s , both s h o u l d s h a r c i t . None of' tl1c111
sho111d h c g u n r a n t c c d a ny p a r t i c ~ i l a r pi i r t o f p r o f i t . ' I ' h c ~ ~ c f o r e
t h e a g r e c mc n t s h o u l d h c 0 1 1 t l r c h a s is o i p c ' ~' c c n t a g c ~ s l r ; ~ r c i r r p r o f i t
a n d n o t OI I a pt , r ccnt ; ago t o b e c a r n e ~ l o n t h e c a p i t a l s u p p l i e d .
. .
l l r e s e p e r c e n t a g e s1r:irc i n prc1l.i t worrld I h r clcc i ded 11y l ~ i ~ ~ t t ~ i ~ l ; I $ I . ~ c -
me11 t .
I . .
l h l d . Vol . XXX, p. 8 4 .
.~ . .
' Ihn 'I';i i n i y a h ' s d i v i s i o n oC economi c 1 r a n s a c t i o n rnay I ) ? s l ~own i n
t l r c Co l l a wi n y f i g u r e :
' Tr ; ~n s a c t i o n s b a s e d or1 J u s t i ~ . ( ' ' I ' r ; ~n s n c t i o n s 0; 1sc*d 011 Gc11'1.us
( a 1 ' l ' , ~ s a r ~ ~ u l ' ~ ~ t - a 1 'Ad1 - - L I va11) ~-~ I ; 11 l ' a$r i r r uf ?i t ...... ; I I I ; : I ~I iy;111) ..
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(Slr i r knh . . . . a l ' llcL~<l) .........
(SII i rk;111 ; I I A1111 - i k ) .
I n p n r t r i c r s h ~ p wher e one p a r t y p r o v i d e s c a pi t a l ancl t l ~ r ot l i er
! ' ar t y pr ovi , des l a bour ( a s i I I I L I ~ I I ) . .. . . .~ , i n t h e c a s e 0 1 - l o s s , t l i c
c: l pi t al l o s s i s bor ne by t h c ] ) a r t y t h : ~ t provides i t , whi l e t h e
second p a r t y b e a r s t h e l o s s onl y i n tlrc s e n s e o l goi ng unr cwar dcd
f o r t h e Labour.
I
1t>n ' l ' ai ~ni yah c mp t ~ ~ ~ s i z e s j u s t i c - e i n p; r r t r r e r s l ~i p : ~nd ; ~ d v o c ; ~ t e s
s h a r e s o r t h e b o t h p a r t i e s i l l l i r o r i t ; I S we l l a s in l o s s , be c a us e
hc cons i cl cr s hot11 l a c t o r s - capi t : 11 ; I I I ( I l al >our - c q ~ l i ~ l 11: 1r t i ci -
p e t s i n t h e p r o c e s s oC p r o d u c t i o n . Ilc s a y s , "l ' r ol - i t i s an
i r ~ c r e n ~ c n t (namR1) - g s i ~ ~ c d from t h e 1 1 s ~ o r one i n ; ~ r i ' s 1abo11r ( I l ; ~t l : ~n) --.
a ~ ~ d o t h e r man' s c a p i t a l ( mi l ) . -~ So i t s l ~oul i l i ~ c cl i vi J cd ; I I I I O I I ~
them ; I S any i ncr ement r e s u l t i n g f r om two fat-tors. "' liut " i t .
t11cr.c i s any mn l t r c a t a ~e n t ~ I I t l ~ e par t o f a p ; ~ r t n e r : I I I ~ lie 11;1d
donc s o mc t h i ~ ~ g whi ch was pcrmittc.cl n c i t h c r l >y law no!. by tlrc-
ccr [ >i t al owner by words o r l >y c us t oms , t11c11 11c wi l l I ><. I r r l d
r c s p o n s i l ~ l c ].or h i s wrong. ":' ' This pr ov i s i o ~ ~ w i 1 1 cl>ct.li t h e lois-
us e of t - s p i t a l by workin!: p a r t n e r . I t incans after I ~ i ~ n d i n g o v e r
c' ; l pi t ; i l , t h e owner wi l l not c l o s e h i s c y c s ; he may ;1pl1oint ; I I I
i n s p e c t o r t o l ook a f t e r t h e us e of c:lpi t a 1 and 11c may c s t ; ~ l > l i s h
a n i n q u i r y boar d t o exami nc ge nui nc nc s s o f t h e r e a s o n s o r l o s s .
'I'hc p a r t n e r s n i n y : Igrcc t o s11;crc t h e p r o i i t s 1 1 1 ~ I I Y p r o p o r t io11
t he y 1 i ke . I t may d c ' p e ~ ~ d on t h e s k i 1 1 o f the: worhcr. ; I S we1 1 a s
on eas y n v : i i l a b i l i t y o r nnn ; ~ v : ~ i l : ~ l > i l i t y of c a p i t ; t l ; i l l o t h r r
words on si i \ >pl y and demand. I l u t " i f t11e p i i r t n e r s st:11-t l > u s i r ~ c ~ s s
wi t l ~ o u t : ~ g r e e i n g on any e x p l i c i t r ; l t i o , t he y wi l l s h ; ~ r ~ c y u : ~ l l y
i n work a nd b e n e f i t ( a 1 .. 'arnal ~ w n ' l -- l1J1.). liven i l one. v o l ~ ~ n t a r i l y
wor ks ~ ~ ~ o r e t l ~ a n t l i e o t h c r , tic. w i l l p e t n sl i arc. ccl ual r e 1 o t l r c r s .
Hut i f he had n o t d o n e i t v o l u n t a r i l y , h a v i n g a s k e d t o wor k mor e
he mi g h t a s h e i t l r e r e x t r a h e n c l - i t a c s o r e l i n g t o h i s work o r h e
mi g h t a s k o t h c r s t o wor k ecltt;il t 1 1 hi m. I f t l i e o t h c r p a r t n e r s
a g r e e t o g i v e s u c h a p e r s o n n g r c a t r r s l ~ ; ~ r c , i t w i l l be l e g i t i -
ma t e .
,, I
I S t h c r c
p a r t n e r ,
c l i s l n ~ t c .
i n o r d in;]
i s a n y c h a n c c o f i r ~ j ~ ~ s t ice, o r ~n: i l pr ; i c t i c c f r om a n y
t h e s t a t e may be, ; ~s hecl t o i n t c r v c n c ; ~ n d r c s o l v c t h e i r
Ile s a y s , "When t h c worker, t h r o u g h n c g l i gcl l cr o r
t c u s e , har ms t h c c a p i t a l , irc w i l l be. c l ~ ; ~ r g e ~ l a g a i n s t i
I . i k e wi s v , i f t h e ot hct r partner d c n i c s t h c r i g h t o f wo r h c ~r s o r
c o n c e a l s t h c moncy due on l ~ i m o r ~. c . ( l t l i r . ~s o f t11c.m somc ~ ~ n j l ~ s t i -
f i ecl l a h o u r , h c w i l l hclvc r o ~ n mi t t ~ c l a s i n . And i t w i l l 11~. d u t y
oS t h e a u t h o r i t i c s t o h c l p thc! r i g h t f i l l owne r s i n oIl ?a i n in)!
t h c i r r i g h t s . , , L
I . A w c o r ~.~ - W i . . ~~ I r t ~ r ~ r s . ~~ ALt l l ol ~gl ~ i t i s u n j u s t t h a t ;I
p a r t n e r s h o u l d he e n t i t l e d l o any j i uar : i r ~t ecd amount o v t o r t h e
p r o f i t s t h e wo r h i n g p a r t n e r i s ; ~l Lowccl t o s p Vn d on hi r ns cl l i S
t h c r c i s a s t i p u 1 ; i t i o n t o t h a t c f l ' c c t . 111 llir nhsc11c.c: o f s ~ ~ c l ~
s t i p u l a t i o ~ ~ lle w i l l s p e n d a c c o ~ , d i n g t o cur r - cl r t pr uc1i c. e o r t r a d -
t i 011 i f t l ~ e r e i s a n y . Ot h e r wi s e h e c a n ~ r o t e n j o y s u c h I hcncSi t .
111 a 11 c a s e s h i s c x p c n s e s m u s t l ~ e a c r o r c l i n g t o t h e c u s t o m and
3
coinmonly : t ~. cc, pt cd f a s h i o n ( a 1 ina' ril' ). "'
c o s t ol ' i ~ u s i ~ ~ e s s a nd n o r ; I S 11art o f t h e p r o f i t s . Il ut ] l a vi ng a g r e e d
i n p r i n c i p l e t h e j u r i s t s ha ve n c v c ~ r l ~ c ~ l c * ~ . ; d i l ' f c r e d o n what r xpcs ns e
1 . .
1Il 1d. Vol . X X X , p. 97.
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r h i d . Vol . X X X , p. 8 8 .
3--1
l l l l d. Vol. X X X , p. 90.
s h o u l d and wl ~ a t s h o u l d n o t 11c ; ~ l l o wc d i n t h i s r e g a r d e s p e c i i r l l y
when t r a v e l l i n g i s i n v o l v e d .
One g r o u p o f Ts1:lmic t h i n k e r s f a v o ~ ~ ~ . hi m t o t a k e h i s n c c c s s a r y
c x p e n s e s a c c o r d i n g t o c o r n ~ n o ~ ~ l y a c c c p t e d l a s h i on (mi ' r i l ' ) , f r o ~ n
t h c p a r t n e r s h i p a c c o u n t . 'They cci r i s i i l c~. i t ; I S t h c t r : ~ r r s l ) o r t a t i on
c o s t ( I .. a n n l ) I n t h e o p i n i o n ol ' ot hc - r g r o u p , i t w i l l h e
u n f a i r t o r a p a r t n e r t o t a k c pc,rsorr;r l e x p c n s c s f r om partnership
a mount , a s h e h a s t o b e a r t hcm c v c n whcn 11c i s s t ; ~ y i n g : i t hornc.
They a r g u e t h a t t h e t wo p a r t i e s l l a v i ~ l g ; i gr c c d on c c l . t a i n s h a r e i n
t h e p r o l - i t , none o f t hem s h o ~ r l ~ l c n j o v more t h a n t h a t . I f c x p c ~ ~ s c s
a r e a l lowed, t h e wo r k i n g p a r t n e r m; i y t r y t n real i r e h i s p r o f i t i n
t l r c f or m o f e x p e n s e s i n cast t h e r e i s NO e x p e c t a t i o n ol ' a ny
p r o f i t o t h e r t h a n t h a t . I3ut c v c n t h i s g r o u p g i v e s I I ~ I I I t l ~ e r i g h t
t o dr aw t h e e x p e n s e s on f o o d , c l o t h i n g , convey: ancc e t c . I f i t . is
a l r e a d y s t i p u l a t e d i n t h e c o n t r a c t .
I
The o p i n i o n o f f i r s t gr ol l p whi c h i n c l u ~ l c s 1011 Tai rni y; i h sc'rns t o
b c more r e a s o n a b l e . T r v t 1 I i 1 1 c a n n o t hc considered ; i t p a r wi t h
s t a y i n g a t home, b e c a u s e i n t r a v c l a p c r s o n r ; i r e s a l o t o f i nc on-
v e n i e n c e whi ch i s n o t f ; ~ c c d : i t home. 'I'hc p r i ' m- u p a t i o n of' t h e
j u r i s t s wi t h t h e s e d e t a i 1 s r e l ' l e c r s t h e i r c o n c e r n wi t h c n s u r i n p
n j u s t d e a l b e t we e n p a r t n e r s .
One i n r p o ~ . t ; ~ u t f or m o f u r g a n i z i l l i o r r i s p ; a r t n c r s h i ] > i n 1;tnd c 1 1 1 t i -
v a t i o n o r s h a r c c r o p p i n g a n d h i r e o f l a nd For c ~ ~ l t i v a t i o u . 11111
'1':iimiynh h a s J i s c u s s c d t l l i s i n I I t 1 Ilc h a s ; I l s o cx; t rni ucd
t h e o p i n i o n o f e a r l i e r j u r i s t s . Ilc s t a r t s I r i s t l i s c ~ ~ s s i o n l)y
r e f c r r i n g t o solne j u r i s t s wl ~o a r c aga i l l s t s h a r c c r o p p i n g o r
-
muz; i r ; ~' ah. Ile s a y s , "'They lloltl t h a t t h e s h n r c c r o p p i n g ' i s a k i n d
--
of h i r e ( i j a r a h ) ; - arid i n ij:!r:lh -. wage o r p r i c e o i t h e h i r e d o n e
s l ~ o u l d b e d e t e r n l i n e d and known, h u t i n s l i : ~r c c r o p p i n g t l r i s concl i -
t i o n i s n o t f u l f i l l e d . 'The c r o p may 1)c l a r g e o r s m n l l o r i t may
f a i l a l t o g e t h e r . 111 c a s e o i ;I t o t a l c r o p l ' a i l u r e l a b o u r g o c s
unr c wa r de d whi ch i s a g a i n s t j u s t i c ? . ' I' l i i s o p i n i o n i s hcl cl by
A I I ~ !!an? I - ~ I I . 1 ' '
I b n ' I ' ai mi yah d i s p u t e s tlris a n a l o g y . I I S , I i s i s a k i n d o f
p a r t n c r s h i p , and n o t a c a s e o f 11i r . c. 'l'hc [ >r o d u c t i s ; I r e s u l t o f
two 1n:iirl f a c t o r s - - l a b o u r and I ~ u l l o c k s ownrd and employed 11y
t h e c u l t i v a t o r and l a n d and t r c c s ownccl by t h e l a n d l o r d . . . . 'l'hc
c o n t r i b u t i o n o f l a b o u r , b u l l o c L a n d p l o u g h i s s i m i l a r t o t l ~ e
c ' o n t r i h u t i o n (manJ' ; i c; ~h) ~ 01' I;lncl and t r ( * c s , an(1 n o n e o f t hem wa n t s
t o a c q u i r e o t h e r s c o n t r i h u t i o n . Rot h oT t l ~ e m s h a r e i n t h e
p r o d u c t o b t a i n e d by t h e j o i n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a l 1 f a c t o r s . I n
t h i s c a s e i f some p r o d u c t i s ava i l a h l c , hot11 w i l l s l ~ a r e i t , and
i f n o t , a l l w i l l g o wi t h o u t i t . ' I ' h u s , b o t l ~ w i l l s h a r c i n l o s s
and g o i n a s i t h a p p e n s i n a l l c a s e s o f p a r t n e r s h i p whc r e pr ocl ur t
i s t h e r e s u l t o f f a c t o r s owned hy t hem. "'
Moreover, a c c o r d i n g t o hi m, s h a r c r r o p p i n g i s n o t a ga~~i l )
h i r e ( 4: ! r ah ~- a l ~ h a r a r ) ~- whe r e o n c p a r t y s c c ur c , s h r n e l ' i t
t h e o t h e r i s e x p o s e d t o c h a n c e s . " I (' t h c r c i s no c r o p ,
owner c ; ~ n n o t t a k c a n y t h i n g f r om t l ~ e c u l t i v a t o r . S i n c e
c o n t r a c t d o e s n o t e n t i t l e hi m t o i t . But wh i l c t h e one
l csol l l e
W\ I i 1 c
t h e l a ~ l d
t h e
p; i r t y
l o s e s t h e i r u i t s o i h i s I i i b o u r , o t h e r l o s e s t h e y i c l d f r om h i s
l a n d . Bot h p a r t i e s g e t n o t h i n g . On t h c c o n t r a r y , o n c o f t h e
- - - ~ ~ - . . .~ ~ p~ ~
1. . C
r h i d . Vol . XXJX, p. 8 8 ; . a 1 ~ -.. ()awae<l a 1 ~ ~ r a n ; y a h , p. 15!1.
2:
i h ~ c l . A1 --- - *waded a 1 . NCi r ar ~; ~; i h, - - pp. 1 - 0 ; i dem. MFS Vol . XXI X, ] , . ! )
* I n t h e s h a r e c r o p p i n g o n e p e r s o n p r o v i d e s l a n d ancl the, o t l l c r
c u l t i v a t e s i t and t h e c r o p i s sl i nrecl h y t l ~ c t wo ; ~ c c o r d i n g t o -
t h e i r a g r e e me n t .
p a r t i e s t o t h e c o n t r a c t i n \ >; I i ' : t l - - &h: i r ar -. - (garnhl csoni c s a l e ) a n d
. .
IL$r:~h . . ;I . 1 A r a r - - [ gaml >l cs o~nc h i r e ) g e t s 11 i s s h a r e w l i i l c . t l ~ c o t h r r
i s d e n i e d a n y t h i n g . Such a n a r r a n g c mc n t I c a d s t o r c s c l i t mc n t and
e n mi t y among t hcm. , , I
t l e r e , 1l)n ' r n i mi y ; ~h t r i e s t o e xpl : i i n t h c had e f r c c t o i t h e p a r t -
n e r s h i p o r s h a r e c r o p p i n g when on(: p a r t y ' s s h a r e i s f i x c d arlcl
o t h e r p a r t y ' s s h a r c i s n o t f i x e d . I f s u c h c o ~ ~ c l i t i o r ~ e x i s t s ,
t h c r c may Or some c a s c s whcn c ; i p i t ; ~ l owner o r l a n d l o r d c a n g e t
f u l l s h a r e o f p r o r i t , wh i l e t l i c x wo r k i n g p a r t y g e t s n o t l ~ i n y . No
d o u h t , S L I CI I c o n d i t i o n s wi l l c r e a t e c o n t r o v e r s y be t wc c n t he t wo
p a r t i e s . Ui s h o n c s t y a n d injustice w i 11 e n t e r t h e i r practices and
t h i s wi l l h a n ~p e r t h e b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t i c s .
For cconomi c f e a s i b i l i t y :11id v a l i d i t y o f t h e . inuz7irad;lh . .- -- (s11ar. c-
c r o p p i n g ) c o n t r a c t , I h n l' a i mi ya h c o n s i i l c r i t a s 1nuc)Srabah ~ ~. o r
p r o f i t s h a r i n g . Ac c o r d i n g t o llim l a n d i s n f a c t o r t l ~ x t c a u s e s
p r o d u c t i o n , s o i t c a n b e empl oycd Tor p r o d u c t i o n , i n t h e same way
ns money ( c a p i t a l ) . A s i g r i i f i c a n t i ) y- pr oduc t oC I l l 1 1 l ' a i mi y a h ' s
d i s c u s s i o n on s h a r e c r o p p i n g i s a l i s t o f f a c t o r s oC p r o d ~ ~ c t i o n
c a p i t a l , l a h o u r and l a n d . Ile s a y s , "l ' hc c r o p i s r e s u l t o i l a n d
t h a t c o n s i s t s o f s o i l , wn t c r and a i r , o f l a b o u r ' s p h y s i c a l ~ l s c
( i . e . l a b o ~ ~ r and o r p a n i z i ~ t i o n ) ant1 o r h u l l o c k , and i n s t r - u l n e n t s
( i . c . c a p i t a l ) . tt3 Li k e a 1 1 e a r l y e c o n o mi s t s , c a p i t a l ( a n i wa l
power n n ~ l a g r i c u l t u r a l ecl ui pmcnt ) i s l i s t c t l a s a11 a c c o ~ ~ ~ p a n i n l e n t
o f l a b o u r .
a . ~ u z S r a ' a h i n ' fllc Li@t oT T r a d i t i o n ~ ancl ~ Il conomi c l l i s t or l y ~ o f
E a r l y Mus l i ms . I n t h e a h o v e ; ~ r l ; ~ l y s i s , Thrl l ' a i mi y a h h a s t r i e d t o
- - - . -
g i v e a n cconomi c j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s h a r e c r o p p i n g ( 1 1 1 u z 5 r a ~a l i ) . . ... .- ,
a nd i t s l e g i t i ma c y . Ile h a s a l s o ~ l i s c u s s c d t l ~ c pr obl e m TI-om
~ h a f l a h p o i n t o f v i e w t h a t shows h i s d c c p i n s i g h t i n ' t r a d i t i o n '
--
a nd economi c h i s t o r y o f e a r l y Mus l i ms .
Ile e xa mi ne s t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h o s e d o c t o r s who a r e a g a i n s t s h a r e -
c r o p p i n g . 'They ha ve a d o p t c d t h i s s t a n d d u c t o ;I g r o u p o f t r a d i -
t i o n s r e p o r t e d by RaTc' bin K l ~ ~ i ~ l ~ j , ,Jiil>i r ll ill hI ) d~1113h ~ ~ n d A116
I l ur a i r a l l . ' l' lresc t r a d i t i o n s p r o h i b i t t h e s 11; l r e c r oppi ng. lhrl
, ,
l a i mi y a h s a y s , " t h a t t h c prop11c. t h i ~ n s e l i e n t c r e d i n t o t h e c on-
t r a c t o f muz,?ra';+h a nd t h c h i s t o r y o f I s l a mi c p c o p l c t e l l s t 1 1 ; l t i t
- - . - -
was conmon i n c a c h p e r i o d o f l s l a n ~ . " ~ llc p r o v c s t h a t t l i c pr ol r i -
h i t i o n r e p o r t e d a h o v c i s n o t a b s o l u t e . Onl y t h o s e t y p c s oT
s h a r e c r o p p i n g s a r e p r o h i 1 ) i t c d w11c. r~ one p a r t y makes a s ; I c ont l i -
t i on t 11; i t i t wi l 1 g e t a s p e c i i i c q u a n t i t y o f p r o d u c t ; o r t h a t t h e
p r o d u c t oC some p a r t i c u l a r p ; ~ r t o f 1;incl ( c . g . t h e f c r t i l c a r c a )
w i l l go t o i t . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s u ~ l j u s t .
I bn ' l ' ai mi yah n s s c r t s t h a t R;?fcc hi11 Khacl i j , who i s t l r c maill f i g u r c
i n t h o s e t r a d i t i o n . ; , h a s h i ~ a s c l T cxp1; l i ned t h e t y p e ol ' s h a r e -
c r o p p i n g t h a t was pr o1i i l ) i t e d. Ile h a s r c p o r t c d , t l ~ a t "we were\
owne r s of b i g f a r ms i n adi in ah and o u r p e o p l e u s e d t o g i v c l a n d
l o r c u l t i v a t i o n on t h e c o n d i t i o n t hi i t t h c p r o d u c t oT s p e c i Ti c
p a r t o r l a n d w i l l b e f o r thcrn and t h c r e s t w i l l b e Tor t h c c u l t i -
v a t o r . I t ha ppe ns t h a t s o mc t i mc s 1; 11i ~1 c ; ~r mn r k c d Tor t l r c owncr
-
b r o u g h t t h e c r o p and t h e o t h e r p ; ~ r t pr oduc e d n o t h i n g . So t h e
p r o p h c t Tor bade t hem t o d o s o . ' ~ l i u s 11c p r o v e s t l l a t s l ~ a r e c r o p p i n
i s p c r mi t t c d , a n d e c onol ni c a l 1 y ~ l e s i r ; l h l c and t h a t i t was p r e v a l e n t
l c f . , -. i b i d . MFS, Vol . X X I X , 1'1'. 91- 92.
2
c i . , - - i h i d . - - MFS, Vol . X X I X , pp. 95- 97.
3 .
c f . , -- i b i d . MFS, Vol . X X I X , 1). 100.
j n a l l a g e s .
I ) . ... ' l ' ena~l cy .... . -- ant1 l l j r e ~ o f Land ~ ( l j <r : c h ) . As f a r a s h i r e o f l a n d
. .~ .~.. ~ .~
( i j a r ; ~ l i ) on paynlerlt o l c a s l l o r h i n d i s concer r i ecl , l h n ' l ' : ~i n~i y; i h
a 1 l ows i t s o 1o11g a s t h e h i r e d o c s n o t s 1) eci I ' y ; I fixccL alnourit o f
1
t l i c t o t a l p r o d u c e o l t h e 1;11rd 1-or one p a r t y . Ile i s : ~ g ; ~ i n s t
t h o s e t h i n k e r s who a h s o l u t c l y o p p o s c t h e r e n t irrg o l Iarrd. Ile
a r g u e s : t h e p u r p o s e o f r e n t i n g a11 ol ) j c. ct i s t o h e n c f i t fro111 i t .
The same i s t h e c a s c w it11 l a n d . T h i s i s t l i c r e a s o n t h a t t h e r c n t
i s clue i f a p e r s o n g e t s c o r r t r o l o f c u l t i v ; ~ t i on on a lnncl r v e u I i
h a s n o t ; ~ c t u a l l y c u l t i v a t e d i t .
L
I' hc j u r i s t s , who a r c ; ~ g ; ~ i n s t
i j n r : ~ l r , s u p p o r t t h e i r s1; l nd 11y ;I t r a d i t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o whi c h t l ~ c
. - . - . -.
3
p r o p h e t h a s l o r h i dde n t h c r r n t i11g o f 1:11rd. 1h11 '1'3 i n ~ i y : ~ h p r c s c n t s
o t l ~ e r t x' ndi t i o n s whi c h a1 l ow rc.lrt ill!: o f l a n d . lle r c c o ~ r c i l c s t l i c
t wo t r : l t l i t i o n s and ma i n t a i n s t h a t t h c p r o l 1 i l ) i t i o n r e l n t c s o n l y
t o t h e l ~ i r i n g of.' l a nd i n c xc 11; r n~c I' or t h c pr - oduce o f solac. p a r t i -
c u l n r p a r t o f l a n d wh i l e g e n e r a l l ~ i r ~ i n ~ o l l a n d i n e xc l r ; ~nge ror
c a s h i s p c ' r ~s i s s i l ~ l e .
4
An i mp o r t a n t p r o h l c ~ n c o n n c c t e ~ l wi t h 1:rnd r t ~ l t i v a t i o r r i s t l ~ c i i l f a ' . .
I t was ;I f or m o f a d mi n i s t r a t lvc. gr nnt i r l j i o f l a n d . 'I'lic wo~.cl iqt. 5'
h a s wr ong1 y b c c n t r n n s l n t c J 1)y t l i c S : ~ ~ r o p c ; ~ n word ' Pi c f ' . Al tlioug11
t h e r e i s some s i m i l a r i t y he t we c n t h c t wo s y s t e ms a s I)ot l i ~ ' c ~ l ; ~ t c
t o t h e g r a n t oT 1;ind y e t t h e r c a r c P ~ ~ n d ; ~ n r c n t ; ~ l d i l l ' c r c ~ i c c s 0c. twee11
~ . , . ~ . ~ ~ - - .. ~
1 .
c f . , . i h i d . - . Vol . XXIX, p. 112.
' c f . , .-- i d . v X X X , p. 110.
3 .
c l . , ] h i d . Vol . XXIX, pp. 9 1 , 11 1 .
1
c l . , .- i b i d . . Vol . XXlX, PI ) . 110- 111.
t h e t wo. I n t h e wor ds o f (: ahel l : "Wi t h t l i c s o l i d i n t e l l i . c t u ; l l 2nd
a ~ l i i ~ i n i s t r a t j v e t r a d i t i o n of' t h e H ; i s t , t hi . d i s t i n c t i o r ~ 11ct wcr11
p u h l i c a n d p r i v a t e r i g h t s was n e v e r o h s r u r e d ; I S i t was i n t h e
Wes t . Wh i l s t i n l i ur opc t h e r c h u i l ~ l i n g o f a s o c i a l s y s t c l r ~ was
a t t e mp t e d on t h e b a s i s o r pc r s on; i l r c l a t i o n s , i n the\ I l a s t , i l ~ e
n o t i o n t h a t a 1 1 p e r s o n a l . power w ; i s a d e l c g a t i o n 0 1 - p ~ i h l i c powctr
r.eni;iinecl c l e a r . l i ven t h o u g h pc r s on; : 1 si i l ~or . d i n a t i o n was know~i
i l l t l ~ e l i a s t , t h e f e u d a l c o n t r a c t ol - r e a l t y was n c v e r e ve n i mn$: i nc~l
I : conon~i c; i l l y, a mukt a' J i i f c r c d f r om t l ~ c We s t c r ~ ~ 1. orJ i n t h a t lict
l i v e d i n t h e t own a n d d i d n o t l ~ a v c t o o r g a n i z e h i s r u r a l l a n d s
wi t h t h c r e s &r v e , c o r v 6 c s c t c . wl i i cl i wol ~l cl h a v e 11ec.ri iicc.ess;i r y
.- ... - ..
h a d h e l i v e d t h e r e . Ile dr e w a11 i ncomc I t i s o i l , and t h a t i s
a l l . The f a c t h e was o r t e n :I f o r e i g n e r mi ght l ~ c , v e r y i m] ~or t ; i r i t
f r om v i ~ r i o u s p o i n t o l v i c w, 1) ut t h i s d i d n o t modi l - y t l i c s t r u c t u r e
o f t h e -xi', n o r , s i n c c h e was p c r i n a n c n t l y c ~ s t ; i l ~ l i s l ~ c d i n t h e
c o u n t r y , t h e u s e made o I' 11 i s i ~~c o mc r . . . .
"Evon i n p l a c e s a n d t i me s wh c r e t t ~ c t e n d c ~ ~ c y t o i t was s t ~ . o n g c s t ,
a number o f f a c t o r s 1 i mi t e d t h e f o r ma t i o i ~ o f n Cul l y d c v c l o p c ~ l
~ n i l i t a r y a r i s t o c r a c y . F i r s t o f ; i l l , :I s y s t e ~ n o f l aw ;ind c i ~ s t o m
whi ch I ~ a d b e e n f i r ml y e s t ; ~ h l i s l i ed Tor g c n c r n t i o n s : I I I ~ I was 1 i nhed
i n some d e g r e e t o t h e I s l a mi c r c l i g i o n i t s e l I c o u l d 11: l r ~l l y l ~ c
mo c l i f i e ~l a t t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e i nuht ; ~' . ~ . . ~. ~. The Mus l i m l aw 01'
s u c c e s s i o n i g n o r i n g p r i mo g c n i t ur c : , s h; i l - c ~l o u t t h e i n h c r i t ; i ncc* ; I I I L I
c o n s e q u e n t 1 y r a p i d 1 y weakcncd t l l c powc,r o f g r e a t f ai ni l its. 1: l l r t l l er
mor e, t h e . i l , f a 6 .- e v e n when t l i c r i g h t o f i n h ( , r i t : ~ n c c t o i t was t o
-
some e x t e n t r e c o g n i z e d was s t i I1 c o n d i t i o n a l on s e r v i c e . . .
,, I
l ' hc a b o v e s t a t e me n t o f Callon c l e a r l y d i s t i ~ i g i ~ i s l i c s 11ctwcc11 I s l a ~ i i i c
s y s t e m o f . i q ~ i ' a n d We s t e r n syst c?m o i i i e f . To 1,ut both s y s t c ~ i i s
i n t h e same c a t e g o r y i s a s e r i o u s c r r o r .
I Q ~ ' -- o r g r a n t . o f l a n d c o n t i n u e d s i n c c t l ~ c ; i gc o f t h e p r o p h e t .
h i m s c l r a n d i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d i t h a s t a k r n inally s l l ; ~l ~r s . Wc l ~ a v c
already d 8 s c r i b e d i t w h i l c i n t r o t l l ~ r ill!; t h e bl;~mlfik p c t . i o d a n d whi l e
c l i s c u s s i r ~ g t l i e i *' s y s t e m i l l Eg y p t ( C h a p t e r I ) .
I h n T a i mi y a h has J i s t . i ngui s 11c . J t wo ty1,t.s o r iltc:' L- : .p-L- l cl t ; i S o r
a p p r o p r i a t i o n ( a 1 Tnml Tk) . .- . - . a n d -- i ~ ~ l n ~ p~ I ' ~ s c t ( a 1 i s t ~~ ~.~ i g h - - I ; ] ) . . . .
Th e f o r me r t y p e o f - . i y ~ a b ...~~ usc:d t o l,c p,rantc.cl 11y t h e 11rad o f t l r c
s t a t c , i n e a r l y a g e s o f 1s1;111i, t o R p c r s o n who h a d 1) l ; ) ycd a
g r e a t . p a r t i n a wa r o r h e h a d n p p r o p r j a t e d a l a n d a nd ma J c i t
c ~ ~ l t i v ; ~ I ) l e ( i h y ? a 1 mawW?tJ. ' I ' l ~ i s g r a n t wa s i n f ac. t a g r x n t 0 1
ownership. Th e l n t t c r was ;I g r a ~ ~ t o f t h e b t ~ n c f l i t 0 1 ' I i ~ n ~ l - ;I ttlan
could c u l t i v ; ~ t e i t hi r ns c l i o r g i v c i t o n s h ; ~ r c c r o p p i n $ : o r h i rink:.
l %ut h e was n o t a n o wn e r o f t h a t l a n d . T l i c r c f o r e h e co111d n o t
s e l l i t , o r d o n a t e i t , n e i t l ~ ~ r was i t t r a n s f c : r ; i I ~ l e by i n l i c r i t a n c e
I n t l ~ e ; l ge o f Ibn l ' ; ~i t ni ya h o n l y t h i s t y p e o P j c ~t 5 ' w; ~s f ouncl .
I
.. i--
'l'lic x 3 ' - was g r a n t c t l t o t h e a r my mcn f o r t h c i I, I l el p , f o r t h c
n l n i n t e n a l ~ c e of' we a p o n s ;incl w; i r l ~ r i r s c s a n d f o r r x p c n d i t i l r c s o n
2
t h c i I. d e p e n d e n t s.
Ac c o r d i n g t o l h n ' I ' ni mi ynl ~ a M~ i ~ t ; a ' ~. (grantee) i s p c ~ . mi t t c d t u
b c n c f i t f r om h i s l a n d b y s h : ~ r c c r o p p i ~ ~ ~ : o r h i ~ . i n ~ : i t . Ne c ; l us r i f
t h c y a r c p r o h i b i t e d t o g i v c i t C ~ I I h i r e o r s h a r e c r o p p i n g , t h c y
w i l l f ; ~c . c g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y , a s some o f tlic p r o p e r t y l i k e h u i l d i n g
s l ~ o p s e t c . c a n n o t h e b e n e f i t e d wi t h o u t g i v i n g t l ~cm o n l ~ i r c . An ~ l
p r o p c r t y l i k e g a r d e n s a n d f a r ms c . : i r ~ lie b o n e f l t e d r r om o n l y h y
g i v i n g t hc m on s l l a r c c r o p l ~ i n g o r l ~ i r i n g .
,, 3
I c f . , I h n Tn i mi y n h , Mt ~ k l ~ t a > ; ~ r a 1 IV;1t5w;l I .~ I M I I . hy
n l i!nnl)a 1 i ((:a i r o : M%ti&P;lh' a 1 S L I I I I I : I ~ a l M U ~ ! ~ I I I I I I ; I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; I ~ I , 1 9 4 9 I ,
I . 2 7 2 , 378.
-,
I t sc.cln5 t l l at Ihn 'I'nimiyalr ; ~ c i Cp t s . i cf i 2' syst cm . -. a s a s o c i ; ~ l
-
n c c c s s i t y , a s t h e ..i y t a ' . - was gr : ~nt ccl 1.0 ; Irmy men i n 1 i c r ~ o l s ; l l ; l r y.
1 l ic&S' wer e a l ~ o l i s h c d , t h e payl acnt s t o t l ~ e ~ n woul.tl 11;lvc I)c,~.o~nc,
di TSi cul t i n a p e r i o d when l ~~onc>t . ; i ry p;lylncnt was n o t <. onvcn i c n t
o r Tc a s i b l c . Ile i s a g a i n s t any c~xcrx.;s OI I t l ~ e p a r t o r ~nuclta* -- ~ ~ L -
( g r a n t e e ) arl ~l t h e l l c r s or ~ who work!; nn i t . Ilc s a y s t h a t it' t h o
nren engaged i n hol y war nccd t h a t t l l c i r l a ~ ~ c l Ilc c u l t i v a t c t l , t.lrcn
t hc 1.ar111vr may bc c on~pc l l c t l t o (In t h a t 1-01. thcm (i l t hey do not
wi l 1 i r ~ g l y do i t ) . I3ut j u s t i c c r c q u i r c s 1 l 1 ; l t t h e arlny mcll s l ~ o ~ ~ l t l
not t yr ' , l l l r l i zc upon t h c t c n a n t , ; I S i t i s n1, l i g: l t ory Tor t h e t c n a n t
t o c u l t i v a t e Eor t l ~ c army. ~t a ~ ~ o t h c r p l a c e 11c ol , s cr vcs t h a t
i f ar nr y~ut : ~~ wcr c d e p r i vccl T.ro111 : I ~ - ~ L I i I. in); l a nd : l n d I'ro111 sl l : ~rec- r op-
p i n g , t he y mi g l ~ t engage t l r er nsel vcs i n i u l t i vat i on ; I I I L I I I C) I I C~ wol ~l d
I,c a v a i l i ~ h l c f o r d c f c n c e .
7'hc r equi r ement o f j u s t i c c ; ~ t t r a c t c J at t t r l r t ion of l hn ' f : l i mi yal ~
t owar , ds t h e pr ol >l e n o f l o s s c s a l ' t c r t h c r : ompl ct i on of' h i r e 01,
sl l ar c. cr oppi ng c o n t r a c t , a r i s i n g nut o f na t ur ; l l c; l l ; ~l ni t y. Ar cor di l r g
t o 1li.m. i E a pe r s on hi r c s l : i r ~ d f o r c u l t i v a t i on, and cl-01)s a r e
r eady b u t h e r o r e hc h n r v c s t s t h a n o r t a k e s t h' l a t o h i s l ) l : ~cc,
I I I C' l l l . l < I
g e t
d e s t r o y e d , t h e n a d i s t i n c t io;,!'/>c:t.wocllc t h c c a s e c:lused l l y
Nat ur e o r by man. The c o n t r a c t w i I 1 l)t: voi d i f
o c c u r s due t o n a t u r a l f a c t o r s . Ihrl ' l ' ; ~i mi y: ~h ha s
c - 2
o p i n i o n w i t h r c r e r e n c e t o ~ 5 4 1 Ah; Yal a.
S i mi l ; ~ r l y , when n person h i r c s l and Tur c u l t i v a
and r ~ s u n l r a i n docs uot Ca l l , hc shrill have t l l c
Irc i l c s t r u c t i on
lncrlt ionCtl t11 i s
i on h111 cxpc' ct c~l
r i g h t t o c a n c e l
t h e c ont r a c - t . And i f t l 1 c 8 r c t u r n h ; ~ s t l ccr c. ~\ r i l ( duc t o s c a n t y
r a i n ) , lie may d e c r e a s e t h e r e n t i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h a t l o s s . Ilc
has r c f c r r c d t h i s vi ew t o h i s pr ccl r ces s or Tm5 m A!IIII;IJ b i r ~ i!anb;~l
and o t h e r s . Ile e x p l a i n s t h e mctliod how t h e c o n t r a c t w i 1 1 Oc
s e t t l e d down. Kent w i l l l,cx dcc iclcd i n 11otl1 c a s e s o f u s u a l r a i n r a l
2nd s c a n t y r a i n ; and i t w i l l 11c pai l l :recording t o t h e s i t u a t i o n .
For cxmnpl c, i f t h c r e n t i s 0111: t l ~ous i ci ~d di r l r ; ~m w i t h t l i c us ua l
r a i ~ ~ f a l and f i v e hundr ed d i ~ . l i ; ~ ~ n - - ~~ w i t h t h e s c a n t y r a i n , t he n i n t h e
c a s e 0 1 - s c a n t y r a i n l ' a l , i t w i l l 11c. r - c l ~: ~t e d i n t h a t p r o p o r t i o n .
The r eas on i s t h a t h e c o u l d n o t h c n c f i t. from t h e l and a c c o r d i n g
t o c o n t r a c t . I t wi l l he assunoerl :IS i f t h c o l ~ j e r - t cont r ac. t c<l upon
has hcen destroyed p a r t l y 11cfo1.c llc t ook i t i n t o p o s s e s s i o n .
1
Ilc p u t s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n c a i ~ s e d hy war , f i r . ? , p e s t s c t r . i r ~ t h e
cat t >gor . y o l n a t u r a l ca1; l ni i t i cs and ; i dvoc ; ~t c s r e d ~ ~ c t i o n of' r e n t i n
p r o p o r t i o n t o t hf , l o s s .
2
Ibn ' l' aimiyah h a s i n f c r r c d a11 t h i s from ;I s a y i n g of' tile p r o p l ~ e t -
who t o l d a compani on t h a t i f lie I ~a d s o l d ; I t h i n g t o h i s h r o t h c r ,
and ;I n a t u r a l c a l a mi t y had occurred, then hc ]):id no r i t : ht t o
c h a r g e 1-rom him a n y t h i n g ; or1 what b a s i s 11c would t a k e h i s
b r o t h e r ' s p r o p e r t y wi t h o ~ i t r i g l ~ t . " 111 an a n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n t h i 3
Pr ophet has heen r c p o r t e d t o o r d e r f o r t h e d i s c o u n t o r n a t u r a l
c a l a n i i t i e s (Amc~r 11 i wiida4 2 i l l . - . ~- ~ 1 w 1 . - .
Ac c o r d i ~ ~ g t o lhn ' S a i ~ u i y i ~ l ~
1 ,
t l i cs c ; I r e t h e r u l e s t h a t must he iigrcetl LI I I OI I and 1:ollowc.d 11).
a l l s e c t s and comrnun i t i c s , l ~ e c a ~ ~ s c t h c r oundat i on o r t h e s c r u l e s
i s j u s t i c e , OI I wl i i cl ~ t h e heaven and thi- ixnrtll a r c h a s c d , nnc l w i t h
wliich A 1 a 1 has r c ve a l c t l i n 'l'hc Hook.
, , ( I
From t h e above d i s c u s s i o n we cal l i n f e r t h; l t c~ccor i l i nl !
' l' aimiyilll t h e S t a t e must c n n c c l t a x c s o r l c v y i mposed
t a i n p u b l i c utilities arid 1;1nds i n t h e CI I SC. 01 S U C I I C; I
a s i t i s done a t t h e p r e s c ~ l t t i ~ n t . when s uc h a dcn~and i
t o 1 hn
LI[IOII c e r -
I mi t i c s ,
s rnt~dc hy
in11rtl)i r a n t o f t h e c o u n t r y . I ' l ' ~ i ~ i i y I , r e f e r s t o t l ~ i s problem
wdda' a 1 ' aw&h n ~ e a n i n g d i s c u u n t i ng t h e n a t u r a l c a l a ~ u i t i e s - -
as - L_~._._l_-
a t e r m t a k c n f r om t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h o p r o p h r l .
1
. PROII I I3 I'l'lil) CoN'L'KA(:'l'S
One o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s oi' I h l a ~ n i c economi c5 i s t h; i t i t i s
govr r nc . ~l by t h e concept . ot' -. l,I:il~<l .. :111d .A- llarilm . ~ / l e g i t i l n ; ~ ~ ? :in'( i l lcgi-
t i r n n t e ) . Al l t h o s e cconol ni c activities whi ch v i o l a t c t h c b a ~ i i '
mor a l v a l u e s a r e p r o h i b i t c i l o r c o n s i d e r c d u n d c s i r a h l r wh i l c o t h c r s
a r e p e r mi t t e d and considered ~ 1 c . s i r a l >l c . 'l'hcsc, p r i r ~ c i p l e s l i avc
heen p r o v i d e d i n t h e Qurarl a nd Sunnah. I n h i s wr i t i n&! . ; , I hn
Tai nl i yah f r c q l ~ e n t l y q u o t e s t h e r r l e v a n t v e r s e and c x p r c s s c s 11;:.
own o p i n i o n s . Be f o r e we i . oncl ucl e t h i s chapter, i t secsiss u s l ~ c t t c r
t o exami ne h i s vi e ws r e g a r d i n g S L I CI I t r ~ n s a c t i ons .
Ile si i ys t h a t t h e b a s i c t h i n g i n t h i s co11nect i nn i s t hi l t ' Al l a h
h a s p r o h i b i t e d u s i n Ilis hnoh t o t a h r one's pr cr pcr t y t l l r ough
wr ong means. . . . . ' , t h e n hc st1y.s i l i a t t o t a k e pr . opc r t y by wrong
nlcans 7 - o f t wo t y p e s r c v e n l c ~ l i n t h c liook o f Al l a h , nn~nc- l y,
a 1 Hi115 ( i n t e r e s t ) and a 1 i n a i s i r ( g; i ml ~l c . ) . " ' '
. - - - -- ... . -.
f h u s : I I I I ) ~ ~ s i n c r > c s
and c o n t r ; j c t s t h a t c o n t a i n c l e mCn t s o f i n t c r c s t o r g; ~ri l l )Ii ~ wi l l
bc 3): ; i i nst t l l ~ s p i r i t o f j u s t i c e an11 m~~st. l ~ c 111.ohil) i t csd. llc
d e F i n c s ,q;lmhlcsome d c a l i n a s a s t h e o n e s 'whose r ~ s l i l t i s not
known. . . s uc h t r : i n s ; ~ c t i o n s C ~ I I S C t l l c i ' v i 1 o r f ; ~ n i h l ~ ; t l l ; ~ t 5 , t11c.y
c r e a t e j e a l o u s y and e n mi t y , l aoreovc, ~. i t amount s t o t xhi r l g one' s
p r o p c r t y t hr ough wrong means which i s a k i ~ ~ d o f i l l j us t i c e . ' l ' l i us
t h e ga~nblesornc d e a l i n g s b e a r t hr ct : c v i I s -- i n j u s t i c c , cnm i t y
; I I I ~ j e a l o ~ ~ s y . " I Accor di ng t o 11 ~ I I I i t i s t h e i r ~; ml , l cs or ne n a t u r e
due t o which t h e pr ophe t ha s I ~l - o h i l >i t c d c o n t r a c t s srrch a5 s: rl c
and purchase of a ni ma l s n o t yet [)or11 o r eve11 c0111~cive11 hy tlrc
I'cmalc; s a l e o f f r u i t s h e f u r c t h e y I ~ a v c : r ppc: ~r cd OI I t l ~ e t r c c s ,
o r o f t h e c r o p s b e f o r e t he y r i p c n , o r d c a l s ~ i f e c t ~ d t hr ough
7
t ouch o r t hr owi ng o f an o h j c c t , e t c . " '
A c l o s e a n a l y s i s would r e v e a l t h e i ndct cnni nt i cy and aml ) i gui t )
i nvol ve d i n s uch d e a l i n g s t h a t migirt ~ . e s u l t in d i 5 p u t ~ s , and
clamage t h e p c a c c f u l l u n c t i o n i n g o f t l i c i nar kct .
As l ; ~ r a s u s u r i o u s t r a n s a c t i ons a r e conccr r i c~l t hc ~y 11;1vc been
out l : ~wc J by t h e Qur'Zri. ' I' rad i t i ons have I I I C I I ~ i oncd ~orni: other
f or ms o f u s u r i o u s t r a n s a c t i o n s s uch : IS r i b s :11 ~~ FacjI .. . and rib: :11
. . . . . . . . -
~ a s i ' n h . l ' hcsc t r a n s a c t i o n s 11r4vc hecn J i s c ~ ~ s s c d ahovc (CI1;ip. V ) .
Accordi ri g t o I hn Tai mi yah i r r t cr ct st i s s c v c r e l y p r o h i l ~ itccl wl i i 1 '
yamb l cs o~ne r i s k y c l e a l i ~ ~ g s t l i ; ~ t irrvol ve unc c r t n i n t y and c h ~ n c c
a r c r el i l t i v c l y l c s s v i c i u u s . I t i s Tor t h i s re:tsorl t h a t W I I C I I
g a ~n l ~l c s o ~n e and r i s k y t r ar i sact io11 a r e i nd i s p e n s n h l c , t11c.y a r e
3
al l owed t o t h e e x t e n t o f n e c e s s i t y . For cxampl c~, i r u i t s 2nd
vc ge t a l , l c s grown i n s i d e t h e c a r t t i 1 i hc c a r r o t , o n i o n s , c t c . I I W ~
be s o l d a s t h e y a r e , t l ~o u g h i t i s n o t lrrsc from t h e r i s k o f
be i ng more o r l e s s t h a n t l i c cxpcct e( 1 a ~nount . l l cr c 1l , 11 'l'a imiyah
g i v e s g r e a t e r i mpor t ance t o p c u p l c ' s ncctl. Accor cl i ~~f i t o hi111
gan~hl esornc. b u s i n c s s c s a I I i t I S i pr ccat t t i on iind t o : I VO i d
any s t ~ s p i c i o n o l ennr i t y, j c n l o u s y arid t:lkirix o t h e r s ' ~ ~ r o p e r t y hy
wrong mcans. But h c r c tlre ncctl o l s u c l ~ l ~us i r i cs s e. ; i s inorcx
1 . .
I l l l . 11.
--
116.
' l hi cl . -. - p. 116.
3 . .
l bl cl . p. 118; idem. MI-S Vo1. X X l X , 1 ) . 2 0 .
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i n p o r t a n t t h a n a v o i d i n g a mer e s u s p i ( . i o n . 1 1 - s uc h t r a n s a c t i ons
a r c p r o h i b i t c d , p e o p l e woul d fact ; I l o t o f I ~ a r d s h i p , h c c a u s c t h e y
mos t f r e q u e n t l y f a c c t h e rleocl o f t l ~ o s c t r : ~ n s a c t i o n s . Ilc s u p p o r t s
h i s o p i n i o ~ ~ from a n ~ n o t l l e r p r i n c i p l e o i ~ l ~ a r & h ;IS i ~c, s a y s ,
.. .~ -----.. ..
"The whol c ~ h a r f h h i s b a s e d on t l l o p r i n c i p l e t h a t ally s o u r c e 0 1 .
c v i l t h a t r e q u i r e s i t s p r o h i b i t i o n , i f f a c e d wi t h :I g r ; ~ v c r l ccd,
I
t h e p r o h i b i t c d a c t i o n woul d h e :11 l owcd. " I hn l ' a i mi y a h ' s s t ; ~ n d
s a v e s p c o p l e f r om s e v c r n l d i Sf i c u l t i e s i n t h e i r t r ; \ n s a c t i o n s .
They w i l l hc a b l e t o s e l l f r u i t s : I I I ~ vt . ) : e[ ; ~l ~l c. . ; g r n wi ~r x r 111~1cr t h e
gr ound wi t h o u t a n y i nc onvc n i e n c c . ' I' l~c b u y e r c : ~n t a k o t l ~ c m o u t
a c c o r d i n g t o h i s c o n v e n i e n c e . ' l o s t r c ngt hc t n h i s o p i n i o n h c
f u r t h e r a r g u e s t h a t t h i s t r i ~ n s a c t i o n i s f r e e f r om gambl e a s we
c a n know v e r y wc l l t h c i n s i d e 11 i ddcn p o r t i o n hy l o o k i n g t h e
a p p a r c n t uppe r p o r t i o n o f t h c f r u i t s and v c g e t a l ) l e s . Morcovcr'
knowl edge o f s o l d goods i s necessary t o t h a t c x t c n t o111y whi ch i s
c a s i l y a v a i l a b l e . I n t h i s r e ga r t l , 1l)n Ta i mi ya h g o e s a g n i n s t t h e
f amous opi ni ons o f l l anbnl i t e s d o c t t ~ r s and t he o l ) i n i o n s oC t l ~ c
d o c t o r s o f Ha n i f i t e a nd S h a f i ' i t c Sc h o o l s .
2
l b n Ta i mi y n h ' s v i e ws a r c govcr nccl t)y t h c I s l a mi c c o n c e p t o f
1 , I a l ~ l and l ~ar or n. So h e j s oT tile o p j n i o n t h a t ;I p e r s o n s hou
A-
n o t e nga ge i n a h u s i n e s s o r i n d u s t r y o f a11 a r t i c l c whi ch i s
p r o h i b i t c d . I' or e xa mpl e , wc n r i n g o f : I s i l k c l o t h i s p r o h i b
f o r blus l im ma l e . Musl i ms s houl i l not m a ~ ~ u f a c t u r c i t f o r nlcri,
s h o u l d f l ~ c y s c l l i t t o men f or . whom i t i s p r o h i b i t c d . ( I t i s
-
p c r mi s s i l ) l c f o r women). Ilc h i ~ n s c l l ' g i v c s t l l c reason ; I S I I C s a y s
t h a t Mf o r a man i t i s not p c r r n i s s i l ) l c t o ' ar n h i s 1 i v c l i hooi l 1)y
s e wi ng s i l k f o r a p e r s o n t o whom i t s u s c i s i ~ r o l ~ i l ) i t e d , because
i t w i l l bc a k i n d o f h e l p and ' o o p e r a t i o n i n t h c 1n:lttc.r o f . ; i n ;in<
J i s o b e d i c n c e . I n t h e same way s i l k c a n n o t Oc s o l d t o :I p r r s o n
1. .
l h l d . p. 4 9 .
2-.--
l t ~ l d . p. 2 2 7 ; i dem. a 1 Mns3'cl I ~ L I I ~~ - I . 105-b.
f o r whom i t i s p r o h i b i t e d t o wear i t . Hut i t can he s o l d t o
women and non-Muslims. However hc s e e s no harm t o 11avc
t r a n s a c t i o n w i t h a per s on wliosc. hc l ongi ngs a r c mi ngl ct l w i t h
t l a l L1 and - l.laram. .. - For exampl e, onc who t a h e s i n t e r e s t h y t r i c k s ,
o r who e a r n s hi s livelihood l i y n~ahi ng p i c t u r e s e t c . ( t o pr c pa r c
p i c t u r e s of l i v i n g o b j e c t i s p r o h i b i t e d i n I s l am) . tic, s a ys t h a t
i f a per s on c a r r i e s a b u s i n e s s bc l i c vi ng i t pc r mi s s i l ) l c , t hen
t h e ot l t er per s ons can n~:lhc t r a n s a c t i o n wi t h him t h o ~ ~ g h t l ~ c y do
z
not h c l i c v e i t t o be p r mi s s i h l c .
1 . .
~ b ~ d . pp. 290- 99
2 1
~ b ~ d . . [ I . 318.
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I t 1s wo r t h me n t i o n i n g h c r c t l i : ~ ~ o n t h c same 2
Mus l i m s c h o l a r s o f t h e p r c s c n t c ~ g c h a v e s t r c ~ i i g
v i e w t h a t p o l i t i c a l . power is ; I n c c c s s a r ) . Invans
f u l l y i l l pc! r sonal : ~ n d s o c i a l 1 i F c .
The f i r s t me r e l y g u a r d s a g a i n s t r c~ut t r ; ~l i n j u s t i c e , ~l i s c or ' c l ; ~ n e l
a n i ~ r i - t i y , and s t r i v e s f o r the wo r l d 1 y wcl f a r e ; w l r i l c t l i c sc.coiiil
p r o v i d e s l o r t h e p o s i t i v e e n r o r c c mc ~l l t o f 1;iw anel l u . 5 t i c c i n 11111tual
To l h n ' l ' a i n ~i y a h a u t h o r i t y i s p r r F c r - : ~ l ~ l c t o : ~ r ~ ; r r c h y . Al t l ~u u g l r k r
a s k s Mo s l i ~ n s n o t t o o b e y o r d e r s c o n t r a r y t o t h c cor ni nanr l ~~~cnt s 01.
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Al l a h a n d f o r h i c l s t hem t o c o o p c r a t c wi t h ;in 111i j i 1st ~ I I ~ C I . , tic
d o e s n o t a d v o c a t e ope u r e l ) t : l l i o n o r c nc our : i ge t o u y c ~r t l i r o w 11 i ~ n .
Ile q u o t c s n s a y i n g : S i x t y y e a r s o f ;In i ~ ~ i j u s t i1n51n .. [ r u l c r ) ;tvc
b e t t e r t h a n o n c n i g h t wi t h o u t o s u l t 5 1 1 . ' . ~ . Many o t l i c r t h i n k e r s
and t h e Gr eek and S c h o l a s t i c p l r i l o s o p l ~ e r s wer e a l s o oL' t l ~ c same
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o p i n i o n . A l Ch a z Sl i and !hn . ~: l m: l ' : ~l r a r c oL' t l i e vi cw t h ; ~ t :Iny
e f f o r t t o de pos c eve11 a t yr ; r nnous s ul t 5n i s l i ; r h l c t o c r e a t e c ha os
a n d l a wl e s s n e s s . ' 1: ol l uwi ng t h e (;reek p h i l o s o p h e r s , S t . 'I'lrornas
Aqui na s a d o p t s t h e same vi ew. I ) <~! ; c~- i I , i ng i t Wi l l i a m Ar.cliil,ald
Dunni ng wri t es: " I n r e s p e c t t o i n d i v i d u a l : ~ c l i n n i n s l a y i n g
t y r a n t s , he o b s e r v e s t h ; j t i t i s rlrorc o f t e n bod men t l i ; l n good t h a t
undertake s u c h a n e n t c r p r i ~ c , and t h a t , s i n c e h:ld nrerr f i n d thc.
r u l e oL' k i n g s no l e s s Our dr nsomc t h a n t l l at . oL' t y r a n t s , t h c r e c o g -
n i t i o n of' t l ~ e r i g h t o f p r i v a t e c i t i z r n s t o h i l l t y r a n t s i ~ l v o l v c s
r a t h e r more c ha nc e ol' l o s i n g i r k i n g t l l i 1 1 1 01' I ~ e i n g r c l i c vc d o f :I
t y r a n t .
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'The r e a s o n be hi nd t h c vi cw t h a t ; I I I i ncl i vi ( l u: ~l s h o u l d n o t t r y t o
remove a n ~ ~ n j u s t established r u l r r may be t l l c h i t t e r c x l ) e r i o n c c
of t h e s e t l l i n k c r s t l i a t a ncwcomcxr ;11w;rys pr oved mor e j n ~ . a p ; ~ h l c and
wor s e t h a n t l i e o u t g o i n g one . i rl orcovcl . , t h e i n s t t r b i 1 i t y arid clr:ros
c r e a t e d by t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e r e gi mc a l wa ys r e t a r d e d c c o n o n ~i c
gr owt h :ind p r o s p e r i t y and a L' l ' cct cd a d v c r s c l y t h e s o c i a l and i ~ ~ : r d e -
mi c i n s t i t u t i o r l s . Hut t h e y f a i l e d t o s u g g r s t t h e p r o p s r way t o
g c t r i d o f a t y r a n t .
Rut t h i s s l ~oul c l not. mcnn t l i a t t o I1111 ' l ' ai mi y: ~h, l i k e t h e
MerC:lnt i l i s t s t o f f i i t e e n t l l : ~ n d s i x t e c n t l ~ c ~ n t u r i e s , t l i c s t a t e
was t l i c mai n t h i n g . A s a g a i n s t t h e i rl ercant i l ism wlierc " t l i c
l c f . , Ro s c n t h a l , I:rwin I . , J . , -~ I'ol i t i c a l ' I' houfi i t s i n Mc d i r v a l . . ~ I s l a ~ u .. -~
~ ~ b r i d g c : l l n i v c r s i t y P r e s s , 1362) ; - p; ~- I ?.
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01- 1'01 i t i c a 1 1 ' I i r o r . i ~ ~ ~ ( Al l a h a l ~a d :
' ~) u n n i n g , W. A. , A l l i r t o ~ , ~ - ,-- oO1- ~ ..... ~.
c e n t r;) 1 ~ o o k 1) epot . , 1 9 61, 11.
*Mcrc;rrit i l i s m dove l ope d a t t h e cnd o f Mi ddl e Ag's. Acc. ordi ni : t o
tlre l n e r c a r ~ t i l i s t w r i t e r s i t i s ve r y i mp o r t ; ~ n t t l l a t s t ; ~ t c . sl10111d
I I ~ e c or i on~i c ; ~l ' l y s t r o n g and powur f l r l , and t h i s c a n b e J o n c o n l y
t l ~ r o u g l ~ i o r c i g n t r a d e .
we l f a r e o f s t a t e was s u l > s t i t u t e d i n pl nc' ol ' t l ~ e ; ~mc l i o r ; i t i o r i o f
t h e i n d i v i d u a l , " " I bn Ta i n ~ i y a h c ~ ~ r p t i a s i z e s t h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y
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o b j e c t i v e o f t l i c a u t h o r i t y ( wi l a v x t ) L ...- i s t o i rnprovc t h e ma t e r i a l
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f l i t ~l r ' e l i f e . Ile e x p r e s s e s t h e need f o r :I c l o s c c o o p c r ; ~ t i o ~ r
3
he t we c n t h e a u t h o r i t y a nd t h e p e o p l e . F l ~ , r e o v e ~ - , i r l c r i ; ~nt i l is111
was ~1nor : i 1 i n i t s e s s e n c e . I n t h e wor ds o f l l c c k s c h c r , "'I'he
mc r c a n t i l i s t s we r e a mor a l i n t wo - f o l d s c r i s c , bo' h i n t h e i r ai l us
a s a l s o i n t h e means f o r t h c : i t t : ~i ~r ~n e r i t o f t h e i r end.;. ' I' hi s t wo-
f o l d a mur a l i t y a r o s e f r om t h e i r w i d c s p r c a d i nt l i f f c r c n c e t ow; i r ds
manki nd, b o t h i n i t s c a p a c i t y a s :I r e a s o n i n g x ~ ~ i n r a l , a s a l s o i n
i t s a t t i t u d e t o wa r d s t h e c t e r n ; ~ 1 . "" He r r a n t i l i s t t l ~ i ~ ~ h r r s l i hv
Mach i a v e l l i ( 1469- 1 527) and J e a n I%od i n ( 1 520- 1596) r ~- e e i l p o l i -
t i c s f r om a l l mor a l and e t h i c a l c o n s i t l e r : ~ t i o n s a nd lrclcl t h e s t a t e
accountable b e f o r e none.
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Ac c or di ng t o I bn Ta i mi yuh t h e r i ~ i t h o r i t y c x ~ c r c i s c c l Ily t i l e : ; t : ~ t e
i s n o t a h s o l u t e . I t i s n t r u s t n i n a i ) . ~- from Al l a h , and i t i s
t o he c x c r c i s c d i n a c c or dr l nc c wit11 t h e t e r ms l a icl down i n t h e
~l i a r I ' a t 1. ~ -- - Ile q u o t e s a t r a d i t i o r r ( ha( l Tt t i ) ~~ 01- t h c I' ropt i et
s t r c i i gt l i r r i h i s s t a n d . Ahii I I I ; I I . ~- I ~; I s r c p ~ r t c d t h a t t h e I'
t o 11 iin, " I t ( s o v e r e i g n t y ) i s :I t riust , : ~r i c l on t h e d;iy o
i t w i I1 be a t h i n g of s o r r o w and liuii~i l i a t i on e x c e p t Tor
we r e d e s e r v i n g f o r i t and J i d wc l 1 . "'I ~t a ~ r o t l i e r pl ; i c c
t h a t " t h e government i s a rcl j g i o c ~ s di l t y; t o s c c k A1 1;1t1
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Geor ge A l l c n & Unwin t . t c l . , 19G?) , Vol . I I , 1 ) . 2 8 0 .
21t,n Ta i mi y ; ~ h , a 1 Si yXsal i ~ a 1 ~ h a r ? a l i , ~ -~ - 11. 30.
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i hl cl . pp. 4 2 , 60.
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I l e c k s c h c r , op. ~ i t . 285.
5 ~ : r a y , A , op. c i t . 56.
61\,n Ta i mi y ; ~ h , a1 S i y s s a h ~ n l ~ l i l . .. . p. 2 2 .
by S u l l ' i l l i n g i t s o l ) l i g a t i o n s wi t h a l l mi g h t s i s o n e o f t h e
n o h l e s t o f good d e e d s ( a f J a 1 ;hnnl a l 551 i h a h ) . Ilc ;iga i n q u o t c s
-- - - - -- - . .
ii t r a d i t i o n r e p o r t i n g t h a t t h e most beloved oS t h e c r c u t u r c s t o
Al l a h i s a j u s t s o v e r e i g n (imam - ' u c l i l ) a n d t h e mos t h a t e f u l
c r e a t u r e i s a t y r a n t s o v e r e i g n . , ,f-
Ac c o r d i n g t o I h r ~ ' Sa i mi y a l ~, f o r ; ~ p p o i n t me n t t o n pub1 i c o f f i c e
t h e mos t s u i t a h l c p e r s o n ; ~ v ; ~ i l ; i b l c i for t h a t o SSi c c s h o u l ~ l h c
c h o s e n . A b i l i t y (+ww:~h) a n d i nt ck: r i t y ( : i m<i n; ~l ~) A - - a r e t h e t wo
e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s r e q u i r e d i n p u b l i c o f f i c e . Rut i t i s n o t
e a s y t o f i n d a l l t h e t i me a p e r s o n who p o s s c s s c s t h e t wo qua 1 i -
t i c s c q u a l l y . 111 t h a t c a s e one s h o u l d d e c i d e whi ch q i ~ a l i t y i s
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mor e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r o l ' l i c c . ' S t a t i n g t h e s n ~ ~ ~ c
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f a c t l i r wi u I l os e nt l l a l w r i t e s : "l l l n l ' aymi ya i s r c ; i l i s t i c enough
t o s u g g e s t t h a t a b i l i t y t o f i l l an o f r i c e - c o u r a g e a n d h r a v c r y
i n wa r - l e a d e r , j udgement and powcr o f c n f o r c e mc n t i n ;I j u d g e -
i s mor e i mp o r t a n t t h a n p i e t y and l o y a l t y l i no hody c a n l)c l ' o ~ ~ n d
who c omhi ne s a 1 1 r e q u i r e me n t s . I n s u p p o r t h e a p p c a l s t o t h e
Sunnah. Muhammad was a l wa y s g u i d c d i n t h e c h o i c c o f a l e a d r r liy
t h e we1 f a r e o f t h e umn~ah - ;IS t h e o v e r r i d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n , e v e n i f
h i s subordinates we r e t o s u r p a s s hi m i n k ~ ~ o wl c d g e and S: i i t h. I T
no o n e p e r s o n i s a v a i l a b l e wl ~o possesses i r ~ l ~ i n i s c l r a l 1 t h e
q u a l i t i e s ne e de d f o r an o f f i c e o n c h a s t o a p p o i ~ ~ t a s many a s
t o g e t h e r : i r e endowed wi t h them. "' Af t e r t h i s s t a t e me n t h e
- -
observes, " Th i s i d e a i s s t r o n g l y reminiscent o f a1 - -. 1:ar;lhi . --- and
g o e s ha c k u l t i ma t e l y t o I ' l a t o , a s d o u s t h o i d e a o f men f o r mi n g a n
a s s o c i a t i o n t o l l e l p e a c h o t h c r t o s a t i s S y t l ~ e i r n c c d . t o 4
1
I b n Ta i mi y a h , a 1 I l i s b a h S i ' I -~ l s1%11, --- . 1). 1 1 .
' c f . , i d e ~ ~ ~ . I I 1 S I , ~. 1 . 2 5 - 3 1
3110s ent h: ~l , l i r wi n [ . . I . , op. ~ i t . p. 5 4 .
4 . .
i h l d . pp. 54- 55.
I t i s s t r a n g e t l ~ a t 1l oscnt h; i l on t h e onc l i i ~ ~ i d s a y s t h a t Ibn
l ' ai mi yal i s u p p o r t s h i s view wi t h t h e Sunn:~li ( wl i i cl ~ nlc;lrls t h a t t h c
h a s i s of h i s o p i n i o n i s t l i c I ' r o p l ~e t ' s t r a d i t i o r i ) ; on t h e o t h e r
- -
hand lie d e s c r i b e s i t a s r e mi r ~i s c c n t oC a1 ~ a r : ~ l ) T a~rrl goes hack
t o I ' l at o, a s i f he t ook t h i s i dea from t l i c Gr eeks. Ac t u a l l y ,
e x i s t e n c e o f two s i mi l a r i dc; t s i n two d i r f e r c r i t s o u r c e s i s n o t a
p r o o r t h a t one i s t a kc n from 111c o t h e r , c s p c c i ; ~ l l y wlicr~ t l i cr e i s
no documentary e vi de nc e .
1. COALS OF lSLAM1C STATE
I h n l ' ai mi yah does not d i s c u s s t h e For111 of gover nment , a n ~ l t l i c way
of i t s f or mul a t i on. Ilc n c c c p t s t h c s t a t c : I S i t i s . l l i s onl y
emphasi s i s on i t s r e l i g i o u s character and t l ~ e g o a l s a s s i g n e d t o
i t . Accor di ng t o hi m, "The g r c a t r s t goa l of t h e s t ; l t e i s t o
e n j o i n t h e good and [ o r h i d t h e e v i l ; I-or' exampl e, pcr l ' or mancc o f
p r a y e r , payment o f zakZh, f a s t i ng, t r u ~ l i , honcst v. o b c d i c ~ ~ c c or
t h e p a r e n t s , good r c l a t i on w i t h ki nsmen, good l >el i avi our w i t h t h e
hous chol d and n c i g h h o u r c r s c t c . ' To c n j o i n t h e gootl i ~ n d t o
i o r h i l l t h e e v i l ' j s a ve r y compr chcns i ve tcr111. I t i n c l u d e s
e n j o i n i n g s o c i a l ? y and c c o r i o ~ ~ ~ i c ; ~ l l y h c n c f i c i ; ~ 1 pr aci i c e s and
f o r h i d d i n g s o c i a l and economi c ev i 1 s. Ilc emphasi z c s t h ; ~ t " t h e
we l f a r e o l t h e peopl c and the, c o u n t r y can bc i ~cl i i evcd o n l y t hr ough
comm:~nding t h c good and f o r h idtl i ng t h e e v i l . I ' eopl c and t h e i 1.
eco~~omi c: we l l - b e i n g l i c s i r i ohcdi cncu of Al l a h and l l i s : ~ p o s t l c .
1
And t h a t i s p o s s i h l c on1 y b y e n j o i n i n g good and i-orhiilcling c vi l . ' I L
From t l i c ubove l i n e s i t hecomcs c l e a r t l ~i r t he i n c o r p o r a t e s
economics and religion ancl t l i cy c ; ~n n o t be s c pa r a t c t l Crori~ caclr
o t h e r . l < u t i t was not h i s pcc111 i a r i t y . I t:s csscncre i s found i n
I s l am. I l c s c r i hi ng t h e d u t i e s O F ;I (::ilipli ;iL ~~; i wi r ( l T a l s o
me n t i o n s s i mi l a r t h i n g s . llis f i r s t d u t y i s t o g u a r d t.he i c t i t h
b a s e d on i t s e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n c i p l e s i t r ~ c l on t h e c o n s e n s u s o f t h e
e a r l y Mus l i ms ( s a l a f a 1 ummal ~). Next, h c mus t e x e c u t e ;ind p r e s e r v e
- - - -- -. - -. .
j u s t i c e . .. . Then comes p r o t e c t i o n o f l i f e and 1 i n h , s o t h a t
p e o p l e n~;ry f r e e l y e nga ge i n e a r n i n g o f l i v c l i hood . . . l : our t h, he
i s o h l i g e d t o s e e t h a t pur ~i s hnt c nt f o r of f c nc : e s (l)~tclGd) is met ed
o u t s o t h a t t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f Al1;ih may n o t b e v i o l a t e d and
r i g h t s 01- llis bondsmen a r c ~~l ) l r c l c l . l : i f ' t h, g a r r i s o n i n g o f Troll-
t i e r s w i t h a l l means and mi g h t . S i x t h , t o wage h o l y war a g a i n s t
t h o s e who r e f u s e t h e j u s t mc s s a gc o i I s l a m. . . . S e v e n t h , managcnl cnt
o f b o o t y and poor due s a c c o r d i n g t o SI I J r"ah . . . E i g h t h , sorlnd
f i n a n c i a l a d mi n i s t r a t i o 1 1 . . . . Ni r c t h , j udi c ' i or l s s c l c c t i o n o f
c ompc t c nt and l o y a l o f f i c i a l s ... . Te n t h , hc shoul cl exl cncl h i s
p e r s o n a l supervision t o p u b l i c a f r a i r s . . . .
1
I bn Ta i mi ya h doe s n o t mcnt i o n a 1 l economi c a c t i v i t i e s ; I I I ~ r e s pon-
s i b i l i t i e s of t h c s t a t e a t a ny o ~ ~ c p l a c e i n h i s hook. l ' hcy a r e
s c a t t e r e d a 1 1 o v e r h i s wor k. lcclow we slit111 exami ne h i s vi ews
a b o u t economi c responsibilities o f J s l n mi c s t cat e and i t s power t o
s e c u r e t h e s e g o a l s .
The b a s i c p o i n t u n d e r l y i n g t i l e wc l l - a r e s t a t e i s t h a t t h e S t a t t .
mus t a c c e p t l c g a l and c x p l i c i t r e s p o n s i h i l i t y f o r t h e wc l l - b e i n g
o f a l l of i t s member s; t h a t a p a r t i r om p r c s c r v a t i o n o f l aw and
o r d e r and p r o v i s i o n f o r com~non dc f c >nc c , t h e we1fn1. c ol ' t h e i nc l i -
v i d u a l and h i s n p l i f t i s s o i mp o r t a n t t h a t i t c a n n o t be left t o
t h c c us t oms o r i n f o r ma l a r r a g e mc n t s and p r i v a t e u r ~c l c r s t a n d i n g .
And i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s t a t r t o do i t .
A we l f a r e s t a t e mus t g u a r a n t e e s o c ~ a l and economi c j t i s t i c e f o r -
i t s citizens. I n t h i s r e g a r d t h e mai n t a s k s a r e f u l f i l ~ n c n t o f
' c i . , A1 ~ a w a r d f , op. ' i t . pp. 15- 16,
t h c h a s i c needs of i t s i nhab i t ; ~ ~ ~ t s 1 i h e foocl s hc 1t c 1- , c l o t l l i n g ,
e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h ; p r i c e c o n t r o l , f i x n t i o n o f w ~ ~ g c :111(1 p r o v i -
s i o n of errtployrnent, i nt c r f c r c nc . c i n p r o p e r t y r i g h t ; ~n d I I ; I I I 011
u s u r i o u s h u s i n r s s a c t i v i t i e s . 'l'he state wi l l st r i v e l o c r : ~ d i c a t c
p o v c r t y , a t t a i n cconornic s t a b i l i t y ; L I I ~ at l opt t c c hn i q ~ c s 01'
p l a n n i n g t o a c h i e v e t h c d c s i r c d g o a l s . I t i s a l s o 1~cbp011s i I . 11~
f o r t h e a l l s i d c d p r o g r e s s o f t h c c o u n t r y and f o r g c r ~ ~ r a l wcl [arc. .
Thc wr i t e r s on t h e s u b j e c t cl;li111 t h a t t h c ' Wc l f ; ~r e St : l t C1 i s a
new pllenorncnon i n t h e pol i t ico-economic h i s t o r y o f inan. 7.11 i .;
may bc c o r v c c t i n t h e Wcstc.1.11 s o c i e t y . b r ~ t 11ot c v e r y wh c ~ ' ~ . 1sl an1
a s a compl ct e gni da nc e f o r nlankirld 11;ls pr cs cnt ct l :I ver y comprc-
h c n s i v c c onc e pt ofi we l f a r e s t a t e . Ts l a n~i c c a l i phnt c i n i t s
-
f l o u r i s h i n g days pr ovi dc d t h e h e s t examllle uf s uch a s t a t ( . .
l s l a mi c t h i n k e r s and j u r i s t s ; ~ l w ; ~ y s : ~~l v o c a t c d Tor such ;I s y s t c ~ ~ ~
and h e l d t h e s t a t e r cs pons i 1) l c f o r t h e a l l - s i d e d wcl l ' nr c ol- t h e
peopl e i n t h e 1 i g h t o f t h e (l ur5n and Sunn; ~h. Lct us n o t e lbrl
T a i mi y n l ~ ' ~ c o n t r i b u t ion i n t h i s I - egi l r d.
Ihn Tai mj yah i s vc r y emphar i c 0 1 1 j u s t i c e . Ilc r e g a r d s j ~ i s t i c e
a s t h e h : ~ s i s o f t h e whol e worl ( I ; wi t l ~ o u t i t man call l)c, s ~ ~ c ~ c s s l u l
n c i t h e r in t h i s l i f r nor i i r t h e l i e r c ; ~ l ~ t c r . ~ Rc f c r r i n g t o C; l l i pl i
'Omar l ~ i n h l ~ d u l Xz i z , he compar es 11se of a u t h o r i t y w i l l 1 t h e n ~ ; l l - h c t
n~cchnni sm. tic wr i t e s , " l f e x p e n J i t u r c i s made on t l ~ c v a l u c s 1 i hc
' l : ncyc lopac,clin Americ:lna hcn r s :IS "TII(. rc.1.111 WI ' I 1.8 I C tat C' w i t l )
i t s s p e c i f i c meaning o f s o c i a l : ~ n d c , c o ~ ~ o e ~ i c s ecur ' l t y ol' I1;lsic
I I I ~ I I ~ I I I I : I i n w i e s p r r ~ s e onl y d u r i n g ; ~ r i t l a f t e r World War
1 1 . Such g e n e r a l p u b l i c l y s l ~ n ~ ~ s o r c d p r o g r a ~ ~ s of s o c i a l ;i11d
cconorniC wcl f a r c wer e S j r s t c ; ~ I I e d "WcI I'a1.c S t a t e ' I ) I . O ~ ~ I . ; I I I I S i n
B r i t i ( F. l ) cns t ci n, W. , l i ri cycIopaodi a i l me r i c ; ~ ~ ; ~ , VoI. X X V I I I ,
1 ) . 600. )
' l hn Ta i mi ya l ~, . a l - - - i , l i sbah, . - . .- - - 1). 9 5 ; ~ a 1 . Si y; l s nh, .- . p. 1 7 8 .
t r u t h , j u s t i c e , benevol ence and hones t y i n t l l e ~ ~ i ~ i r k c t , t h e samc
wi I 1 hc hr ought t h c r c . On tlir cant r a r y , i T c x p e n d i t u ~ c i s I O : I ~ C
on Fal scl i ood, v i c e , i n j u s t i c e , and J i s h o ~ i e s t y , tlrc same qu:11 i t i e s
wi l l b c br ought t h c r c . " I I t incurls t h e r u l e r s houl d adopt ;irltl
promot e t h e s e v a l u e s a n d hc wi l 1 get p o s i t i v e r es pons c from h i s
s u h j e c t .
The ccrnorni c i mp l i c a t ion of jlcst i c e i s t h a t t h e r u l e r s houl d
demand Srorn peopl e onl y such dut i c s and i axc- ; a s a r c j u s t , ~ I I J
t l i c peopl e ought t o pay what r vcr i s oh1 i g : ~ t o r y Cor l-Iicm w i t l r out
; i l l y e va s i on. Ile s a y s , "Mor cof l c~n i ~ i j u s t i c c i s done 11). I)otli - t h e
r u l e r s and t h e s u h j e i t s - t h e Sormcr clc~n;inds wh: ~t i s not l c g i t i -
mat e whi l e t h e l a t t e r d c n i c s evcn w l i ; ~ t is due. "' ' ] . hi s , wc, can
s a y, i s t h e r equi r cmcnt of J u s t i cc irhoot i mpos i t i on and payment
o i t a x c s . As f a r a s r l i s t r i h u t i o ~ ~ i s c onr e r ne d, tile Just pol i cy
Sor t h e r u l e r i s t o r ewar d ti1 1 t l ~ u s c who J c s c r v e and not t o clcny
any onc h i s due. Likewi s c peopl e ougllt not t o (lcrnancl w l i : ~ t tlicy
3
do not &s e r ve .
I t i s i l l s o u rcqui rcrneri t of j u s t i cc t l i i ~ t r vc r yonc s houl d have
cquri l oppol - t uni t y t o products and t o cngagc in b ~ s i n c s s , arlcl none
hc nlluwcrl t o c r e a t e monopoly ; I I I L ~ deny o t h e r s t hc r i g h t t o
pt-oducc o r t r a d e . I n t l ~ c s ane way w; ~gcs : ~n d p r i r c s ; ~ l s o c:in l)c
I'ixcd b y t he s t a t c i f s i t u a t i o n (lernands i t , ill order t o c l ~ c c h
c xpl oi t a t i on and p r o t e c t t h e i r l t c r c s t of peopl e.
. l us t . i cc a l s o r e q u i r e s t h a t a l l u s u r i o u s , i - r , ~ ~ ~ d u l c ~ ~ t irnd g;1111l>lc-
5omc t r i l nsact i on shotllil l ~ c pr ohi l > i t r d . St andar d wci gl ~t . ; and
q u a 1 i t y s houl d be gul l r anr ecd. 11)n '1';limiy;ih 1) r escr i hc s ;I 1101 i cy
l o r t l i c s t a t e which i ncl ucl cs : , I I t h c s c IncL;lstrrcs.
' ~ h l d . pp. 4 4 - 4 5 .
2-.- --
~ h i d . p. 56.
3-T
c l . , i l l i d. p. 4 2 .
Accor di ng t o l bn ' Tnimiyah, " t o r u l e wi t h j u s t i c c and t o r eni l cr
t h e i r clues t o t h o s c who have a cl ai l t t , c o n s t i t u t e t l i c e s s e n t i a l
p r i n c i p l e s o f j u s t governmcrit ( a 1 . - s i yi s ; l h . ~ .-.. ; 11 ~~ ( u d i l : ~ I ~ ) ;111d t h e
ver y pur pos e o f p u b l i c o l ' f i c c ( a 1 w i l i y j t l t ; I ! sc<l i hal t ) . ,, 1
.
Onc: of t h e r e qui r e me nt s o f j ~ r s t i c c i s t o g i v e due i ~~~[ i o r . t ; t n c r t o
eaclt a s p e c t o f l i f e . Unl es s ;I j us t . 1ial:irtcc: i s r ~ ~ n i l ~ t : ~ i n c d iri
hot11 s p i r i t u a l and ma t e r i a l wel l - l l ci ng of t h e pc opl c , t l i c s t a t e
w i l l be l a c k i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f hci ng n welfare s t n t o . J L ) n
T; t i ~~~i yi l l i al ways e r ~ ~ p l i i ~ s i z ~ ~ d t h r r o l e o r s t i l t c i n t l i cs c vwo : I S ~ ) CL . ~ S
of l i f e . tlt: s a y s , "'The r i c c c s s a ~. y Funct iov o r t h e s t a t e i s t l i c
h c t t c r ~ r ~ c n t (iLlzh) . L 0 1 ' t l l c r c l i g i o t ~ s 1 i f c 01. pcopl c . . . . and
pr o~t t ot i on o i n ~n t e r i : t l wel l - hei nk: a s :I p r c r c ( 1 u i s i t e f u r t l i c r c l i -
g i ous i oundat i on. "' wc s h a l l c o n f i n e o l l r s e ~ v ~ s , however., t o t l l c
r o l e o f s t a t c i n cconomi c I iCc o i peopl e.
Tltc s t a t e s h a l l al ways s c e h t h e c o o p e l - a t i o ~ ~ oi' i n c l i v i t l ~t ; ~l s i n t h e
- .
a l ~o v c 111el1t i oned v i t a l ccor~orni c a c t i v i t i c s , anil i t sIta11 i n s p i rth
thew t o do t h e i r h e s t Tor t h e we l l - h c i n g n i t h e i r Ccl l ow- br et l i r cn.
Ihrt ' ra imiyah a t t ; ~ c h c s g r c a t i r ~~por t ; i r i c- c t o t h e i ndi v i d u ; ~ l 1-rectlorn
i n cconorr~i c hc ha vi nur . Accorilirtg t o hi m, I ~ a s i c n l l y a1 1 t l t i ngs
a r c v a l i d and pc r mi t t c t l , ~ t n l c s s tlic1.t: i s any s pcci : t l i n s t r u c t i o n
from ~l t ar i ' r l h - . . - - about n p a r t i c u l ; ~ r o h j c c t . tic a 1 s o be1 i c v c s t h a t
r c s t r i c t i on h a s hccn imposed onl y or1 t h o s e a c t i v i t i c s wltich a r c
- -
i n j u r i o u s and hnr ni f ul . Tn h i s ~ Fat ; ~wa lic wt - i t c s , "Wc b c l i cve
- - -
t h a t A1 1 ; ~ I l has p e r mi t t e d e a r n i n g s ( o ~; t h a s i l ) ) , ..- t r n d c s ( t i j a r ~ ~ t ) . -~ ~ niicl
1. .
I . p. 16.
2-7---
c I . , I . p. 36.
..
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i n d u s t r i e s ($an: c6at ) and lie h a s p r o l i i h i t e d r r a u d and i n j u r y . ,, I
I h n ' l ' i l i n~i yoh r e c o y ~ i i z c s t h c i cl cnt i l - y o f i n d i v i d u a l a nd i t s r i g h t
i n t h c s o c i e t y a s h e s a y s , "blcn h ; ~ v c 1-111 1 r i g h t s on t h e i r p r u l i e r t y ;
-
nobody h a s a r i g h t t o t a k c i t o r p; wt o f i t away Iron1 I I ~ I I I wi t h -
o u t h i s c ons c r l t , wi t h t l ~ e c x c c p t i o n s ~ . n u s c d by n e c e s s i t y . ,, 2
The s e vi ews of' l bn ' I' ai mi yah a r c i n f ~ r l 1 c o n f o r mi t y w i t 1 1 I s l a m
wher e t h e f o c ~ l s o f a t t e n t i o n i s t l i c i n d i v i d u : ~ l who i s r c s p o n s i b l c
f o r h i s performance i n t h i s l i r e nntl a ~ . c o u n t a b i c t o Al l a h Tor t h e
e x e r c j s c 01' h i s power a nd freedom o f a c t i o n . Al ong wi t h t h e
r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y and f r eet l ol l ~ o f a c t i o n , tile i n d i v i d u a t h a s hcc.11
e n j o i n e d t o p e r f o r m some s o c i a l d u t i e s and t a k c p a r t i n s o c i ; ~ l
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n n e c c s s a r y Lor h i s own wcl f n r c a s wc l l :IS l o r o t h e r
mcmhers of s c i e t y . llc i s ; 11so f o r l i i d d c r ~ t o hi i r t the. I' rccdom ol-
o t h e r s o r i n f l i c t i . nj ur y t o t l ~c m. 111 s uc h c o n d i t i o n s s t : i t e wi l l
i nt e r vc nc ! and 1 i m i t t h e i n t l i v i d u a l ' s f rccdom.
Si i xc m;ln i s hy n a t u r e a soc. i ; i l h c i n g and i t i s h i s n a t l l r c t o
he l l ) and c o o p c r n t c wi t h e a c l ~ o t l ~ c r , ~ the s t a t e woul d ; ~ p p c n l ( . i r s t
o r a l l t o t h i s u n i q u e i n s t i n c t o f - man, ancl i mposc ; I I I I I I I I ~ ~ C oC
mor al and l e g a l r c s p o n s i I ) i l i t i e s OI I h i nl . Hc s a y s , "1:vcry p e r s o n
h a s c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s c . g. t o s u p p o r t h i ms e l f and h i s r c l a t i v c s
and h e l p t hem i n payment o f t l ~ e i r dc l i t s . 11' I I ~ d o e s n o t do s o ,
h c i s r e a l l y n wi ~ongr l oci ~. " 4 '1'1111s it i s b a s i c : ~ l l y t l i c i n d i v i d u a l ' s
d u t y t o earl 1 l i v e l i h o o d f o r l ~ i ~ r ~ s c l f :ind f o r h i s d c p ~ n ~ l c n t s and t o
a s s i s t o l . l ~ c r s . Rut mor al t c : ~ c l ~ i n g s and e t h i c i l l r e s p o r r s i b i l i t i c s
a r e n o t ; ~ l wa y s h c l p f u l . Thc o p p o s i t c lorcc..; l i h c mi s c r l i n e s s ,
s c l f i s l i n c s s and a p a t h y a r c a l s o a t wor k. l l cncc t h e s t a t e 118s t o
-..- ~ ~.~ ~,~
' 1bn Ta i mi ya h, MFS Vol . V , 11. H I .
2 .
~clern. a1 t j i s ha h, p. 38.
- . .. - - - .--
3 . -
11,ld. 1 . 8 , 110.
4i dem. MFS Vol . XXIX, p. 280.
colnc i n p i c t u r e wi t h i t s a u t l ~ o r i t y . 'I'o quot e Ihn ' l ' ai nl i yah, " I t
i s o b l i g a t o r y f o r pe opl e t o 11cl p each o t h e r i n ma t t e r o f f ood,
c l o t h , s h e l t e r e t c . The imam (Ilcacl o r t h e S t a t e ) s h o ~ i l d i n~pos c
.-
i t and r o r c c them t o do s o.
,;I
Mor eover , mar ket f o r c e s somet i111es o p c r a t c a g a i n s t pub1 i c i n t e r e s t
and ma y n o t he r ewar ded o p t i 111; 11 l y ( l c s p i t c t h e i r b e s t e f f o r t , i n
t h a t c a s e t h e s t a t e h a s t o s t e p i n t o r e c t i f y t h e s i t ut 4t i on.
Sui'h steps b y t l ~ c s t a t e rnny he regilt-ded a s h: ~i nperi ng inc1iviclu:il' s
r i g h t and f r eedom. Rut a s l hn ' l' ain~iycih s a y s , "'l'he p r i n c i p l e i s
t o s e c u r e more and marc s o c i a l bencl ' i t s ( ma . ; ~l ~ . i l l ) ; I I I ~ t o abol i s h
i n j u r y ( maf ns i d) o r mi ni mi ze i t . When a s i t u a t i o n i s 1':lced
where r c ; ~ l i z a t i o n o f one ki nd o f b e n e f i t incans t h e l o s s o l a n o t h e r
h e i ~ e f i t , t h e n t h e g r e a t e r lrcncf i t wi l l be a c q u i r e d i l l p ~ . e f e r c ~ ~ c c
t o t h e l e s s e r . And b i g g e r l o s s o r i n j u r y wi l l he avoi ded hy
t o l c r n t i n g t l l c l c s s c r O F t h c two. " 2 Thus i n d i v i d u a l 1.rccdom can
bc l i mi t e d and i r l t c r r c r c n c c by s t a t e would he ; ~l l o we d t o s c c u r c
t h e l a r g e r i n t e r c s t o f t h e p c i h l i c ' T h i s is j u s t o p p o s i t c t o t h e
i dea of - l a i s s e z . . f a i r e advoc; i t ed by Ad;~m Smi t h and o t h e r s .
Fol l owi l ~g a r e some o f t i ~ ? ecoliomic: r ui i c t i ons o f t h e s t ; ~ l . c arid
c a s e s i n which i t can i n t e r f e r e w i t h i n d i v i d u a l ' s r i g h t s [ - or t h e
s a ke of g r e e t e r s o c i a l b e n e f i t s .
A l ook i r i t r ~ pcono~ni c vi ews o l l hn l ' ai mi yah r e v e a l s t h ; ~ t t l i c s t a t e
i s o l ~ l i gcd t o s c c u r e ' e r a d i c a t i on o f p o v e r t y ' . Cont r. ary t o the,
o p i n i o n s o f t h e medi eval phi l o s o p h e r s ;ind many r e1 i gi ous t h i n k e r s ,
he clocs not p r a i s e pove r t y. I n hi . ; o p i n i o n n man s houl d he r i c h
and i r i dcpc~i J ent . Ile encour ages OI I C t o g e t r i d 01- i mpecuni os i t y
1
c f . , i b i d . -- p. 194.
2
I I a h , .~ 4 Si v s s a h - a 1 ~. ~ l i ; ~ l " i a h , ..-~ p . 63.
and t o C: ITII ue : i l t l i , h r c a u s c ;I r i uml ~cr o f oh1
d u t l i c s c a n n o t Oc prrf.ormetl wi t h o u t we a l t h .
i ~ t t ; l i n t l i c meiin.: on whi ch f ~ ~ l f i l m c n t o f anv
I t w i l l l >c t h r d ~ ~ t y o f ! : t nt c t o help p c o p l c i n improvement o f
t h c ~ i r I ' i ~i i i n c i : ~l cnnt l i t i on. S t a t i n g t h e h e a d s o f p u l ~ l i r c xpc nt i i -
t u r - r , 11c w r i t e ? , " I t i.; common consensus t h a t t h o s c who n r r 11nal1
t o r. ~r-11 s u f l i c i c n t l y wi l l ho a i d e d wi t h money t h a t s u S S i c c s t hem
no r n: l t t er i f s uc h ;I pc.rson i s i n t h c d i s g u i y c o r R t r a d i t i o n a l
hr g) : : l r , :?n armyman, t r a d e r , a r t is:iii o r he i s R Snr mcr . I <evcnuc
(IT ~ i u o r - d u c ( s a d a r p h ) . - ~ ~ . ~ ~~ i s n o t s p r c i f i c t o any onc k i n d o f t h c s c
p o p The a r t is:ln whose i n d u s t r y i s n o t nmpl c, t h c t r a d e r whose
t r a J c i s n o t adccl u; l t c, and t h c :Irmyman wliosc l a nd- gr a nt .
i s [l ot s u r l i c i cr i t . . . . , ; 11 1 l ~ a v c :I r i g h t t o t h a t r c ve nl l c . "
We may r i g h t l y i n f e r from t h c a bove statement t h a t t h e s t a t e ' s
r c s p o n s i h i l i t y d o c s not comr t o ;In end by j u s t p r n v i t l i n g t h e
s u h s i s l a n c c l c v c l o f i ncomc o r minimum s t a n d a r d o f 1 i v i n g . I t h a s
t o s t r i v e t o p r o v i d e Tor i t s p c o p l c n good s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g and
h e l p them t o bcc-o~nc i nOc pc ndr nt . P r o h i b i t i on o f i n t e r e s t , s y s t e m
- -
o f :r.;~k7~li, ~ ..~ i n s t i t u t i o n o f k n f f : ~ t n t ... ( f i n n n c i : ~ l p e n a l l y on c e r t a i n
o l S c n c c s ) , v o l u n t a r y c i p c n d i t u r c ($11 .. $nda15t ~~~ a1 n s I i l n h ) , g r a n t s
( tilx?) Iiy t h r g o v r r n mc n t , o n r ' s o h l i g a t i o n t o s pend on ki ns men
: ~ n d ~ - c , l : ~ t i v c s , si):lits o f t h c n e i g h h o ~ ~ r , c n c o ~ ~ r a ~ e m e n t f o r wor k
; I I I C ~ 1111si ncss : I T I ~ t.ondcmnal i on o f i d l e n e s s , a l l s uc h i ncas l l r es a r e
[ I I r c c t c d tow;lrcls t h c r cmovnl o r p o v e r t y .
Accor J i r i g t o I l >n ' l ' ni mi ynh "'l'hc h c s t d c c d s o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a r e
tcl tl i f f c r c n c i a t c hc1wc.cn r l e s c r vi ng and n o n d e s e r v i ~ i g and t o do
j u>t ic-c i n i l i s t r . i l >ut i on o f mrnnq o f l i v c l i hoorl and p u l ~ l i c 0 1 S i c e s .
, , 3
1 1 1 >~~ Ta l mi ya h, MI 3 Vol . X X T X , 11. 27!$.
2
I t I l ~ l . Vol . YXV111, 11. 5 7 0 .
To r educe t h e gap hct wccn r i c h and poor and t o move t owar ds j u s t
and e q u i t a b l e distribution o r we a l t h , ' i t ; %l l c t l ut j o f t h e r u l e r t o
c o l l e c t money Iron1 wher e i t i s due ; )l i d p ~ ~ t i t where i t i s j u s t
and pr ope r t o do s o and ne ve r t o dcl l r i vc t h c d e s e r v i n g . - 1
The r c ~r ~o v n l o f p o v e r t y i nvol ve s n o t ~ n l y n c g : ~t i v c inearls 01- onl y
equitable d i s t r i h u t i on o f e x i s t in,: we; ~l t h ;~ncl i ncome, i t : 11so
imp1 i c s ; I I I i n c r e a s e i n s o c i a l we a l t h. llin ' l ' ; ~i n ~i y ; ~h does not
pay duc a t t e n t i o n on t h i s a s p c c t o f t l ~ c p r o l ~ l e ~ n . ' l ' l ~c o n l y t h i n g
wl ~i c h he s a ys i s t h a t t h e s t a t c s l ~ o ~ ~ l d ~. o ~n p c l producers ; ~ n d
wor ker s t o pr odur c t h e s e goocls i 1- t h c y a r e n o t a v a i l ; ~ l ~ l c s u r f i -
c i e n t l y and t h e pe opl e need them. ,, 2
Thc state. has powcr t o cont ro 1 t l i c s j i r i ~. c s o r l i x t h e w;lgcs i n
o r d c r t o pr oc ur e j u s t i c e and wcl l ' : ~r e o f t h e pe opl e . I n 11orln;l1
c o n d i t i o n s , l l ~ n ' l' aimiyah c1oc.s not r avour p r i c e c o n t r o l , bccal t se
pe opl e a r e f - r ec t o s e l l t l ~ c i r goods ; ~ t wliatcvcr. r a t e t h c y l i k e ;
and t o co~npcl them t o s c l 1 t h e i r c:oods a t ;I p a r t i c u l ; ~ r r ; ~ t c w i 11
he i r ~ j r r s t i c c t o them.' Morc.ovcSr, pr i r c s f i x a t i o n may 11;lve i t s
at l vcr s e c1Tl'ect. ' Tr ader s m;iy h i d e n~er cl i an~l i s c o r i111stain rrom
c n t e r i ~ i g t h c mar ket r a t h e r ~ I I ; I I I S C I I a t a l ower p r i c ~ . l i 1 1 1 ~ h
ma r h c t i ~ ~ g a n d low g r a d i n g o r t h c ti;~tnc goods i s : + I s o poss i h l e .
. .
1 1 s w i l l f u r t h e r c l c t e r i o r ; ~ t c t h e s i t u a t i o n . !%lit w11cr1 t l ~ e
s c l l c r s c r e a t e i mp c r ' f e c t i o ~ ~ i n t h e t n: ~r het : ~nd cons umc~r s ' i n t c r ~ ~ s t
111;ly 11ot 1)c s; rfcguardecl wi t l ~ o u t r c s o r t ing t o p r i c e i i x a t i o n , r l ~ c
5
s t a t e wi l l do i t . P r i c e f i x a t i o n wi l l n o t bc a r l ~ i t r a r y . I t wi l l
- - . ~ ....
. -
~~~~ ~ ~ ~ . .~ - -
I 1l)n Ta i ~n j y n h , a1 Si ya s a h ; ) I s t ~a r ! T; r ~~, ..-- p. 4:;.
2 .
c l . , idem. ; i 1 I l i shah 2 I I S I I . .. . 1 . 30, 34.
3 .
c l . , i h i d . 1). 2 5 .
-~
4
L - . , i i p.
. . ~- -
41.
S
c r . , .- - i hi d. - -. . pp. 2 4 . 2 6 .
I)c dcci dod t hr ough inutua 1 c o n s ~ ~ l t a t io11 ncp,ot i a t i o r i a r ~d d i s c ~ ~ s s ion
I
wi t h t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f pr ocl uccl . ~ a l ~ d coristrrllcrs. I ' r i c c s
dct cr mi ncd i n t h i s way wi l l he rno1.c. occcl ~t ; l L>l c f o r nl I , ; ~ n d i t s
2
har mf ul e f f e c t s w i l l be nvoi dcd. ( I . 1 1 1) .
A~ I. .11 . , I > . . wage f i x a t i o n i s t - on<- c. r ~i cd, i t s houl d be not cd t h a t i t
i s one 01- t h r s t a t e ' s d u t i e s t o solve, i 11t l 11st r i ; l l d i s p r ~ t c s .
Cc n e r a l l y , most o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l d i s p ~ ~ t c s r cl ; r l . c t o w;~}:cs. I l , n
l ' a i mi y a l ~ ' ~ t r e a t me n t o f wngcs i s t h c same a s h i s t r e a t me n t of
t h e p r i c e o r o t h e r goods. ] : or wagc Fi x a t i o n l ~ c uses t l i c t cr m
3
' p r i c i n g 01' l a b o u r ' t a r ~ f . i . I 1 1 i 1 ~ ... I . ; I I ) o u ~ i s r cg; ~r cI ed ; I S
a s e r v i c e c a r r y i n g a p r i c e i l l t l ~ e 1n;lr.kc.t.
u , ~ . . . 5 1 c ~ l l y .. wage d e t c r ~ n i n a t i on w i l l be l e f t t o t l i c f r v c \ , l a y of
t h e mar ket Cor ces i . e . s ~ ~ p p l y and ~I cmand, and r n~~t l l a l u n ~l c r s t a ~i t l i n g
Ilowever, when pe opl e a r c i n ncccl of cc5rt.a i n s c r vi c - c s : ~ n d goods .
b u t t h e owners of t h e s e goods and s c r v i i . c s rcl ' usc t o o l - t c r ~ I I C I I I
o r t he y demand a h i g h e r wage t h ; ~ n t l ~ c j u s t onc, wagcs wi l l be
4
Fixed h y t h e s t a t e . 'I'hus monops o~~y i s not n d c s i r a l r l c concli t i on.
Wage i - i x a t i o n i s needed t o solvt: i n d u s t r i a l i l i s l , ut os ; ~ n d t o
s nKegu; ~r d t l l e i n t c r ' e s t s O F 1 1 0 t h t l l e c ml ~l o y c r s xnd t h e cmpl oyc- es.
I l e s ~ r i l ~ i n g t h e pr upos e s of wage f i x ; l t i o ~ ~ he s a y s , "So t l , ; ~ t t l ~ c
-
empl oyer mi ght not r cducc t l ~ e ~ r wagcs, n o r t h e 1; i bour er s 'auld
demand more t l ~ a n t h e i r due wagcs.
, , S
I t i s a 1 :;o s t a t e ' s d11ty t o rcmovc uncn~l ~l oymer i t a r ~d pr ov i t l cx j obs
Sor t h o s e who a r e un; ~l , l e t o 110 t.11eir own b u s i n e s s o r [' ;I i l t o g e t
~ .. ~ ~~. . ~ - ~
1 .
c l . , i h i d . p. 41.
.. . ~.
2
c f . , -- i d . 11. 41.
3 -
c l . , i b i d . a 1 l l . i s l ~ ~ l i
. . P- 34.
4 .
l i d . p 30.
= J . ,
5 .
c l . , i h i d . p. 34.
! ohs. ' l ' l ~i s responsibility hccornrs more p r r s s i n g i n n s o c i e t y
whcr c m; l j oi - i t y o r p o p u l n t i on de pc nds on wage e a r n i n g . I bn
' l ' ni mi yah h a s n o t sl i cd 1 i gl i t nn t h i s i s s ~ ~ c p r o h n h l y dric t o t h e
Tact t h: l t t h e pr oI >l r ~n o r r ~nc ~npl oymc nt i s ma i n l y a r c s u l t o f
i nuds t r i ; i l r c v o l u t i o n , and i t h;id n o t nssumctl s i g n i r i c n n t di men-
s i o n s i n t h e a g c ol ' I hn ' I ' ni mi y; ~h. Ne v e r t h c l c s s , w r c a n i n l c r
t ha t . : l r i - or di ng t o hi m t h c s t n t c mus t ns s r mc t . hi s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
;is hc c o n s i t l c r s i t an ol ' r c nc c Tor a p r o d u c c r o r s e l l e r t o c r e a t e
an a r t i f i c i a l ~nonopol y ; ~ n d pr cvcr l t o t h e r s f r om e n t e r i n g t h e
ma r ke t . On t l i c onc hand hc c l i a r ge s h i g h p r i c e s a n 3 on t h e o t h e r
l ~anl l hc J c n i c s o t l ~ c r s t o do l >i i s i nc s s .
1
I n t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e
s t a t r s t i : ~l l i n t c r v c n e t c I-cniove t h c o h s t : ~ c l e i n thr way o r o t h e r s .
3. MONI:,'I'AIIY POI, I (:Y
The ;4hnve mc nt i onc d mc7nsurcs a r e ai med a t ma i n t n i n i r ~ g j u s t i c e
:*nil cconorni c .;t;il>i l i t ) : . H i l t onc o f t h e ~ r c n t c s t d n n e c r s t o
c c or ~or ~r i c s t ; i l ) i l i t y i s c~nl i cnl t l i y mone t a r y p o l i c y . I t i s s t a t e ' s
r c s p o n s i h i l i l y t o c o n t r o l t h c e x p a n s i o n o r c u r r e n c y and t o put a
cl i r ck on e r o s i o n o r t h c v a l u e ol ' money, t h a t c a u s e s di st . i r r 1~nnc. c
i n t l ~ c economy. I n t hi s c o n n c c t i on l bn Tui mi yah q u o t c s i h c
s ayi n) : o r t:he I ' r ophr l who warned n g ; l i u s t c o r r r r p t i n e t l i c c u r r e n c y
7
ol' hlt~slims w i t - l i o~r t a ny [ : r o u ~ ~ d . " ' l' hi s pr oh i h i t i o n i n ~ - l ~ i d n s i n d i -
vi r l l l ; ~l a c t i on ; I ? w r l 1 as t l i c a c t i o n o r t h e s t a t e . 'Jhe s l : ~ t c mus t
; i voi rl c l e r i c i t i ' i n; i nci ng :ind l i n r c s t r i c t c r l mone t a r y c xpnns i on a s
nluc-11 a s p o s s i h l c , h e c n n s c i t r c s u l t s i n t o i n r l a t i on and c r c n t e s
t l i s t r - ms t i n I t r r e n c ' l ' l ~r f ' ol l owi ng p r c s r r i p t i o n o f l h n
'Ta i n ~i y x h c xpr c s ws t he same p o i n t i n n t c x t a l r r n d y quoted nhove.
' c T . , i1,id. - - pp. LC- 7 6 .
2 .
~ d c n ~ . MI::; V o 1 . X X I X , p. 0 6 9 .
Coi ns o t h e r t hen gol d and s i l v c r a l s o liccomc pr i c c - m; ~l \ c r s ;inel
rncasures of ~: hc v a l u c of pccl pl e' s goods. ' l ' l ~c r c f o r e , t h e a ~ ~ t l ~ o r i t y
s houl d i s s u c c o i n s of t h e j u s t va l ue o f t h e t r ; i nsai ' r i ons wi t hout
any i r r j u s t i c c t o pcopl c. A r u s 1 1 1 i t s t 1 1 1 s i n
money, s uch 3 s t o
making p r o f i t s by
I n t h i s way he r e
t h c cconomi c s t a h
l e c t s on t l ~c% i r n] x~r t : l ncc o f monct ; l ry ] >I , l i cy f o r
l i l y of t l ~ c . ; t : rt c. i \ i c. or di ng t o 11i 111 I I I O I I C ~ i s
4 . IICONOMIC PLANNI NG
t i cnno~ni c dcvcl opmcnt and s c l f - r c l i;111ce i s ; I pr - r - r c qui s i t c 1-or ; I
s t ; ~ t ) l e s t ; l t c . An unt l cvcl ol ~r d ;1115 dt . ( i ~n<I cr r t s t a t e i s L I I ~ c;15y pr e y
t o t h c machination of' i o r c i g n pawcrs :rnd C X ~ O S C L I t o i i rt ~rr1: 11
u n r c s t ; ~ n d a g i t a t i o n s . 'I'll~rs no g o v i * r n ~ ~ ~ e ~ r t c.ari n e g l e c t tlrc nr.c<l
uC ovcr a 1 1 cconornic d e v e l o p ~ ~ ~ c ~ n t . One o f t h e mobt cl ' l ' cct i vc
i l ovi ccs o f devc!lopmcrrt i s t h c t c ~c l ~r r qi c ~c o f pl ; ~n~i i n! : . I , i kc illall).
ot l r cr c o ~ ~ c c p t s , pl a nni ng i s a l s o :I new i J c a i n economi c his to^.?.
Na t u r a l l y t l l r r e is no d i r e c t r e l l r c l ~ O I I on t h e issue o f economi c
I a n I i n I w t i s I I n I ' i ~ n i y r h . H u t t l r cr c arc, c r r t a i n
ideas whosc n a t u r x l c o r o l l a r y i.; a d o p t i o n o f s uch a t c c hni quC.
'l'lrc most i mp o i t a ~r t i d c ; ~ i n t h i s c o n ~ ~ v c t i o n i s h i s t rt . at mcl i t of
industries s uch a s a g r i c u l t u r c l , we;iving c t c . a s ' s o c i : ~ l l y oh1 i ga -
t o r y func.t i o r ~ s . 1 f v o l u n t ; ~ r y a c t i on fa i 1 s t o s uppl y t 3 ~ ~ u ~ r j : l l s o o ~ l s
t o rilc.et l ~c' ol i l c' s necd t h e st ; i t c? i s [ l u t y I,ound t o ;~r'r;rnk:c f o r
acl cqr ~at e sup111 i c s . 'l'lris r cqui r e s t 1 1 ; l t tlrc s t a t c kcVll ; r r r cyc o n
t l l e s t a t c o f t h e ecorromy a n d 11c i n r ~, a d i r ~c . s s t o ;~rrarl!:r~ f o r
i n c r e a s i n g pr oduc t i on i n t h e d c s i rcrl d i r e c t i ons .
1
Ibn TLI im i yah does n o t t l i s t i n ~ u is11 l ~ct wccn ~ l i f i e r e n t goods and
s e r v i c e s . I t i s a ge ne r a l st at ci r l ent wl ~i ch i nc l udc s ; I I 1 h i n d s
oT i n d u s t r i e s and s e r v i c e s . iht t hci - c a r c c c r t a i ~ ~ goods ( s o c i
goods / pul i l i c goods) which i11.c ncver s r ~[ i pl i cd b y i ndi v i 3ua I s . 1
a1e:lns t l l ~ . i r l ~ o v i ~ i o n w i I I he ; I [iCrm;11irnt r c s p o ~ ~ s i b i I i t y or t l l c
s t a t c . In t h e words o f M~ ~ s g r a v c , " Soc i a l wiints c ; ~ n ~ n c ~ t be s a t i
l i e d t hr ough t h e niechan i sm o f mar kct I i ccausc t h e i r erijoy~ricnt
cannot he made s u l ) j e c t t o p r icc: p ; ~y e e n t . . . . (:ens i d c r , i'or
instance, s uch i t ci ns a s f l o o d cc111t r ol pr oj c. ct s , . . . . . c x p r n ~ i i t
f o r t l i c j u d i c i a r y s ys t e m, . . . . or. i i r o t c c t i o n a g ; i i ~i s t i-or.c.iji~~
ug1:rc'ss i on. . . . . ( i l cr e) l h c govcrnmcnt n~us t st (, [] i n , ;end coml~u 1s i op
i s c a l l c d I' or."' 11)n Tai r ni yuh, 1 i kc any o t h e r Ts1;111iic t h i n k e r ,
would count them alllong p r ' i ~ ~ ~ ; i r y d u t i e s o l tlrc s t ; t t c . As ; l l r eady
not e d, dcl - cncc of' t h e c o u n t r y and pi . uvi ( l i ng j u s t i c e t o t l i c wronged
an? expl i c i t l y regarcl ed a s s t a t r c l r ~ t ic.; by 1b1r ' l ' a i ~ ~ ~ i y ; ~ h .
l i c o~~o~l r i c o c t i v i t i e s and dcvc~lr~pmc. nt
i n r r : ~ s t r u c t u r ' c , s uch ; I S t r a r i s l ~ o r t a t
I i s i ~ n d r o a d s , can111 s ;i11(1 l i nr t s
i n r r n s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v e s pr oj oc t s wi
a ver y l ong pay of T p e r i o d , p ~ . i v ; ~ t e
'l'hc s t a t c wi l l a l s o arrange 1-or e d u c ; ~ t i o n and t r a i n i n g ol. i t s
pt ' opl e SI, 3 s t c ) p r e p a r e them t o f u l f i l t h e needs o f s o c i e t y . Ihn
, .
l a i ~ n i y ; ~ h s a y s , "Al t hough i t i s r i g h t t o cnrploy o r ;111poi11t ; ) t i
i ncompct cnt pe r s on f o r a p u l ~ l i c o f f i c e i i 11c i s 1l1c L~est oC ; I L L
. - - ~
a v a i l a h l e l e r s o r l s , b u t i t i s rrcc-c:;sary t o 1n;lhc c f l u r t 1-or tlre
~.~ .. . . - ... .. . .~ . . - --. -.
I i I I r r t i on o f I I I . SO t l r at t11c.y ; I C( I I I i re' t11c
e s s e r t l i a l q u a l i l ~ i c a t i o n s nct:(led f o r t h e pc:rforrnarlce o f s t a t c :111t1
o t h c r ; ~ f l ' ; ~ i r s . . . . . 'l'lic principle i s t h ; ~ r j r r c ) v i s i o ~ ~ o f a1 I t l ~ o s c
nleaus s hi l l 1 be compul sor y 011 whicli f u l l ' i l ~n c r r t o f any obi i ga t i c ~t i
dcpc~i t l s . I i i t i s g r c I i t is t l i c d u t y of s t ; l t r t o
work f o r p e o p l e ' s s p i r i t u a 1 ;111d 111;1tcr i a l we l f a r e , a s T 1 ) t i ' I' airi~iyali
~n; l i nt , ai ns i t , t h e n i t w i l 1 hc 0111 i g a t o r y I' or t h e s t a t c t o a ~ l o p t
a1 1 progr.anunes ;111d p l a n s irccsdc8J ill t h i s coriticct i on.
Frolo t l ~ c p r c c e z d i ~ i g i l i s c ~ l s ~ ~ O I I i t s11ould I I C c I c i ~i . t11;rt 11111
' l ' : ~i mi yr ~l i ' s i n t e n t i o n i s not t o dc,ny t h e : ~ d v ; ~ n t ; ~ g e oF p r i v a t e
e n t e r p r i s e and c l i t ~ ~ i n n t i o r i ( i f i narhct mccll:lriis~n. Al s o Ilc? docs not
s upput ' t ; ~ u t h o r i t ; ~ r i a i l i ~n p o s i t i o r i ol' t l ~ c t l u c i s i o r o r t h c s t a t c on
:I I 1 k i11~l.s nf r e s o u r c e a1 l o c : ~ t i o n , goods p r o d u ~ - t ion ; ~ n d cl i s t r i -
but i on ; I I I ~ a c e n t r a l i z e d c ont r ol of ?cunolny. Wli;lr Ilc illcans i s
t11at t h e l ~ ~ n r h c t r o r c e s may riot ;11ways work t o f u l i i 1 a 11 tlrc.
r cqui ~ C I I I C I I ~ S o f society a ~r d m;iy riot ~ r e c c s s : ~ r i l y l c; ~t L t o o p t ~ I I I L I I I I
us e of ' r c*s our ccs , t l ~ e r e f o r e t h e state s l ~ o u l d pl a y ; I I I ac' t ivc ; I I I C I
s o n c i n c ~ s r o l e i n det cr r ni nat i on of p r i o r i t k e s ; I I I J ~ I I ; I I I I I C . ~ i np t h e
s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s i n a ~ c o r d ; ~ t i c e ~ w i t l l t l r cse p r i o r i t i c s , r s p c c i ; i l l y
wlicrc ~ n ; ~ r k c t rnech; rni ~m Tai 1s t o (lo s o . O f course, t l i c3 dcc i s i o n
of pr oduc t i on X I I ~ p r i o r i t y w i 1 1 he made in c o n s u 1 t ; ~ t ion wi t h t h o
sourid t hi r i kc r s and e x p e r t s o r the. economy a s " i t i s ;I I I ~ L I S ~ i - ur
,'
t h e hcaJ of t h e s t a t e . " - Th i s c o n s u l t a t i on w i l l 11c t h c I I ; I S C 1Kor
economi c pl a nni ng. A pl a n ~ ~ r c l ~ ; ~ r c . c l tlirouglr c. o~i sul t ; l l i on w i 1 l hc
more i n harmony w i t h t he ncct l s ~ I I I < I ~ . ~ ' ( l ~ ~ i r ( ' me r i t s O F I l l c s o c i e t y
and w i l l g e t c o o p e r a t i o n from a l l 11coplc o f t l i c s t a t c .
Our d i s c u s s i on a b o u t t h e r o l c oS s t a t e i n c c o n o ~n i c l il-c. 01-
people w i l l l ~ e i n c o mp l e t e i f wc s k i p t h e i n s t i t u t i o n t l ~ r o u g h
whi ch a i a r g c r ~ u ~ n b e r o r c c o n u n ~i c ; ~ c t i v i t i c s we r e s u1~~: 1. vi s c t i : ~ n d
c o u t r o l I c d , a nd i n t c r f c r r n c r w ~ s I I I ; I < I ~ whcncvcr n c c r s s a r y , name1 y
t.he i r ~ s c i t u t i o n ol ' I l i s b a l ~ . I t s j i ~ r . i s J i c t i c u i . was n o t 1 i mi t c d t o
.L
econor l ~i c s p h c r e o n l y ; mor al ;111cl slli r i t u n 1 up1 i l ' t a n ~ l r h c c k on
s o c i i r l a nd c i v i l wor ks W C ~ C ;11:;o t l l ~ ~ U I I C ~ i o n s 01' l ) i s l ~i ~l i . 111
- . - -. - -
vi ew oI ' i t s i mpor-t ari t r o l c i n economi c f i e l d , i t l ~ a s bcc.olnc
s1111j ect o r a l mo s t e v e r y t l ~ i l l her of I s l an] on c c o n o r ~ ~ i ~ p ~ . o l ~ l cn~s.
I hn 'I'n i mi yal i lras d e v o t e d a 1.111 1 t rc: rt i s c o n t h i s i n s t : i t u t i on.
I I ~ ~ I I : I I I i s d Cf i n c d hy I l i n ' I ' : ~. i ~l ~i ya h :is t l ~ c * cant r ol on i nd i vi cl uxl s
L- -.
s o :IS t o ol i s c r ve wl l at i s c o~~~r nor i l y known a s good ( a 1 - . . 111;fr;C) -.--- ; I I I ~
t o g i v c up wl ~at . i s co~nrnonl y known a s e v i l ( a 1 munk; l r ) . 'l'h i s
- -- .- - - .
c o ~ l t r o l i s c o r ~ c e r l ~ e i l wi t h w11; l t cloc,s n o t Fa1 l ~ ~ r ~ ~ l c r t h e a u t l i o r i -
t i c s of g o v e r n o r s , j u J g e s , o r o t l ~ c r s p c c i f i e d p u l ~ l i c o f f i c e r s
. . . . hl5wardT d c r i r l e s hi s11al1 .~ ; i s e n j o i l l irig what i s guod whcu
4.
o i l t i d o i n g i t and for11 i d' l ng ~ l l : + t is bad w11c.11 i t s p r a c t i c e
2
hcc. or nt ~s c.onlmon. Ac c o r d i n g t o a contemporary w r i t c r MLI ! I ; I I I I I I I ; I ~ a1
M ~ l i ~ r : k , 1 i s i~ c o n t r o l F U I I C ~ i on o f t l ~ c f i o v c ~. n ~n e r ~t t h r o u g l ~
l i c r s ons c nga ge d e s p c c i ; t l l y i n t l ~ c I-ic ld o f r nor ; ~l s , 1- el i x i o n ,
cconurny; and g e n e r a l l y i n t l i c i r s o c i ; ~ l 1 i v c s t o a c l ~ i o v r justice
and rig111 c o u s n e s s a c c o r d i n g l o t l l c [ ~ r i n c i p l c s o f 1 2 i l : l m :11111
"
conirnonly known good c us t oms o r t h c time :tnd c. r~vi r. orl ~l l or, t . "" Nico1:i
-
Zi adeh d e f i n e s b i s l ~ a h a s t h e o f f i c e t o c o n t r o l mar-ket and conrrilon
- -
mor al s ( a da h) .
1
'I'hc o f f i c e r i nc ha r ge of 11isl1;rh was C; I 1 let1 ; I S ~nul r t as i h. And s i ncc
.
one of t h e f unc- t i ons oC n ~ u l ~ t a s i l ) was t o l ook al ' Lcr t h e m; ~r hc t
.-A . .
a c t i v i t i c s and c o n t r o l tlrcm, i t i s s ~ ~ p p n s ~ d t h a t hi i l ~ ; ~ l ~ owc,s i t s
1 ~ - 2 --- --
o r i g i ~ ~ t o Cr eecc where such a < I ~ ~ ~ I H I . ~ I I I C I I ~ c x i s t ~ ~ l w i t h i t s I ~ ; I I I I C ; I S
agoranolnos whi ch means n ~n r h c t of ' ( - i c c r . I3ut t h c r c a r c not s u f f i -
.~ . . - . .-
r i c nt 1) r oof s r e ga r di ng mul j t as i l i ' s ~~ ---. ~ 1 i n k w i t h l l cl l e r l i s t i c - ; i ~nl . ; i nonl os.
l i xi st cr r ce of two s i mi l n r o f l - i c ~ . s i n two c l i Ff cr cnt r o u n t r i c s docs
not nwan t h a t one i s takcrr frovr ot l i e r , c s p c c i a l l y when t h c r c a r c
no p r o o f s t o t h i s c f l ' c c t . ' f h c c: i r l y wr i t i 3r . s on ---- l r i sl ~al r a s i r i l > c i t s
o r i g i ~ r t o t h e v e r s e s of t h e Qur511 ; 111d ti) t h e a c t o f t h e I ' r o j ~ h ~ t
"1.ct t h e r e a r i s e out of you a I ) ; ~ n d of l ~e ol l l c i r r v i t i ~ ~ g t o ;111
t h a t i s good, e n j o i n i n g tlrc r i gl i t conduct and Vor l >i ~l di ng w l i ; ~ t
I
i s wrong. Such a r e t hey who ; [ r e s u c c e s s f i ~ l . " -
of g r a i n ; 11e i n s e r t e d h i s li:111d i l l t o i t and l nund i t t o h c wct .
Ile :ashod t h e s e l l e r about i t , wl ~o t o l d t l r at i t I t w t . At
t h i s t he I'roplrct s ; l i d, "Why d i d yo11 not p ~ ~ t t i l e wct g r a i n on t o p
1. .
A 1 1,lislinh w n ' l k l ~ ~ l ~ t ; ~ s i O I - i ' l LSI ZTI I , ( L I v i r ~ ~ t , 1 ' N , _ .
~ ~~ .~ .
Ca t l ~o l i c P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 3 2 .
s o t h a t p e o p l e mi g h t s e e i t ? l ' l l os e who c h e a t a r e n o t among my
people' ! T h i s i n c i d e n c e i s LI c l e a r p r o o f t h a t t h e l >i sl , ; ~l ~ g o e s
hack t o t h e Pr o p h e t h i ms c l f . ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ o f f i c e o f l ~ i s b a t i was c a r r i e d by
. - - . -. . . .
t h e f o u r g u i d e d c a l i p h s who wc r r a l s o away from t h e (Greek c o n t a c t .
'I'hus t h c r e i s n o r e a s o n t o t ~ c l i e v o t h a t h i s l ) : ~l i was ; ~ d o p t e d From
2.. . -. -- -
I l e l l e n i s t i c agor anor nos .
'The i n s t i t u t i o n o f - h i s h a h -- -- -- .. continued t o r x i s t t l i r o u g h o u t t hc.
g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h c Musl i m wo r l d u n t i l t h ? 1) c gi nni ng O F tile
t we n t i e t h c e n t u r y . Du r i n g t h c bl;~mlllk p c r i o d , t h i s ol i ' i c c ~ s s u t ~ t e d
g r e a t i mp o r t a n c c . T h i s i s c v i d e n
b i s b a h in t h a t p e r i o d . I n I:l;ypt,
-. - . .. - -
r e g i me o f Mul~ammatl % I T (1805-I84!)
t i l l t h e a d v e n t o f t h i s c e n t u r y .
2
c o n t a c t wi t h Musl i m wo r l d t h r o u g h
3
oS - 1)i shal l - - - whi c h i s c l e a r f r om t h c wor d ' Mu t h c s s c p '
Al t h o u g h t h e s y s t e m o f h i s h a h e x i s t e d s i n l - c the. tilllcs o f t l l c
I J r o p h c t , h u t t h e t e r m hi sh; rIr w; ~s us e d i n l a t e r a g e s and t h e
wr i t i n g s o n t h e subject a p p e a r e d i n much later pc. i od. The
wor ks o n h i s h a h --. c a n h e d i v i d e d i n t o t wo c a t e g o r i e s . I : i r s t k i n d
o f wor ks d e a l s t h e syst em i n :I g e n e r a l way wi t h t h e c o n t e n t of-
t h e v i r t u c s o f mu t ~ t a s i l l , t l ~ c 0111 i g a t i o n s a r i s i n g From i t and t h e
~ - - - - - .-
r e l i g i o u s and j u r i d i c a l a s p e c t of ' t h i s o f f i c e . Thc. s econd t y l ~ c
o f wor ks d i s c u s s t h e p r a c t ic.ril and t c c h n i ~ a l d e t a i l s o f t h e
s u p c ~r . v i s i o n whi ch a muI ] t as i h -- . l nust e x c r c i s e ; and s inc.e t l ~ i s
1 . .
l h l d . p. 10.
G
Zi a d e h , N . , o p . c i t . p. 4 1
-
s ~ l p e r v i s i o n was a p p l i e d p r i n c i p a l l y t o t h e v a r i o ~ l s c r a f t s and
t r a d e s , t h e books i n t h i s c : l t c gor y a r e p r a c t i c a l g u i d e t o t h e
a h i n i s t r : l t i vc c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n s , a nd nln i r r t c na nc c o f
t h e s t a n d a r d o f t h e p r o d u c t s .
-
111 t l l c l i r s t c a t e g o r y , w r i t e r s l i h c ;11 M; l w: ~rdi , Al ) G Y ; I ' I ~ , ; I \
Ch;1z5I 7 , I K l ~ a l n I I s ~ n d r e i n I I I ~ C . ' 1. 11~ s e c ond
c a t c g o r y i n c l u d ? s a u t h o r s l i k c ;i I S I : 1 1 r I 1 1 J w w a l ~ , l l i n
Uass5n1, I bn t l ad?, Muhammad :,I Sac(!; c t c .
l h n ' Ta i mi ya h' s book ' : >I 1lisl):lh F i ' l s 1 1 r 1 comes u n d e r t h e f i r s t
-L .- ~- .
c a t e g o r y . 1 ' 1 o 1 . l i t i s I b r i e f hoc ~k, y e t i t h a s i t s own L- ha r a c -
t c r i s t i c s d i s t i n c t f r om o t l ~ c r wor ks 011 t h e s 111) j ect . I t i s u n i q u e
i n i t s s t y l e . Ile h a s r e l a t e d t l l e i r ~ s t i t u t i o r ~ o f A- . 11isb:ll1 t o t h c
e s t a h l i s h n l e n t o f s t a t e . Ilc d e a l s wi t 11 t h e t l ~ e o r c t i c a l ; t s p e c t s
and pa ys a t t e n t i o n s t o t h o s e pr obl cn~. ; t h a t a r c o f t h c b Su n d n ~n c n t ; ~l
n a t u r e . Ile d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e t h e o p i n i o n o f o111y one s c h o o l oS
- 1Hb -
-
t h o u g h t I >ut g i v e s o p i n i o n s o f d ~ I ' f e r c n t s c h o o l s a n d var i o u s
s c hol : i r s u s wc l l ; a n d wl i a t c vc r s t : ~n c l h e a d o p t s , lie g i v e s r a t i ori ; l l
r e a s o n s and q u o t c s froi n t h c 0l 115r l a n d t h e Sunnal i . 'l'lie most
i mp o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n oC h i s book i s t h i i t lie Iias p a i d much u t t e r i -
t i o n t o wa r d s t h e e c o n o ~ n i c ; 1s pect o f t h e l , I i s b; ~h - irist i t i l t i o n . Ilc
h a s t o u c l ~ c d a nuni her o f cconomi c pr ohl c ms i n h i s book, wl ~ i c h a r c
i mp o r t a n t e v e n t o d a y . Ilc h a s ~ l i s c - u s s c d t h e c x t c n t t o whi c h a
gover nm?nt c a n i n t e r f e r e i n p r i v ; ~ t c enterprise., a n d how I a r ;l
s t a t e c a n l i m i t t h e r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . Ilc Ii as p o i n t e d o u t
many economi c c o n c e p t s , e . g . t h e law oS drm:~rid and s u p p l y , 11r' i cc
c o n t r o l , wagc f i x a t i o n , col apet i t i o n , monopol y, inlonol:so11) e t c . ,
t l i ougl i wi t h o u t u s i n g t h e moder n t c ~. i n i r i o l o g y .
The i ~ ~ u h t : ~ s i h had t o b e a man hriowri f o r h i s i nor al i n l e j i r i t y and
f o r h i s c ompe t e nc e i n ma t t e r s c o l ~ ~ . c r n i n g t l ~ c l aw a n d ma r k c t and
i n d u s t r i a l a f f a i r s .
1
'l'hr s t a t e us e d t o c x c r c i s c ;I c o l i ~p r e h r n s i vc s o c i o-ccono111 i c c o n t r o l
t h r o u g h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f l!ist):~li -. on t r n d c p r a c t i c e s and o t h e r
cconomi c a c t i v i t i c s , t h e ~ o s t i m p o r t a ~ ~ t be i n g s u p c r v i s i on nC
i ~ ~ d u s t r y , p r o f e s s i o n ; ~ l s e r v i c e s , s t ; l n J a r d i z a t i o n o f p r o d u c t s ;
c h c c k o ~ i h o a r d i n g , mi ddl cmi ~ns l i i l , ; ~ n d u s u r i o u s pr : i ct i c e s . llc w ; ~ s
a l s o a s s i g n e d t o l o o k a f t e r p e o p l e ' s s o c i a l b c h a v i o ~ ~ r , r e l i g i o u s
p c r f o ~ m; ~ r i c c and mun i c i p n l wor ks . Fo l l o wi n g i s a brief d c s c r i p -
t i o n o f h i s economi c r o l c :
Su p p l y ;111d I ' r ovi s i on oC Nc c e s s i t i c s . The MuI. ~tas i 11 Iiad t o ('x:lrnine
- ~ -. ~~ ... ~ ~ ~
~-~
t l ~ e ava i l a h i l i t y o f n e c e s s a r y goods and s c r v i c e s . Fo r c . x ; i ~ ~ ~ p l r ,
hc s h o u l d e n s u r e t h e c o n t i ~ i n ~ o u s s u p p l y O F l ) r e ; ~d and o t h e r f oo&
L
s t u f f s . Likewise i f c e r t a i n s e r v i c e s c . g . c o n s t r u c t i o ~ ~ ,
. .~
I
Zi wi l r h. N . . op. c i t . , 11. 3 4 , 5 5 .
2
cC. , i h i d . p . 4 0 .
c u l t i v a t i o n , c l o t h ma n u f a c t u r i n g e t c . we r e n o t a v a
c o u l d compel men o f t h e s t , s e r v i c e s t o p r o v i d e t h c n ~
a u t h o r i t y o f t h e r u l e r .
1
S u p e r v i s i o n on i n d u s t r y . l < c g ; ~ ~ . d i n g i n d u s t r y , h i s m ; ~ i r i d u t y was
-- -- - ~ . . ~
t h e s t n n ~ l a r t l i z n t i o n o f p r o d u t . t s . Ilc was a l s o ; ~l l owct cl t o i mpose
ban on har m1~ul i n d u s t r i e s . A i s t i n c t e xa mpl e was t l ~ a t o f a l c he my
t h r o u g h whi ch t h e c h c ~ n i s t s pr oduc e d d c r c i t l u l and u n s o u ~ ~ d goods. :!
He ccul d r e s o l v e i n d u s t r i ; i l d i s p l ~ t c s a r i s i r i g ; ~ ~ n o n g c mp l o y e i ~s and
e mp l o y e e s . Ile c o u l d f i x t l i c 111ir1i1nun1 wages i f n c c d c d . A s Car
nr;~xirnunr h o u r s o f wor k we r e cunccr r i ecl , we c o u l d n o t 1-ind any
r v f e r c n c e t o t h e same. Iiut we mr ~y e ; i b i l y i n i e r t h a t i t w;I:, a l s o
i n Iris j u r i s d i c t i o n . The p r o o f i s t h ; l t t l r c i n t ~ l ~ t a s i l ) Ii;id t o s e e
t h a t no a n i ma l was ovcr bur t l c~nc- d o r J c . pr i vc d o f i t s s u f r i c i c n t
s u s t i n e i i c e .
4
S u p c r v i s ~ .. i on on S e r v i c e s . 1 . 1 he i nt l us t r i's, s u p e r v i s i o ~ i on d i f l e r c ~r i t
s c r v i c c s was d o n e by t h e -. mu l ~ t ; ~ s i b . . ~ ~~~ Pc%r l r ; ~ps d c c c i v i n g i s 1110r r
e a s y i n c a s e o f s e r v i c e s t h a n goot l s . Ile was a ut l i or i z c c l t o c h e c k
wl i ct l i cr p h y s i c i a n s , s u r g e o n s , p h a r ma c o l o f i i s t s c t c . we r e p e r f o r mi n g
t h e i r t l u t i c s p r o p e r l y o r n o t ; ;ind t h a t t h e y we r e ri ot d e c e i v i n g i n
5
t l ~ c i r , o c c u p a t i o n s . [ n t h c same wily, t c a q l ~ c r ' s , f i r i r i d c r s , i n n -
keepers c t c . wc r c a l s o r c gu l ; ~ r l y i n s p c c t c d b y t h e ~n u l l t a s i l l .
0
....- .
S i p e l - v i s i o n 011 Tr a d e . 'I'he man i n c h a r g e o f I ! isl);111 o i l - i c c I I ; I ~ t o
. .- . -. -. .- . ... .. . . . . -- .- ~~ -.--
c o n t r o l t h e ma r k c t i n g e n e r a l :rnd especial l y t h e d i l ' l ' er ent t r a d e
I
c f . , Thn Ta i ni i ya h, --.-A al . Hi sl ) ul r , 1). 30.
2 .
c l . , i l l i d . 1).
-
2 1 .
3
c f . , i h i d . p. 3 4 .
. .
4 -
c l . , i l l i N . 0 . C i t . p . 9 t ) .
5
c f . , . i b i d . . . . . . .. pp. 3 4 , 3 8 , 100-102.
ti
c . i h i d . p p . 118- 121.
---
pr c i c t i c c s . Ilc had t o c l ~ e c k t l ~ e wc i g l ~t and rllcasurcs. Ilr had t o
e n s u r e t h e qua1 i t y of p r o d u c t s :inJ s e e t u i t t h a t ~i r cr c. l r ; ~nt s and
a g e n t s d i d not r e s o r t t o practices c ; ~ l c u l t n t c c l t-o d c c c i v ~ % t l ~ e
c u s t o n ~c r o v e r t h e mcr ch; ~ndi i c. o r 1l1c p r i c e s cI ~; ! r gcd f o r i t . I l c
a l s o made s u r e t h a t t h e mcr cl l : ~nt s d i d not i ndul ge i n ally o p e r a -
t i on wllich was connncct ed wit11 t ~ I L - pr o11i t ) i t cd I l r act i c e s C I S
i n t e r e s t and o t h e r u s u r i o u s t r a n s a c t i ons .
I
'l'llc ~ n ~u h t a s i h us ed t o put :I cl~c,c.k o11 t i l e i n t ~ . r ~ e l ~ t o r s o l s11ppl i v s ,
wl ~ i c l ~ i s a l s o an i n j u r i o u s pr ; l ct i i - c. 11111 'l'a i ~ni yxh : I I I LI o t l ~ e r
wr i t e r s who p r e s c r i b e d t h i h dcrt y o f iri\~t>tas i b s ~ ~ p p o r t e d t l ~ c i r
. . - - ~
o p i n i o n hy ;I gr oup o f t r a d i t i o n s i n wl ~i cl l t h e I' rophct l ~ a s f' url)itl-
.I
den To pur chas e goods bel' or-e 111r.y r e ; ~ c h t h e mar ket . ' . AI I i nt Cr c c l r -
t o r c r e a t e s a r t i l ' i c i;11 s h o r t a g e and e x p l o i t s t h e need o l consumer s.
Il ourt l i ng was a l s o c ons i dc r c d an ol fcnc' c. s u l ~ j c c t t o i n t e r v c n t i on
o f t l ~ e n ~u h t n s i b . Ile coul d f i x t l ~ c p r i c e of t l ~ e h o ; ~ r ~ l e r ' s gooils t o
~ -.--
c u t h i s l ~ o p e o f increasing t h e p r i c e i n due c o u r s e ; or he c oul d
l ' orce him t o s e l l h i s goods a t t l ~ e p r c v : ~ i l i n g price. ' l' l~c h a s i s
of t h c i r o p i n i o n is a g a i n t h c condeanat i on ol ' t h e ;ic1 o f l u : ~r d i n r
3
hy t h e Pr ophet .
Apar t t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s ,
Oui l di ng uF l ~ o u s r s and i n tlrc
wh i c l ~ was p r e j u d i c i a l t o pub1
pas s age ol' p e d e s t r i drrs o r vch
c r c c t i on o r s l ~ o p s 11ot11ing was done
i c s a f c t y or. wlrirlr impcdccl t l ~ c
i c l e s . ' h i i s I I I 1.11nct i on
-
of t h e ~n~r I ! t asi b. ~ -- . . -- - .- . Ile was a l s o a s s i g n e d t o t : l kc c ; ~ r c o i t h e
l o c a t i on o f i ~ ~ d u s t r i c . ; and ~ I I S i n r s s t s . Ilc coul d s cp: l r at c two
d i f f e r e n t t y p c s o f i n d u s t r i c . s i E any onc O F them mi ght I I : I I . I I I ot11c1
For exampl e, i n d u s t r i e s c- r eot i11g smokes and pol l u t i ons m i ~ h t 1)ot
I
l . , 11, n l ' ai mi yah, a1 ..... I , l i shah, . . pp. 2 1 - 2 2 .
2cl ' . , .~ i d . ~ . 1'. 2 3 ; i l e N . , . c - i t . pp. 0 , 150.
3 -
c t . , 11>11 ' I' :.~i~niy;ih, a1 I l i s l ~a h , 11.
-.-- ~ . . ~. . . -
2 4 ; Ni c o l a , op. c i t . pp. 54, 90.
4
c I - . , ' Li:rJch, N . , op. c i t . I . 48, . I ! ] , 9 3 .
I)c a l l o we d t o b e e s t a b l i s h c d h c s i ~ l c : phar mac i c s o r c t ort 1
I
mc r c h i ~ n t s . Thus he ~ l s e d t o i : e l - >12. ~d. one k i n d o f i n d u s t r i e s t o
be e s t ~ ~ l ~ l i s l ~ e d i n o n c n r c a .
As f a r h i s supervision o f a g r i c u l t .ire i s c o n c c r n c d , t h e r e i s n o
c l e a r a c c o u n t o r i t i n w o k o n I s l l ' I' l ~c r e a s o n may b e t h c
.. ~-
f a c t t h a t t h e c i t i e s we r e t h c c e n t r e i l l ' a1 l k i n d s o r s o c i a l and
economi c a c t i v i t i e s , t l ~ c r e f o r e t !l ey C I I I I ~ i ncd t her ns el v e s t o t h e
me n t i o n o f t h o s e p r o b l e ms whi ch wcr c d i r c c t l y r c l a t c d t o t h e
c i t i e s . 'Shc o t h e r p o s s i b l e r c ; i i o n i s t l l c f a c t t h t ~ t l hi x o c c u p a t i o n
o f a g r i c t ~ l t u r e was s i mp l e and I o s u c h r n ; ~ l p r ; ~ c t i c . e was p o s s i h l c
t h c r c t o pay much a t t e n t i o n t o i t . 'I'hc o n l y r c f c r e l l c e t o a g r i -
c u l t u r e made b y I b n ' Tai mi y; l h s t h a t i f p c o p l c wc r c i n need o f
t h e s e r v i c e s o f c u l t i v a t o r s , thc:y a l s o w i l l he f o r c e d t o (lo t he m,
2
a s i t i s t h e c a s e i n o t h c r i i d u s t r i c s . Ile h a s a l s o d i s c u s s e d
t h e r u l e s governing s h a r c c r i p p i l ~ g a n d 1:1nd r e n t a s rnellt i onel l
e a r l i c r ( Ch a p t e r VI ) .
I hn 'I'a i mi yah h a s s umma r i s e d t h e ~ n u l j t i l s . . . .. .. - . . i h ' s . r c l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and
economi c f u n c t i o n s i n t h e r o l low i ng 1 i n e s :
"The mu h t a s i l ) s h a l l . o r d e r f o r t l ~ c l - ' r i dny p r a y e r s , o t h e r c o t l c c -
t i v c p r a y e r s , t r u t h f u l n e s s , rcp:iymerlt o f deposits, ; i i ~ i I he s h ; ~ l l
Corl) i d bad t h i n g s l i k e t e l l i ~ l g ; I l i c , dishonesty, i ncompl t:tc
we i g h t rlud measures, i n i n d u s t r i e s , t r ci des , ;1r1d 1 . ~ 1 i g i o u s
7
ma t t e r s , c t c . " ' -
111 v icw o f t h c many f t ~ n c t i o n s p e r f o r me d 11y t h e i11~11.1t;ls . . . i h . h e c o u l d
h c a s s i s t e d by a numbt r o f e . < p c r t s i n d i I r i - r c n t i n d u s t r i t ~ s and
b u s i n c s s c s . Ile a l s o u s e d t o employ a numhcr o f o t l l e r : ~ s s i s t ; ~ n t s
I .
c f . , i h i d . p. 95.
2
c f . , 1b11 Ta i mi y a h , -- a 1 .- i ! i s b: ~h, .~ . pp. 2 7 , 3 0 .
3 . .
~ h l d . , pp. 19- 20.
- ----
t o h e l p hi m i n e n f o r c e me n t o f h i s o r d e r , anti decisions.
1
I n o u r own a g e , no s i n g l e o f f i c e c . t , I > ( comp;irccl wi t h t h e o f f i c e
o f ~ hi s l ) a h. A t p r e s e n t t h e t a s h s o f tlic. I ~ i s h a h .- .~ a r c done by
t l i i S e r c n t de p; r r t me nt s :md r n i ~ r i s t r i c , , . 1 , . mi n i s t r y o f c i v i l
s u p p l y , mi n i s t r y o f comnl erce a nd pI l nni r l g, i l l dus t r y , h e ; ~ l t h ,
t r a i n i n ) ! , e t c .
I hn ' l ' a i mi ya h' s c o n c e p t o f s t n t ~ . a: i d i t s r o l e i n e c o n o ~ a i c l i f e
c a n mos t ; r p p ~ - o p r i a t c l y h e t e r me d a s ;I wc l f : ~ r c st:ct~- i n t h e nroJc1.11
s e n s c , a s i t i s c l e a r f r om t h e ~ I C C C ~ ~ I I ~ J i ~ c u ~ s i o n . 111 III: LIIY
c u s c s he s t r e s s e d t h c s t i l t e s ' r C c p o r ~ s i h i l i t y r c g ; ~ r d i r ~ g t h c jicncr:i:
we l f a r e o f p e o p l e . Thus no a c t oS w c l f ; ~ r c w i l l b e O L I ~ o f t h e
pe r vi e w o f t h e s t a t e . I t w i l l I r i t s d u t y t o c' hoosc arid d e c i d e
t h e we l i a r c f u n c t i o n s n c c o r d i ~l p , 11, t l l c t i nc a n d ne e d.
I n t h e l a s t i t s h o u l d b e not cr l t h a t 11111 ' T ~ ~ i m i y t ~ l ~ ' ~ CVI I CL! I I [ o f
we1 f a r e s t a t e h a s a n i mp o r t a r ~ t : ~t I v; ~nt nj i e o v e r t h c mcldern wcl f; l ve
s t i t t ~ . a s lie d i ~ c u s s c s n o t o n l y t l l c wor t l l y we l r a r e b u t ; r l s o t l ~ e
w c l ~ : ~ r c o f t h e he r c ; r Vt c r . I n otl1c.r wor ds , I I C t a h c s a c t - o u n t o f
hot11 t h e ma t e r i a l and t h e s p i r i t u a l i ~ p l i i t . No d o u b t , t h i s was
;I d i r e c t c r f c c t o f t h e r c l i g i o n i n whi ch hc l ~ c ~ l i c v e d . Accordi i rj i
t o hi m ~ ~ r o p h e t h o o d ( a 1 ~- r i ~ ~ l i ~ l r ) i s nec. es s ar y f o r s uu113 a c h i r v c -
mc nt s o f man i n cconomi c r n; l t t er s ( mi i ' i s l ~) . ~ . ~ ~ ~ - ; I S we1 l ; I S Vor s u c c c ~ s s
'1
i n o t l ~ c r wo r l d l y Li f e ( I I I ; I ~ ~ ~ ) ~- .' Ilc s eems t o h ~ v c i n i n i 1 1 ~ 1 t l i e
e f i e c t a n ~ l i mp o r t a n c r o f t r u t h , h o n e s t y c o o p c r i ~ t i o n , s ; ~ c r i r i c v
a n d 1nor;l 1 v a l u c s i l ~ g e n e r a 1 , on p r o d i ~ c t i o n , J i s t r i h u t i 011, sonstllrlp-
t i o n xncl cconomi c pr os pc r - i t y , l , c c ; ~u s e t11c.s~ a r c t h e t111;rl i t i e s
s t r c s s e d by t h e r e l i g i o n .
IUN 'I'AIMIYAII ON 1' Il BLLC 1 : I NANCl :
Pul , l i c f i n a n c e i s t r a d i t i o n ; ~ l l y dcl'incrd ; I S t h e s r ~ l ) j c c t t h a t d c a l s
wi t h t h e p r o v i s i o n , c us t ody and d i s h ~ ~ r s e me n t o r t h c r c s o u r c c s
needed f o r t h e conduct of 111111 l i c o r govcriimcrit Sunct iclns. Income
e x p e n d i t u r e of p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i c s and Ci n a n c i ; ~ l : I ~ I I I ~ I I i s t r a t i on
a r e t h r e e main d i v i s i o n s of t h e s u b j e c t .
I n 1sl aa1, e v o l u t i o n o r puhl i c. fir~;inc-c! came a l o n g w i t l ~ t h e d c v c l o p
mcnt of l s l a mi c s o c i e t y arid e s t ; i \ ~ l i s h ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ t o r l s l : ~r ni c s t a t c by t l ~ c
Pr ophet and h i s s u c c e s s o r s . I n t l i c h o g i n n i r ~g wl1c311 I slarn d i d not
t a k e t he Corm of a goverrlnlerit, t h e d i v i n e i r ~ s t r u c t i o n was t o
spend v o l u n t a r i l y on t h e poor.. T n t l ~ v c. l ~; i l l t er s ol' t l ~ c Qur';tri,
r e v e ; ~ l e ~ l i n Makknli, wc Find many S U L - I I i n j u n c t i ons . ]:or cs; i mpIc,
"So p,ive t o t h e ki nsman h i s duc , a i ~ d ~u t h e ncccly a11d L O t h e way-
f a r e r . That i s t h e b e s t f o r t h a s c who s c c k ALl ; ~l i ' s coui l t cl r ancc.
And s uch a r e t h e y who a r c s u c c e s s f u l . " I i n a n o t h e r c-h; l pt cr
r cvc; i l ed a t Mi~kkah, Al l al l s ; ~ y s , " . . . . And i n t l ~ e i r w e i ~ l t l ~ t h e
1
beggar and t l ~ e o u t c a s t has ;I c ~ r t a i n r i gl i t . " '
a. . ;:;1k5h. . .- - . - Af ' t cr i mmi grat i t r u ( 1 1 i i 1.;111) ~ o r t h c I' ropliet t o Mad i nah,
I sl ; l i r ~ ;issumcd t l ~ e form of ;I s t a t e , and ; ~ c c o r ~ l i ~ ~ g L y t h e l ~ c l i c v c r s
wcr c t : n) oi ncd t o pay n dc i ' i i i i t e amount i n t h c 1-orn~ of -- ~ a k i h . .. -
Payment 01 zak5I1 - i s a r e7 i g i o ~ i s dut y ; I I I LI one of t h e f i v e p i l l a r s
, - .
o r I s l am. I t i s imposcd on c3vcry i ~ d ~ i l t , fret and s ane \ I usl i i n,
p r o v i d e d he p o s s e s s e d i n i u l l ownc, rshi l I s u c l ~ c s t a t c s o r e f f e c t s -
t e r me d a s ~t i n wor ds o f I s l a mi c j u r i s p ~ . u c l c n c c -, and t h a t
he h : ~ s be e n i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e S : I I I I ~ i o r t l ~ c p e r i o d o r one
c o mp l e t e y e a r . -- Zakah i s l e v i ed on c o l d , s i l v c r , i n c r c h a ~ ~ d i s e ,
c e r t a i n c a t t l e ~ , mi n e s , tre;~surc-trove :ind c r o p s . The h e a d s o f
e x ~ ~ e n d i t u r c o f -- znk5h h a v e heen pr opounde d i n 1 i [t l a y s
down t h a t "'l'hc a l ms a r c o n l y l o r t h e p o o r , and t h e needy, and
t h o s e who c o l l e c t t he m, and t l i o s c whosc h e a r t s a r c t o he r e c o n -
c i l e d , and t o f r e e t h e c ; ~ p t . i v c s , and t h c d e b t o r s , and f o r t h e
c a u s e o f Al l a h , a nd f o r t h e wayfarer; a d u t y i mposed 1,y ~ l l a h . " '
ZakZh, wi t h i t s s p e c i f i c I i e ; ~d s o f c s p e n t l i t u r c , was t h e f i r s t and
-. ...
t h e most i mp o r t a n t s o u r c e o f i ~l c o mc o f t h e e a r l y I s l a mi c s o c i e t y .
'l'lic o t h c r s o u r c e s o f i ncome we r e C ~ I ~ I I ; I I I ~ ~ I ( s p o i 1 o f war.) , I:;I i '
. - ~
( h o o t y ) , k h a r i j ( l a n d t a x ) , and w a l l -- [ p o l l t a x ) . I t s h o u l d he
n o t e d h e r e t h a t z a k5h i s n o t ; I s t a t e r c v e n u c i n t h e o r c l i ~ l a r y
s e n s e o r t h e wor d, a s i t i s c l e a r Srom i t s h e a d s o f ex11c. ndi t ~11. e.
Though t h e s t a t e i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o c o l l e c t i t and s pe nd .it on
i t s l ) e n e f i c i a r i c s , i t c a n n o t he mi xed wi t h o t h e r p u b l i c r e c e i p t s
b. (;llanrmah o r t h c x o i l ol ' War.. ~~~ -. I t r e f e r s t o t h e ~movahl e
p o s s e s s i o n s t a k e n i n b a t t l e f r om t h e cnclny. I t was a l s o ;In
-
important s o u r c e o f i ncome. ] : our f i f t h s of t h e s p o i l s o f war a r c
t o b e d i v i d e d among t h e t r o o p s . "'l'hc r c m: ~ i n i n g F i f t h h c l o n ~ s
t o Al l a h , a nd t o t h e Messenger, irnd t o t h e k i n s m a ~ ~ (who h a s n c c d )
,,x
and orp11a11s and t h e n e e d y an11 t h e wnyl ' ar er , a s pr e s c r i hc . d b y
t h e Qur5n. I n t h c e a r l y d : ~ y s o f [ s l a ~ n , l a n J was a l s o c ons i c l or e d
~han;m:ih and i t u s e d t o be (1 i v i d c d among t l r c f i g l ~ t c r . ; b u t t h e
as k ~-
s e c o n d Ca l i p h Dmar e x c l u d ~ d i t STOI I I ~h~11i Tma11 -- a nd l e f t i n t h e
L; ~l . Qi r r ~ 3 w7 , Yous ui . - Fi y h -- a 1 -. .. . ..Z: ~ki i h ( I l e i r u t : b l u ' a s s a s a l ~ a 1
I ( i s c l l a h, 11. d. ) , Vol . I I . 7577---
ha nds o f i t s p r e v i o u s owne r s who we r e t o pay t a x t o s t i i r e .
GhanTn~ah was a s i g n i Ci c a nt s o u r c e of i nc on~e i n t h e a g e oi ' nul ncrou!
---
a nd f r e q u e n t h o l y wa r s . ' S p o i l o r wa r ' and i t s h c : ~ d s of e x p e n d i -
t u r e we r e r e v e a l e d a F t c r t h e h n t t l c o f U;ltlr i n t h e s e c o n d y c n r
o r I l i j r a h -- and s i n c e t h e n i t 112s hccome a pcr maner i t s o u r c e o f
i ncome of a n I s l a mi c S t a t e .
c . a i . A~ l o t h e r s o u r c e o f i ncome r e s e ~n h l ill!: (; h; l n' i i t ~; ~h ~- i s l F : ~ i ' ~ ~~ .
As d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r om gha ni n~; ~l l , .- - Cai refers t o h o o t y t a k e n Trot11
i n f i d e l s wi t h o u t f i g h t i n g . 1:. , I ] " . I - I . I. e ve nue o r I s l a i n i c S t a t e
a nd i t s he a ds o f c x p e n d i t u r r we r e p r c s c r i h c J i n t h e f o l ~ r t l r y e a r
o f - l l j j r a h . -- 'The f o l l o wi n g v c r s e s of t h e Qur'r71i c o n t a i n t h e d e t a i l s :
"And t h; r t whi c h Al l a h g i v c t h a s ~ p o i 1 u n t o l l i s me s s e nge r f r om
tlieul, ye u r g e d n o t a ny h o r s e o r r i di ng- c ; l mc l f o r t h e s a k e
t h e r e o f , h u t Al l a h g i v e t l i l l i s mc s s c ngc r l o r d s h i p o v r r wl~om
He wi l l * Al l a h i s a b l e t o do a l l t h i n g s .
Th a t whi c h Al I a h g i v e t h a s S p o i l u n t o h i s n ~ e s s c n g e r from
t h e people o f t h e t o wn s h i p , i t i s f o r Al l a h a n d l l i s mc s s c ngc r
( i . c . Tor t h e s t a t e ) and f o r t l ~ c n e a r k i n and t h e o r p h a n s
and t h e ne e dy arid t h e wa y f a r e r , t h a t i t 1)ecomr n o t a co1111110di t y
be t we e n r i c h among you. , , I
I n I ~ r i c f s u c h p r o p e r t y was managed by t h e Pr o p h e t a s s t a t ?
p r o p e r t y and p r o c e e d s t h c r e l ~ r o m wcr v a p p l i e d t o t h e g e n e r a l good,
l i k e t h e f i f t h O F &an-imall. -. A l loc- tioi oil o r s h a r e on d i f f e r e n t
h e a d s h a s he e n l e f t t o t h e d i s c r e t i 0 1 1 O F t h e he a d o f s t a t e ; l nJ
h i s c o n s u l a t a t i v c c o u l ~ c i l .
d. K .-~ . K h a s i mp l y ~ncai l s l a n d - I . I t m y he cl i vi cl ed
i n t o t wo c a t e g o r i e s ; p r o p o r t i o u a l . ]\ll;lriq -. . . -- . : IIILI i ' i xcd k h a r 5 i . ~ 'l'hc
p r o p o r t i o n a l - khar 31 . . . . . . r e f e r s t o t h e i mpos i t i on oC ;I p r o p o r t i o n a l
s h a r e o u t o f t h e t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r ; l l pr oduce of a l a n d , c . g. one-
f o u r t h , o n e - f i f t h c t c . 'l'hc f ixccl k I i ; 1 3 mcnns ; I i.ix[*(l amount
t - har gcd a s a t a x on t h c l a n d . The f or mer v a r i e s wi t h t l l c v n r i a -
t i o n i n t h e o u t p u t , whi l c t h c l a t t e r r c a ~ n i n s uncl i ; ~ngcd. Mor covcr ,
f i x c d k w i s c o l l e c t e d once a y e a r , wh i l e t h c p r o p o l - t i o n a l
I : i s I c vi c d on V ; I C I I C I O ~ .
1
.
Accor di ng t 1 1 i s l a mi c l aw, l i l ~ a r a j ~- wi l 1 i)c imposed 011 a l l l a n d s
conquer ed by f o r c e and n o t di vi dct l among t h e v i c t o r i o u s army b u t
l c f t t o t h e o r i g i n a l owner s o r (;ivc.11 t o nun- Mus l i ~r s c t t l c r s
br ought from c l s c ~ h c r c . ~ Thc kh;lrXj was i i r s t i n t r o d ~ l c e d a l - t e r
t h e b a t t l e o f " k h a i b ; ~ r " , w11cr1 t h e pr ophet l c f t .Jews' l i ~ n d i n
t h c i r hands on t h c c o n d i t i o n t11;lt t l l ey would Oay h a l l o i t h e
11roduc.t a s k h a r s j . ~ In a l l ages, k11;1rZj ~~ - ~~ . c o n s t i t . ut cd ; I cons i d c r a l ~ l ~
s o u r c c of incomc ol' t h c I s l ; ~ mi c S t ; ~ t e , ancl i t s r cve>~~uc' bel onged
t o t h e whol e community and n o t ; I 1 ) a r t i c u l ; l r gr oup.
c. .Ji_qy;~hor P o l l ?' ax. It was a l s o one of t h e s o ~ ~ r c c s ol' income
- - -. -. . -. ... - - - -
i n t h e c a r l y Ts l a ~ n i c s o c i e t y . C l ~ r i s t i a n s ; I I I ~ Jews a r e given ;I
Aghni t l cs, Ni col a s P. , Mo\ianlmed;~l~ l ' l ~ ~ o r i e s o f Fi r l ar ~cv ( I . ; ~ l ~ o r c :
6i'i . p . ...7.6 ;-
.- .... . .
The r ~ c r Hook I l ouse, 5.
].and o r i g i n a l l y owncd by MIISI i ~n s o r conqucr ed l and cl i s t ri l 111t ed
among s o l d i e r s wi l l be s u h j c c : t o t l l e' ushr ( l i t h e ) . ' I ' h~s s o u r c e
of i l ~~. or nc docs not necd s cl ) nr ; l t c mcflt i o c ; I S i t i s I I I C l udcd i n
Z;~k, ih. ' l l shr i s a c t u a l l y z a k Z h on c ~ . o p s . Aglrnides llas d i s c u s s c ~ d
--
~ n c k t a i l t l l c d i Sf e r e r l t k i r l J < - O F l i l r ~ds 1:Ii;lt W I 1 1 he s l ~ h j e c t t o
C u s l ~ r o r k h a r a . See Agllrl i d c s 1'1). 358- 375.
. -- ~
c o n c c s s i o n ( 1 a t c r c xt c nde t l t o o t l l c r ri on-he1 i c v c r s ) t o o b t ; ~ i ~ i
s c c u r i t y a nd p r o t e c t i o n I'or t h e ms c l v c s , t h e i I l ' nn~i l i c s and
p r o p e r t y by p a y i n g f i z y a h . I t i s b a s e d 011 a d i r e c t i n j u n c t i o n
o f t h e Qur'iTn " F i g h t a g a i n s t s u c h o f t h o s e who h a v e h c c n g i v e n
t h e s c r i p t u r e , a s h c l i c v c ri ot i n Al l a h nor. t h e l a s t L); l y, r i r ~ c l
f o r b i d n o t t l ~ a t whi c h Al l a h 1 i ; ~t h t v r l >i d d c n by l l i s n ~ c s s c ~ ~ g c r , and
f o l l o w n o t t h e r e l i g i o n o f t r ~ ~ t h , u n t i l t h e y p ; ~ y t h e t r i l > u t c
r e a d i l v b c i n g b r o u g h t l ow. " l
J i ~ l i s l e v i e d on non- Mus l i m s u h j c c t s i n l i e u oT p r o t e c t i o n a nd
t h e i r c xc i npt i on Srom d c l c r i c c , ilnd Kor. o t h ~ r Ciici l i t i c s i n I s l a mi c
S t a t e . Onl y a d u l t n ~ a l c s i n t h e f ~ t l l p o s s e s s i o n o f t l ~ ~ i r . p l ~ y s i c a l
and me n t a l f a c u l t i e s and h a v i n g t h c means t o pay the, anl ount a r e
l i u h l e t o t h e t a x . Wonlcn, c h i l d r c n , ol t l mcn and monks a r c cxcmp-
t c d a s war i s n o t waged or1 t hem. Poor men u n a b l e t o wor k, and
b e g g a r s a r e n o t l e v i e d t h e t a x . 'l'he a ~n o u n t o f t a x u s u a l l y
v a r i e d I'rom 12 c l i r h a n t o 4 8 d i r h a m a n n u ; ~ l l y ; ~ c c o r d i n g t o t h e
f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e - d11 - ~ imm; -- ( t h e non-Mils1 i ~ n s u h j c c t o f
I s l a mi c S t a t e ) . 1 I' a p e r s o n csmhr aces I s I a n ~ , t l ~ c p o l 1 t ; l x
l a p s v s . Thc mount c o l l cctcxcl 1 r o r . I - i zy:1l1 i s t o l ~c, s l ~c >n t l o r
. -
g c r ~ c r a l we1 [ a r c o f t h e p e o p l e .
2 . 1:XI'ANSION I N TIIE SOIIRCES 01: INCOME
'The above-mentioned s o u r c e s o l revcnuc, e v o l v e d i n the, d ; ~ y s o f
t h e p r o p h e t and a l mo s t t h e snmc c o n t l r l u c d d u r i n g t h e s h o r t p c r l o d
o l t h e f i r s t c a l i p h Abii 13akr. I t was t h e s ccont l c a l 1 1 ) l 1 On~ar
who c xpa ndc d t hem. A t t h e f i r s t s t a g c he e x c l u d e d t h c c o n q u c r c d
l a n d s f r oms t h e tihanymah and t r e a t l n g t hcm a s Fa i' l e f t t hc~r r i n
t h e h a n d s oT o r i g i n a l owne r s and i mpos ed l a u d t a x on t l i e ~n. Tl ~us,
he ma i n t a i n e d t hem a s a perlnanctllt s o u r c e o f i ncome Tor t h e
1..
l h e Quf 5n I X: 2! ).
r e q u i r e me n t s o r s
a . Cust om Du t i e s .
- - - -
t a t e and 1-or t h e p o s t e r i t y .
S e c o n d l y , he a l l o we d hi s governors t.o c h a r g e
c us t om t l u t i e s f r om t h e a 1 i c n me r c h a n t s comi ng i n l s l a ~ n i c s t a t e
f r om t h e enemy l a n d , a s Musl ims wer e chnr ger l s u c h t l u t i e s when
t h e y p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e i r l a n d . 1:rom t h e s e me r c h a n t s t h e same
r a t e was c o l l e c t e d whi ch was charl r, et l f r om Musl i m me r c h : ~n t s by
t h e enemy c o u n t r y , i f i t was known. Ot h e r wi s e t h c t a x was one
t e n t h oE t h e t o t a l v a l u e of
y e a r o r onc e i n a s i n g l c e n
Cust om d u t i e s o r t o l l s wer e
me r c h a n t s o f I s l a mi c s t a t e s
hi ghwa ys . The r a t e c h a r g e d
t h e goods . i t was cmposed onc e a
t r y .
r x t e n d r d I n t e r t o ..d11i11irnT - -- ;tnd Musl i m
: 11so who wantc5d t o p a s s t h r o u g h t h e
fro111 t h e clhimm?s was f i v c p e r c c n t ,
wh i l e i t was t wo and one- ha1 f p c r c c n t f r om Mosl in1 t r a d e r s .
A s Lar a s collection and a d mi n i s t r a t i o n o f r c v c n u e i s c o n c e r ~ ~ c c l ,
d u r i n g t h c d a y s o f t h e P r o p h c t i t was c o l l e c t e d b y o f - i - i c i a l s
s r n r f o r t h a t pwr pos e. I n t h e r e mot e ' i t j e s i t was a s s i g n e d t u
t h e g o v e r n o r s o f t h a t a r e a . For e xa mpl e , when t h e Pr o p h c t s e n t
h i s compani ou ~ G s d h h i n J a h a l t o Ycman a s h i s g o v e r n o r t h c r c , h c
a d v i s e d hi m t o c o l l e c t ~ a k a h Crom t h e r i c h and d i s t r i b u t e i t
among t h e poor .
When t h c c o l l e c t o r s came h a c k , h c us e d t o c h r c k t h c i r a c c o u n t .
The g i f t p r e s e n t e d t o c o l l e c t o r s wer e c o n s i d e r e d puhl i c i ncome,
n o t t h c i r p e r s o n a l i ncome. Th u s , h e removed ; ~ n y p o s s i h i 1 i t y of
c o n c e s s i o n f r om c o l l e c t o r s hy a c c e p t i n g g i r t s . They wer e pa i d
s a l a r i e s o r c ompe ns a t i on f o r t h e i r l a b o u r .
I ncome and we a l t h was i n modes t proportion i n t h e e a r l y s o c i e t y
o f i s l a m. Th e r e was n o s i z e a h l c s u ~ p l u s rrom t h e n e e d s of' p e o p l e
a nd c u r r e n t r e q u i r e me n t o f l s l n ~ n i c s t ; ~ t c . ' l ' h c r c f o r ~ , t h e r e was
no n e e d o f c s t a b l i b h i ng n f or ma l t r e a s u r y . 'I'hc f i n a n c i a l pol i c y
a d o p t e d l)y t h e P r o p h e t was t o J i s t r i l , u t c t h e i n c o n ~c ; I S s oon :IS
i t was r e c e i v e d . Maintenance oI t h e r e g i s t e r ancl dTwii11 .~ was
u n n e c e s s a r y i n t h a t p e r i o d . The* s;ime 1)ol i c y was c o n t i nucd by
t h e f i r s t Ca l i p h Ah; Bakr . ' Iht c o n d i t i o n s c ha ngc d J 1 1 r i n g t h e
c a l i p h a t e ol ' Omar, when t h c l s l a mi c s t a t e e xpa nde d f r o ~ n I ' c r s i a
i n t h e l l ns t t o Egypt i n t h e Wes t , and r e v e n u e f r om d ~ l ' i c ~ r e n t
s o u r c e s i n c r c a s c d t o a g r e a t c x t c n t . Num11c.r ol ' arllly and p o p u l a -
t i o n e n h a n c e d many t i me s . A1 l t h c s c r c: : ~sons n c c c s s i t ~ ~ t c d s t ream
l i n i n g t h e f i n c i n c i a l a d mi n i s t r a t i on. I I I t h i s < o n n c r t i on t h e
Ca l i p h organized . Hn i t . . a 1 ma1 . o r I 1 u h l i c l ' ~ . e ; ~ s u r y . Al t l ~ o u ~ : l ~ t h e
i n s t i t u t i o n o f - Ha i t a 1 i ni l l c a n I > c t r ; i c c d h a c k t o t h e I ' r ophet
-- .- . - -.
h i ms e l f i n s o f a r a s t h c r c a l r e a d y e x i s t e h i i ~ h i s 1 i n ~ e t h e n o t i on
o f a Tr e a s u r y o f t n e communi t y, s u p p l i c d by d i l ' l . cr cnt f or ms o f
c o n t r i b u t i o n , b u t t h c a c t uc i l c s t a l > l i s hmc nt o f B a i t a l 11131 o r pul ) l i c
T r e a s u r y , b e l o n g e d t o t h e Ca l i ph Omar.
I hn Kh a l d i ~n s a y s , Omar was t h c f i r s t man who c r e a t e d 11TwSn
>
.- - . .-
( S e c r e t a r i a t e o f F i n n n c c ) i n t h e I s l ~ m i c s t a t e . - The Ca l i p h Otnar
d i d n o t d i s t r i b u t e t h e l a n d c o n q ~ ~ c r c d i n I r acl and o t h e r r c g l o n s
and i n s t e a d o f t h i s , h e a l l o t t e d ;I shci r c t o t h e l ' j g h t e r s i n t h e
Kh a r z j . c o l l c c t c d f r om t h o s e 1:111cls. In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n he or dc ~r e c i
some e x p e r t s t o me a s u r e t h e 1a11d ; ~ n d f i x B r e i f s o ~ ~ a b l c t ; l x 011 i t .
They we r e a l s o a s k e d t o ma i n t ; ~ i n r c g i s t e r Tor i t . Or n: ~r s t ; ~ r t c d
a l s o n s y s t e m o f ' a l r l ( 1 - i n ; ~n c i ; l l g r a n t s o r p e n s i o n ) t o t l ~ c i1111abi-
t a n t s uf h i s c a l i p l i a t e , And ;IS t h e i ncome i n c r e a s e d , uew h e a d s
o f e x p e n d i t u r e emer ged f o r t h e man;ijiemcnt oK a l l t h c s c ma t t e r s ,
he c s t a l ) l i s h e d t h e l ' u b l i c I ' r c a s u r y ( U a i t a l . .- 1n5l ) . ... I t i s s a i d , o n e
o r h i s men
t h e r e . Ile
o p i n i o n .
1
c a l i p h a t e s
t r a t i o n o f
v i s i t e a Rome and saw t h a t k i n g s had e s t a h l i s h e d ~r wr i r ~s
s u g g e s t e d Omar t h c same and h e was i n s p i r e d by t h i s
The same s y s t e m o f . Ua i t a l - --- m21 c o n t i n u e d i n s u b s c q u c n t
. Be f o r e t h e e n d o l f i r s t c e n t u r y l l i j r a h , t h e a d mi n i s -
p u b l i c r i n a n c c was mor e a ~l va nc c t l i n c ompa r i s on to
t h c e x i s t i n g s y s t c m, a s the c a l i p h s s u p p l e n ~ c n t c ~ d t h e i r c x p c r i c n c e s
t o t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f P e r s i a n a11d Roman 1) i wans.
-
R . PUII1.IC I : I NANCI I I~llI1ING TI!N 'I'A I MIYAII'S ' I ' I MI I 1
111 t h e c o n t e x t o r o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f economi c c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e
Mamliik r e gi me , i n whi c h I bn fain^ i yal l l i v c d , wc 11avc cxami net l
t h e f i s c a l s y s t e m o f t h e p e r i o d i n d e t a i l s ( Ch a p t c r I ) . I t
seems wo r t h wh i l e t o t hr ow some l i g h t on p u b l i c f i n a n c e d u r i n g
h i s t i me a n d how h e s e e s i t .
Mamliiks wer e o r i g i n a l l y Tur k s l a v e s who l a t c r on c n~hr : ~c c d T s l : ~ m .
' Thc r e f or c , t h e i r l e g a l and a d mi n i s t r a t i v e s e t u p was n o t r~iclirily
b a s c d on I s l a m. I n g e n e r a l i t was a c o mb i n a t i o n o f l o c a l c u s t o ms ,
I s l a m a nd Pagan I.aws. T h i s i s r er l cc. t ct 1 i n t h e i r f i na11ci : t l
s ys t e m a l s o .
1. SOURCE OF INCOME 1
So u r c c s o f i ncomc i n Mamliik p e r i o d wer e a s f o l l o w:
l a u d t a x , t a x e s on mi n e s , f i s h c r i c s ;1nd i n d u s t r i e s , . Zah511, ~ J i z *, ~ ....
cus t om d u t i c s , p r o p e r t y wi t h no l e g a l h e i r , t a x on vi c' c and
c e l c b r a t i o n s , c ompul s or y c o n t r i h u t i o n f o r war o r r c c c p t i o n of'
S u l t b c t c . I t s h o u l d be rcn1em1)cred t h a t i n mos t c a s e s t h e
---L
l s l a mi c 1 i m i t o f l e v y was ~ ~ e g l c c t c t l . 'I'hc e xa mpl e s ol ' i l l c g n l
-
t a x e s may be see11 i n n c h n p t c r o r lbri I ' a i r n i y ; ~h ' s I:at?iw;~ ~ i n whi ch
lie h a s e nume r a t e d s u c h t a x e s 1 i k c " l e v i e s i mposed on h e a d s o f
p e o p l e , o r number o f t h e i r a n i ma l s o r number O F t h e i r t r e e s o r
~ - ~ . ~.. .-- - . ~ . - - ~ . .~
1 . .
l b l d . 11. 192.
on t h c amount o f t h e i r we a l t h ; o r l i k e q u a n t i t y t a k c n i n Zak' l ~
mor e t h a n t h e ~ h a r ' i a h l i m i t , o r t a x on l a n d mor e t h a n Shar ' i ah
. -. -
l i m i t , o r t o i mpos e t a x c s on t h e goods exempt ed f r om l e v y a s i t
i s i mpos ed o n s a l c a n d p u r c h a s c o r f o o d , c l o t h , a n i ma l s , I ' r u i t s
c t c . ' I ' l ~i s i s c h a r g e d , s ome t i mc i f r om s c l l c r , and s o ~ l ~ c t imcs f r o r
b u y e r ...... Exampl e o f s u c h i l l e g a l t : i xes i s a l s o t h e amount
c o l l c c t c d hy r u l e r s f r om t h e p c o p l c o f h i s t own a l t e r certain
p e r i o d wi t h t h e p r c t c x t t h a t t h e y want f i n a n c i a l help t o f u l f i l
t h c i r pr ogr ammes . Sometimes, s u c h t ; ~ x c s a r c c h a r g e d by g o v e r n o r s
wi t h o u t c o n t i n u i t y , a t t h e a r r i v a l o f army o r c e r t a i n o c c a s i o n s
a s r e c e p t i o n o f S u l f z n , o r a b i r t h t h e r e . ' I' l ~c c o ~ n p u l ~ o r y s a l c
o f c o mmo d i t i e s , a t a h i g h c r p r i c e t h a n i t i s wo r t h , i s a l s o
i n c l u d e d i n i t . Ch a r g e s f r om p e o p l e o f n i l ai A.A i Ca r a v a n o r g r o u p
o f t r a d e r s i s a l s o a n c xa mpl c o f i l l c g n l t a x .
,, 1
I hn Ta i mi y a h ' s a b o v c me n t i o n c d d e s c r i p t i o n g i v c s n c l c n r c u t
p i c t u r e o f t a x a t i o n i n h i s t i m c t . '1'111s i s a l s o s uppor t c c l by t h e
w r i t i n g s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h a t period. The Mamliik g o v e r n me n t ,
on t h e one h a n d , e x c e e d e d t h e l i 111i t o r l e g a l and j u s t r c s o u r c c s
o f i ncome; on t h c 0 t h - r h a n d , i t d i d n o t c o n f i n c t h e amount o f
t a x t u t l ~ a t p r e s c r i b e d by ~ h a r 6 h . I n s t c n d , i t s r a t e hcc: ~mc
-
e x o r b i t a n t . I f t h e y c o l l e c t e d ~ a k i 1 1 . ~ 01- Kh a r a i , ~~ i t was n o t
c o l l c c t c d from t h e p r o p c r goods - t h c y i mpos ed - ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ - Zakah on c e r t a i n
g o o d s t h a t we r e exempt ed by -- ~ h a r l i l ~ . -. Mor covcr t h c i r t a x was n o t
l i mi t e d t o t wo a nd o n e - h a l f p e r c c n t o f t h e v a l u e o f good o r
2
o n e - t c n t h o f t h c p r o d u c t . Sol net i mes Zakilh ~ was c o l l c c t c ~ d w i t l i -
o u t a c o mp l e t e y e a r h a v i n g p a s s c d . Amount o f j - ~ - i z ph - ~.~ was a l s o
v a r y i n g . To i n c r e a s e t h e i ncome o f Treasury, t h c y i l eposcd t a x c s
on c e r t a i n v i c c s e . g . t a x on p r o s t i t u t i o n , pr ogr ~i mmes o f s o n g s
a nd mu s i c s . Thus t h e y p r o v i d c d l i c e n c e s l o r s u c h c l l a r a c t c r
s p o i l i n g i n s t i t u t i o n . No d o u b t s u c h t a x e s we r e s u h j c c t t o
' 1bn Ta i mi y a h , MFS Vol . XXX, pp. 337- 38.
2 . .
i b i d . pp. 3 4 3 , 3 4 4 .
3 . .
i h i d . Vol . XXVI I I , p. 591.
-
a b o l i t i o n a nd r e - i mp o s i t i o n by d i f f c r c n t S u l f z n s a nd t h e y we r e
c r i t i c i s e d by t h e ' ul ami -- o r t h a t p e r i o d . S u l t s n NZs i r h i n Qal3wGn
a b o l i s h e d a number o f s u c h t a x e s w h c n ' F e ' c a r r i d h i s l a n d
r e f o r m.
2 . FINANCIAL ADMlNlSTKATION
Fo r t h e f i n a n c i a l administration, t i numbc.r o r o r r i c e s we r e
e s t a b l i s h e d . Fo r e x a mp l e , wages a n d s n l a r i c s 01- army a nd o t h e r
o f f i c i a l s we r e d e a l t u n d e r ~ l w z n a1 ~ : t w. i t i b , ~ p o l l t a x e s , and
- -
p r o p e r t y wi t h o u t h e i r we r e managed u n d e r - dTwi n - a l j a w ; ~ - - - . . l . . i -- - wa' l .
~ a w a r S t h a 1 t!ashrTyah. F o r t h e collection o f --- Kl i a r c , t h e r e was
- -
~ i w z n a 1 Kh a r i j . Mont hl y t a x e s we r e c o l l e c t e d u n d e r 1)i wan u l
-- - -- - - ---
a - t i l l . Th e s e d i wa n s we r e d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t me n t o f B a i t a 1 ma1
( P u b l i c Tr e a s u r y ) .
3 . PATTERN OF EXPENDl'I'lJRE
The p a t t e r n o f e x p e n d i t u r e was n o t s t r i c t l y c o n r i n c d t o t h e
~ h a F i a h r u l e s , a s i t was i n t h c c a s e o f r e v c n u e . Payment o f
. -
-
s a l t i r i e s o f m i n i s t e r s , g o v e r n o r s , v i z i e r s ,_w<a and r e l i g i o u s
p o s t h o l d e r s was made f r om t h e - 13ai t ~ a 1 m i l . Ex p e n d i t u r e was
made a l s o o n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f dams , c a n ; ~ l s and r o a d s . Il ut a ma j o r
p a r t o f r e v e n u e was s p e n t on t h e Su l y I i n ' s ] l a l a c e a nd h i s ar my.
De s c r i b i n g t h e mi s u s e o f P u b l i c l : i nt i nce, l b ~ i ' l ' ai mi yah w r i t e s ,
" I n t h e gove r nme nt r e v e n u e s , r i g h t and wr ong h a s I ~ c c n imixcd u p .
So a number o f r e l i g i o u s , l e a r n e d a nd nc c dy p e o p l e a r c n o t p a i d
t h c i r s u b s i s t e n c e , wh i l e t h e r e a r e ;I g r e a t number o f p e o p l e
g e t t i n g p e n s i o n many t i me s mor e t h a n t h e i r n e e d . ' f h c r c re
g r o u p s o f p e o p l e g e t t i n g g r a n t s i n s p i t e o r t h e i r we a l t h a n d
h a v i n g no ne e d f o r i t . . . . Some o t h e r p c o p l c l y i n g i d l e i n t h e i r
p l a c e s r e c e i v e what t h e y d o n o t d o s c r v c , o r j i ct morc t h a n t h e i r
r i g h t s ; t h e y d e n y t h e r i g h t s o f mor e r i g h t f u l p e o p l e t h a n
t h e ~ n s e l v e s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n p r c v wi l s a t mos t o f t h e p l a c e s . " '
From t h e above p a s s a g e i t appe: i rs t l i a t f o r l b n l ' ai mi y: ~h t h e
r i g h t t o r e c e i v e a g r a n t Tram t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y i s b a s e d on a
ma n' s g e n u i n e ne e d and h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i n pub1 i c l i i c , l i k c
e d u c a t i o n a l a nd r e l i g i o u s a i r a i r s ; t l i os c who a r e n o t a c t u a l l y
ne e dy, o r l i v e a mo n a s t i c l i i c arc, t l i c l e a s t d e s e r v i n g ol ' pub
g r a n t s .
C. IBN TAIMIYAII'S AI'I'IIOACII
o f r e ve nue d u r i n g h i s t i me . I n h i s o p i n i o n , t l i c rc.;lsoll o r s uc h
t a x a t i o n i s t h e u n f a i r p o l i c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e i r in-
d i f f e r e n c e t o -- ~ h a r T 2 h . I n h i s book ..I q t ~ . i ga' a1 -~ S i r Z t -.-- a1 - ~ hl ust aqi m -.
. . . . . ( Re qui r e me nt o f t h e S t r a i g l i t P a t h ) , lie wr i t e s t h a t t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s ha ve i n v e n t e d d i f 1- cr ent t y p e s o I' ~ l n j ~ l s t pol i c i c s
f o r r a i s i n g f u n d s whi ch a r e n o t l e g i t i ma t e . . ... Ilad t l i cy c o l l c c t c d
o n l y t h a t whi ch was j u s t and p u t t hem i n t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e ,
t h e y woul d have n n e e r needed t o i mpos e i l l e g a l t a x e s and d u t i e s .
2
The e xa mpl e s o f s u c h t a x e s ha ve he e n c i t e d : ~hovc i n c l c t a i l s I-ron~
h i s own wr i t i n g s .
I t s h o u l d n o t h e i n f e r r e d f r om t l i e ;dhove s t ci t emcnt t l i a t I hn
l ' ai mi yal i i s a t i ~ o l ~ ~ t e l y a g a i n s t a ny t a x o v e r and a hovc t h e ~ h a r ' i ; l h
t a x e s l i k e z a k z h , ' u s h r , k l ~ a r Z j , . c t c . A s we s h a l l d i s c u s s i t
be l ow, he a d v o c a t e s o t h e r 1nonct:lry o h l i g a t i o n s a l s o i l r c a s o n s
t o t l i a t e f f e c t e x i s t from o u t s i d e . No cl ouht , t h i s p c r ~ r ~ i s s i o r ~
(7
w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d o n l y i f t h c S l i i i r ~ i ~ l ~ taxes ; i r e a l r e a d y I' l rl l y
- - - .- -. . -
a p p l i c d . I b n Ta i ~ni ya l l n o t i c e d t h e e x t r ; l vag, l ~i ce o f r u l c r 5 a nd
-~ ~~ - . ~
1 . .
i h i d . MFS Va l . XXVIII, p. 5 7 2 .
t h c i r unnc c e s s a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s on t l ~ e one s i d e and on t h e o t h c r
s i d e he saw a numhcr oC . . n o n - ~ h ; ~ i - ' i ; ~ h - t n x c s ; u l t i ma t e l y he C ~ I I I ~ t o
t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i f ~l ~a ; ; a h t a x e s wer e appl i ed a n d p r o p e r l y
s p e n t , t hey would have hccn cnough i n t h o s c c i r c u ms t a n c v s .
Tbn Ta i ~ni ya h has a n a l y s c d t h c t r e a s l l r v i n h i s age and he h ; ~ s
d i v i d c d t h c r cvcnuc oC Ba i t ;11 ~- I I I GI ~.. i n t o t l l r e c mai n c a t e g o r i e s .
Ile s a y s t h a t i n h i s o p i n i o n p r o p c r t y o f Ha i t a 1 mil i s o f t h r c c
t y p e s . 'I'he r i r s t c a t c g o r y i n c l u d e s T i zahiih and T i f t h o f
hant mah. I n j u n c t i o n s about them a r c known t o cvcr yonc. Thc
L-
s econd c ; ~ t e g o r y i n c l u d c s incomes of- ~ IHxi ~ t a 1 11151 from o t h e r t h a n
t h e above mcnt i oned s o u r c c s , Tor cxanrple hc i r l c s s p r o p e r t y . 111
t h i s c a t e g o r y some s o u r c e s a r e agr eed upon h y a l l d o c t o r s o f
j u r i s p r u d e n c e and some o f them a r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l . The t h i r d
c a t e g o r y i n c l u d c s a11 t h o s e r cvcnucs t a k e n wi t h o u t any r i g h t o r
excus e. Such p r o p e r t y s houl d he r c t ur ~l e c l t o t h c i r a c t u a l owner s
i f i t i s possible t o t r a c e tlicm. 'The c xa n~pl e o r s uch p r o p c r t y
i s t h c c o n f i s c a t i o n by g o v c r i ~ o r s , who c o l l e c t g i 1-ts and l l r opc r t y
of' Musl i ms, t o whi ch t h e y havc 110 r i g h t , and ~ . o n s e q u c n t l y , t l ~ c
h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y makcs them s u r r e n d e r t h e i r own p r o p e r t y o r from
t h c i r i n h e r i t e d we a l t h . 'The a c t u a l owner of' s uch p r o p c r t y i s
n o t known. Anot her exampl e oC t h i s c a t e g o r y i s t h e r c v c ~ l u c s
c o l l c c t e d by newl y i nvc nt c d i mpr oper d u t i c s and s o on and s o
f o r t h . ' A s we s h a l l d i s c i ~ s s l a t e r , he recommends t h a t s ~ ~ r h
p r o p c r t y s houl d hc s p e n t on wc1C;ir.c o f Musl i ms, i f t h c a c t l l a l
owner i s n o t known and i t c a nnot he r c t u r n c d t o thcm. -
a . -- a x I v a s i o . I bn Tai mi yah condcnlns i n j u s t i c e on t h e p; i r t o i
bot h t a x c o l l c c t o r s and t a x paycr s . Ile s a y s "Very o l t c n i n j u s t i c e
( zul m) -- t a k e s p l a c e f r om a u t h o r i t i c s a s wel l a s rroin t h e s ul 1j e c t s ,
t h e f or mer demands what i s not j u s t i l ' i a hl c and t h c l n t t c r d e n i e s
1 . .
i b i d . MFS Vol . XXVIII, p. 5b8
-
g: l t i ons. "Uot h must pay what i s duc. Su l t 5 n and h i s ol ' l ' i c i a l s
s houl d g i v e t o e v e r y r i g h t i u l h i s clue s l r ar c and t l ~c, t a x c o l l cc- t or
,# 2
and o r f i c e - i n c h a r g e s houl d s ~ ~ r r c ~ n t l c r tlic amount p;iy:~I) I ( , t o l r i m .
lie Corbi t l s t a x e v a s i o n , c s p c c i : ~ l l y wlrcn i t i s imposeti j o i n t l y
r casol l i s t h a t , i f ;I pc r s on w i I 1 rot p;ly h i > s l l ar c o f t a x i rom
a common 1 y i ~npos cd f i x e d amount on ; I gr oup o r c.ommun i t y , h i s
s h a r e t o o wi l l hc t r a n s f c r r c i l unt o o t h e r s ' s h n r c and t l ~ u s lrc has
done i n j u s t i c e by t r n n s f c r r i r r g h i s I1urdc.n 0 1 1 o t l ~c , r s . I:or c x a a p l r ,
i f h u ~~c l r c d d o l l a r s a r e l c v i o d on ; I gr oup o f f i v e p e r s t ~ ~ i s a ~ ~ t l one
ol ' them csvadcs payment , he has m:~clc 31 1 t h e r cm: i i ~r i ng l ' o ~ ~ r
pe r s ons t o pay f i v e do1 l a r b morc t l ~ n ~ ~ t l i vi l ' s11;rrc. IIe g i v c s
s uch t a x e s , t 11c iume o f : i 1 bl ; ~; . ; l im a1 Mushtnr;lknlr ( ~ l r c j o i l ~ t
~ ~ ~ . . . .--.- ~ ~ ~.~
tyrnrrrry o r i l ~ j u s t i c r ) . Ilc s a y s thaC t h c s c j o i n t pe opl e wlro a r e
u ~ ~ j u s t l y l ' or t cd t o pay a c e r t a i n ; I ~ I U I I I I ~ milst j u s t l y [?:I). t h e i r
s h a r e . . . . . . A p e r s o n , c i 1 her slio11Id I ) ; I ~ 11 i s s l r i ~r c t o I ) C C O I I I C ' j u s t
o r pay mure t ha n h i s s h a r e ( v o l u n t a r i l y ) t o hccomc gcncr ous . Ilc
i s not p e r mi t t e d t o r e f r a i n from 11aymcnt of h i s s l ~ a r c , s o t h : ~ t
h i s slr:lrc. Ile col l c c t e d From :11 1 tlic o t h e r mcrnl>rrs o f t lrcs g r o r ~ p ,
and t h u s h c c a u s e s an i n c r c a s c i n t l i c i r hur dcn. 13cc~:1usc, w 1 1 ~ 1 r
t l i ; l t amount i s bound t o be c o l l c z t c d , and onc per sol 1 evaclcs i t
1 . (7
~ d e m. a l ~~ - Si yZs ah a1 S h ; ~ r ~ a h , 1). SO.
2 . .
l h l d . I . 4 2 .
*Such t a x e s wcre i ~npns cd on ;I comn~l ni t v o r i nl ~; a I ~i t i l t i l s o f ;I
vi l l age! t o c d l o c t ;i lump sure ; r ~no~l nt o f mo ~ ~ c y t o 1'i11;1ncc t l ~ c
movelncllt o f ar my, r e c c p t i on o r t l ~ c S u I ~ i r n o r c c l c h r ; ~ t ion o l n
Ifunct i on. t xnn~pLc ol' a c ol l c c t i vc 1c.v). i s Found in I S Ii1111ic Law
whcn ;I pcrsorl i s murdctrctl : ~nd mui-dcrcr i s n o t know11; ~ I I t h i s
c a s c ~ ) c o l ~ l c i nhah i t i ng t he :I r o ; ~ o l' i ~ ~ c i dcncc wou I d l)c. ~ U I I I I I I O I I C ~
and o a t h woulcl 11c talcen t o cr r qui r c wlletlicr t hcy know tlrc
~ u d e c r o r I . 111 c a s c o f no t ~ . ; ~ c c 0 1 ' mt l r dcr cr , ~ l i : ~ l i (blood
l ~~o n c y ) would hhc imposed o n :I I I s u c l ~ l ) c opl e , and t l i i , - who l c
amount would he r e a l i z e d from them.
- 2 0 3 -
t h r o u g h h r i l l c r y c t c . , t h e n tic 11.1s dnnc wr ong t o t l ~ a t 11cr s on f r o ~ n
t h a t v i l l a g c . Now i f a p c r s o n , 11;lving SOIII-c-e o f l o r d > l i i p ,
s h ; i i i l ~ s l ~ i l ) o r h r i h c r y , a~; l hcs hi 111se1 r c. xc~npt ed, t h e n 1 1 i s s l l a r c
-- -- ~~ -~ ~~~~
wi l l Ire c o l l c c t c c l f r om o t h c l . c o - i n l l : ~ l ) i t . a ~ ~ t s . 7 ' h i s i s obviously
1
h
i n j u s t i c e r r o n ~ hi 111 i n s 1 i c t c t l 0 1 1 o ~ l ~ c r s .
wl~om h i s ( c v . ~ d e r ' s ) s i l a r c i s c o l l c c t c d . . . . " I Ihn 'I'a i ~ n i yah e x p r c s -
s c s 11is p o i n t wi t h a n exani pl c o r t l ~ c Su l [ i l ni t a x * i ~ n p n s ~ c l on ;I
v i l l a g e . Su p p o s r t e n t l ~ o u s a ~ ~ c l d i r h a ms a r c I cv i cd 011 11ct ol ) l ~ o f
. . ... ~.
b. " . J u s t i c e -- ~ ~~ i n i u s t i c t : " . - ~~ ~- I l e ; ~ d v i s c . s t h c t a x i n g a u t l l o r i t y t o
l a a i ~ l t a i n j u s t i c e i n h i s a c t o f t ; 1x; 11 i o n . liven i f h e i s i ~ ~ ~ p n s i n j !
:I t : ~ x whi ch i s i 1 l c g a l , 11c. nus st i mpose i t on c v c r y 1) c~t ~s on hlio
c a n pay i t , a n d h e s h o u l ~ l n o t c xc nl ~l t s uc' l ~ a person due t o c o n s i -
d ' r a t i o n 111' a ny r e1 a t i o n vr. I i i s I ~ I I I C C . I l ~ n ' fa i1iiiy;111' -;
wn r d i ~ r g s a r c i n t e r c t s t i n g , ;I.; Ilc s a y s ' c v e n t l ~ o u g l ~ t h c t a x i s
1,. d 5 1 ~ ~ 1 l l y . .. u n j u s t h ~ ~ t he 111us1 <lo j c ~ s l i c e i l l t h i s i n j u s t i c e . ' l l c .
s h o u l ~ l 11ot n ~ a n i p u l a t c h i s i n j ~ ~ t i c ~ , I c l ~ i i n g I K ~ O I I I o n e p c ~ ~ o r l
mi l n o t c h a r g i n g 1 1 n I I I s i n r r c ' a s i l i g t h e I111rdc.n 1 3 1 .
the? S i r s t o n c . T l ~ e c x a mp l c of- t ; l ~cl r i n j u s t i c e i s t o c h a r g e t wo
hunJ ~- c c l I'roni a p e r s o n wl l i l c e1111y o n e t ~ ~ ~ n c l r c c l a r c d11c. ' 1' 11~:
r c a s ol l g i v c n by hi m i s psyc-lio-occ1no11iir :is h e s a ys , " ' I ' l ~: ~t l ) c o l ~ l c
~n i g l r t a c c c l r t il' ;I t h i n g i s t : ~ h c n From t l ~ c ~ l n c q u u l l y ill t l ~ c wr ong
* 3
way. But t h c y do n o t a g r e e I 1' some o r t h c ~ n : ~ r c c x c ~ i ~ p t c ~ d . T I I
1l)n ' i ' a i mi y a h ' s v i c w, i 1' sucl i t l i i n ~ s a r e a l h w e d , t h e wc; ~hcl -
c or ~r mu~i i l y wi t h 110 supporters woul d h; l vc t o pay a l l t h e t a x e s ;111d
more t ha n o t h e r s . Ile warns t h a t t h i s w i 1 l cnus c t l c s t r u c t i on ;111d
d i s t u r l i ; ~ n c c t h e e x t e n t s ol' w l r i i l l I I I I t o 1 . IIc r ~ot c>J
t l ~ a t i t was a c t u a l l y h a p p c r ~ i r ~ g d u r i n g h i s t imc.
I
1 I ) n T; ~i mi yah 11:>d wr i t t . en h i s book "a1 Si y3sal i .- 3 ~ - - ~ a1 ~Lr , S I I : I I ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I .... ~ on t h o
r e q u e s t o r t h e t h c n S u l t a n a s ; I guiclc f o r 11 ~ I I I . 1) s work g i v e s
a11 ;lc~c'ollrlt 0 r heads o r revenu(. ant1 ~~xpe nc l i l l l re o r an I s lami(.
gover nment . B u t we c oul d not f i n c l n s o l ~ r ~ c l o know how f a r t l ~ c
Su l t n n was d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d bv 1111s l)ook a l ~ d how Tar he madc
r cf or m o r h i s t r c a s u r y :IS n r e s u l t 0 1 ' Ihrr ' 1' nimiy;ilr' s r ~ ~ i r l c ; ~ v u t ~ r .
Any 11ow i t i.' known from t h e h i s t o r y ol- t l ~ a t p e r i o d t l ~ a t Su l ! d ~ ~
NS.;ir ; ~ b o l i s h e d a r1u1111ic1- o f had t : ~ x e s , :~ntl he c ; ~ r ~ . i c c l :I comprc-
Irctnsivc~ 1i111d 1-eror111 ( Cha pt e r 1 ) . 111 t h c r ol l owi ng we sl1:rll
exnmi ~r e how I l ' ; 1i mi y111 h a s d i s c u s s e d t h e ma t t e r ol' p ~l h l i c .
f i n a n c e .
-~ ~ -~ --
1 . .
i h l d . pp. 3 4 1 - 4 2 .
' i
i .
~ l i i d . MFS Vol . XXVIII, f o o t n o t e p . L 4 1 .
3:- - -
~ d e m. . :I I Si kqs a h .. ~ n l ~ha: . i ah, ~~ pl r 7 3 - 7 0 .
money h l i ndl y. And s iricc t h i s enormous c. xpcnci i t ~i r c i s pos s i h l c
o n l y b y c o l l e c t i n g money rrum pr ol ~c?r and i ~npr ope r source..;, t hc y
hc!cu~ric rol)L)ers on t l i c onc lr;11iJ ; I I I L [ e x t r n v : ~ g : ~ ~ i t on t l i e 0111vr.
'I'hcy spo i 1 t h e i r cl i ances i n t h i s wor l d ; ~rl d i n t l i c l r c ~ ~ c n l ' t c r .
'I'lrc s econd t y p e , ; i t t h e ot her . e a t ~ . c ~ ~ n c , i s o r t.liosc pc opl c who
f e a r o i God, . . . . . and t h i n k t h a t t h c : ; t ; ~ t c i s rlin hy u n j ~ i s t i nct hods
a ~ ~ d i 1 1cg;rl ~ I I COI I I C and cxpcncl i t ur c. s . 7' 11~1- cf or c t l i cs e 11c' oplc
r t : l r ; ~ i n from r a i s i n g any rovenuc: :ind rn;iking : ~ny cxptrntl i t u r c . 'I'licy
wi sh t o hccp t h c n ~ s e l v c s away Tram i t a l l . . . .
'l'llc t l i i r cl and t h e b e s t groul l o f ni i ddl e way i s o r t l i os c pc opl c
wlio : L I - ~ on t h e p; ~t l r (1 r l ' r ophc~t M~d.~:i~~irnad ( 1 ) . 1 ) . u. 11.) ~ I I I ~ 11 i s
s u c c e s s o r s . l'liis gr oup t l ~ i n k s t l r ; ~ t money sl l oul d he\ spent l'or
t l i e b c n c f i t of pcopl c t o hci-11 the111 i n goocl c o r r t l i t i ~ ) ~ ~ i ~n d t o
f ; i c i l i t a t c the, e s t a h l i sl ~nl cnt of t h e i r r e l i p, i on and s e t t l e n i e n t
, ,
0 1 wor l cl l y ma t l e r s . l hcy : Ire pi ous pcoplc.. 'I'hcy col l cc: t t h a t
nloncy o n l y t o whi ch t h c y havc ; I r i g h t . ' l ' l ~cy a r c good and i n; ~t ur c
a d ~ ~ ~ j n i s t r a t o r s . They p r o v i d e nc c c s s a t y and compu1soi.y t h i n g s and
r e r r a i n ~ I . O I I I doi ng p r o h i h i t c d t l i i n j ; ~ .
I
' l ' l ~~i s t lic gover nment cxpcnd i t t l r c s a r c not al ways r i g h t , n o r t hey
; i r e ; ~ l ) s o l n t c l y u n j u s t . I n the, s;1111e way, ;I govcrnlncrit s l i oul ~l n u t
irnpvsc t a x e s : i r hi t r a r i l y nor s houl d i t r cl ' r a i l l Prow col lcict i n s
t l ~ c . ~ r i ;is su1.11. I ) es cr i t ) i ng h i s view 11e s a y s t h a t t h e hvacl o r t h e
s t a t c olll:lit t o c o l l c c t I I I O I I C > ~ o n r r I c c I s ) I i t on
1
p r o p e r lwacls ancl s h o u l d uot ilvriy i t t u t h o s c who cl cs t ~r vc i t . "'
I . .
I ~ I J . pp. 75- 76
2-.-
I . 1). 1 5 .
- .
i n t h e works o f h i s pr edccc! s s or s i n gr. csat d e t a i 1, and s i n c e Iris
i n t e n t ioli was t o f o c u s or1 p r i r i c i p l c s , tic ; cvoi ds l l e t a i l s .
I
Zaki h i s t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e o r t h e i i s c ; l l s ys t em o f an I s l i ~ ~ n i c s
.-
I t i s a compul sor y t:ix imposed on t h e r i c h me~~l hcr s o i t h r blusl
community. II)n l ' ai mi yi ~h s a y s , " I t i s t h e r i g h t ol' pcopl c a s
gi11i11 - ( p r a y e r ) i s t h e r i g h t ol' ( ; 0, 1. "~ 'I'lius i t h a s :I religious
s a n c t i t y t o o , wlljcli ni;ikes t h e 1 - v ; i l i z : ~ t i nn 01 t h i s i ncom~, r i i sy.
-
YI1e
two nlaili pur pos es o r a l a x - l. in;~ncc\ lor- s t a t e t , and r t >duct i on ol -
g a p hctwctcn r i c h and poor - :Ire e i - f e c t i v c l y l ' ul l ' j l I cd by z;rh5h.
~- ~ -- -~
Ihn ' l' aimiyah has empl i asi zcd t h i s a s p e c t o f - z ; l h ; i h . Ilc s a y s t h a t
s;id:lqiit ( a l ms ) a r e due t n 111.1 r i
2- . -.
o p i n i o n from t l l e Qur 5ni c versct
d i c t t h ; ~ t you p r o v i d e f o r your
t l i ; i t t h e b a s i s of zahi t i i s l' el
~ - ~ ..~
i s t h e r eas on t h a t t h e p r i n c i p
s ] ~e n d or1 l i avc-ri ot s o f t l ~ c c i t y
:1l,o11t c3q11;11ity. Ile i nf car r r d h i s
t . h , ~t s uys [ g i v e poor ) t l l c :ivc,raye
I I ~ I V . At : ~not l i c r 1)l;icc h c s:lys
- 3
ow i r c l i rig ( I I I I ~ ~ s ~ I ~ ~ ) . I'rr11:lps t h i s
e i n ~ ~ i s l > u r s e l ~ l c n t o f z;th:Th i s t o
.. ~ . ~ -~
l'1-0111 where i t h:ls licrrr r'al i z c s d ,
u n l e s s t l i cr e i s a c r y i n g need t o 511iFt i t t o o t l i r r places. Accor -
d i n g t o 1 I ) n ' Tainiiy;~li ..~- zak5h ~ ~. ~ I I ; I S hevn impost<! on p t o d ~ ~ c . t i v c p r o p c 1 . 1 ~
e i t h e r i t i s p r o d ~ ~ c t i v c by i t s c l l' ; I S 1 i v c s t o c k s w ~ ~ d c r o p s o r i t i s
pl. oduct i v e h y a 1 t e r a t i o n o r excl i a~i gc ; I S 1ir.t.c i ous nl ct ; ~ 1s and t r a dr
goods. ' ' I' his p r o v i d e s ;III i n ~ ~ r i t i v e t o i ri vcst ment l )c>causc i n the
c a s e o r we a l t h l y i n g i d l e , t h e r e wi l l l)c :i Te:~r- t h a t 7. ; i k; l I i ~ - woul(l
e a t i t u p . I3ut t h e f i x ; ~ t i o r i , , I' r a t e i s sk1c1i t h a t ~ I I C C I I ~ ~ V C t o
work and i n v e s t i s not s uppr c ~s s vd. I l i n Tailliiyah 1i;ls pointed o u t
t h; i t thc. r a t e of z;1h5h . -~ i s i i x c d a c c o r d i n g t o 1al ) our i nvol ved in
d i f ' f e r e nt goods. l ' h e grc:itc.r t h c mount o f l a h o u r irivolvc-d i n t I I V
V I . 'I'llus t i l e 1c; l s t 1ahn1i 1- i s s p c n t wl i r n ;i pi t t ~s or ~ l ' i ~ ~ d s ; I
t rc; i si !rc! r r o v e , s o i n s uch c as c * 11iglit.ht r i i t c i s imposed i . c . one
2 .
~( l cm. 1 Vol . SXV, p . 0 4 1 . . I I I tut' i~nGn :111l?h1lm . . .
T,, . . w i t h t h e :lvt:r;lgc o f ~ I I : I I wlicrewi t h yo11 i cc-d your. ow11 i o l h )
'I'hc u l * l l v : # ! I ) .
3 . .
j I >1J. pp. 8 , 8 4 .
. .. . ~.
4 . .
11,ld. p. 8 .
.. - -.
Sil' tlr 0 1 - t h e e n t i r e amount . 'l'hc r : l t c i s one t e n t h i n c a s e o f
c r o p s i r r i g a t e d t ~ y r ; l i n i ; ~ l l whcre m;ln' s work i s t o [ ~l ougl l t h e 1;lntl
and sow t h c s e e ds . l' lrc l . ; ~t c 1 1 ~ 5 I)rson r c d ~ ~ c c d t o o ~ r c tworrt i ct l r
wlr're more l a b o u r i s i nvol vod ; I S Inan plo11):11s 1;111tl a n ~ l saws t l ~ c
scr cl s a s we l l a s i r r i g a t e s i t . t i n 1 1 i n c x s e o f t h e inconlc
t h a t r e q u i r e s l a l ~ o l ~ r f h r o u g h o ~l t t h c year . , t h e r a t e 01- z ; ~ h i i l l - i s
r educed t o one f o r t i e t h , f o r i ~ x ; ~ ~ n p l ~ ; ~ c c u l n u l ; ~ i i o ~ r o i gol d and
s i l v e r a r ~d mcrchantl i s c .
1
ZahZh -. . . s l r o ~ ~ l d he paic! fro111 ttrc good.; 0 1 - I I I OI I CY (111 which i t i s
i ~nposct l . On t h e q u e s t i o n of payi ng money 111 p1; 1ce 01- goods ,
t h c r c a r c t.hrccs o p i n i o n s among t l ~ c d o c t o r s 0 1 ' I s l ami c j ~ l r i s p r u -
dc ns c . The 1J anaf i - ~. . .~ :, chool a l l o ws i t , wi t h o ~ l t ilny i . ondi t ion w h i 1.
~l r 5l . f : sc-1x001 t o t n 1 1 ) . r c j c c t s i t . I h n T:I ilni y; l Ir t a h c s a s t a 1 1 ~1
1)etwet.n t h e two c xt r c me s . Accord i l l ~ t o 11 i l l ~ s o ~n c t i l l ~ ~ ~ i t i s p,uotl
t o p;ry i n ki nd wh i l c a t ot l r c r s i t i s l >c, t t cr t o pay i l l ~nol l c' y. ~
I i s more e x l ~ l i c i t a t nothe her 1)l;rcv whvr c I I C s : i ys , " I I i t i s
ui~c'oncli t i onal 1y a 1 lowed t c ~ pay t~llc. money V;I l uc 01' t h C co~l~mod i t y
s u l ) j c c t t o - z ; 1k31r , .- t h c r e may 1)c i 111drrval u; i t i u n o f t h a t ~. on~n~ocl i t y
( by t h e z; ~h; l h-pnycrs), Morcovc'r', tire s 1 1 i r i t
l' ccl i ng a n d e q u a l i t y wllich i s h e t t c r r e a l i
same cunlmodity ~ I I which zak3h - i s I l r ~ t
pl ; l cc o i comn~odi t y i s p r r mi s s i l ~ l e pl-ovidctl
t h e zak311-payer t o p r o v i d e i t , o r i t i s i n
I)crrel-ic i a r i e s t o r e c e i v e rnollc>y, o r i t i s o t
j u s t i c e . , , 3
Tl)n 'I'a i111 i y n h ' s vi ews a r c based ~ I I sound ec.ono111 i c c-ons i i l o ~ . ; ~ t i ons .
I n ca.;c o f an irlf1:lt i onar y t r cnt l i n t h c ccorromy p;cylnisnt i n ki nd
i s nrorc l i k e l y t o hc i n t h r i n t e r - c s t o i t h e h c r r e f i c i a r i c s . 111 ;I
1. .
l h ~ d . Vol . XXV, 1, . 8 .
z:---
1I ) l d. Vol . xxv, p. 4 0 .
-.-
3 . .
I . -.. 1 . 8 2 - 8 3 .
sountl a n d s t a l i l c economi c c o n d i t i o n , pay~nerit o f ~ zah;?li -~ ~~ . i n ki nd o r
i n c a s h may not makc any di Tl ' e~. cncc. l 4 1 1 t i n s i s t e n c e 1111 p a y ~ n e ~ ~ t
i n hi nd a l l t h e times would c r v a t c d i C l ~ i c u l t i e s I-or ?.:~h:~li-payers
~ .. .
a s wol l a s t h e b e n e f i c i a r i c s . I t wo~r l d i n v o l v e c.ost.5 01' t r a n s -
p o r t : i t i o n , s t o r a g e e t c . I b n T: I LI I I ~ Y; L~ I t a h r s ;I r ~ ' ; ~ l i s t i c view o l
t h e ma t t e r ant1 l e a v e s i t I ' I ~I - t h c ; ~ u t l l o r i t i c s t o adopt c, i t l l cr oI'
t h e two i l ~ct hods o l c o l l c c . t i ~ ~ g zahh accor di n) : t o t h e c i r c ~ ~ n ~ s t : l n c c s .
t h e Fut ur e g e n e r a t i o n s . I I n ' l ' : ~ i ~ n i y l i a I I r evenue o t h e r tIi;ln
-
gh3ni111i1h ~ and zaknh I'al 1 u n ~ l e r t h i s rt : l t cgory whi ch i ~ ~ c l ~ l d c s t h e
f u l lowinp, , a p a r t l r o n ~ boot y rcc: ci vcd I'ronl t h c enemy w i t h o ~ ~ t
a c t u a l ccrn~liat; on whi ch t h e tcr111 w; ~ s appl i c ! d i n t l ~ e S i r s t i ~ ~ s t a n c c .
1'011 t i ( z ~ ) iml)oscd on Jctws ar~cl Ch r i s t i a u s .
' l ' ~ . i l ~ u t e s pa i d by t h c enemy.
Custom d u t i e s o r t o 1 1 t a x imposed on t l i c t r a d e r s ol' t l ~ c enemy
c o u n t r y .
1: i nanci al p e n a l t i e s .
KIiar.3 i .
Ilnc l a imed p r o p e r t y .
I l c i r l c s s p r o p e r t y .
1)t.lmsi t s , d e l ~ t s 01. usurpc:(l pl . ol l c~. t y wl~osct a c t 11a1 owi ~cr i .; 1101.
known s o t h a t i t c o u l d Iic r c t u r n c d t o hi111.
A n y o t h e r new s o u r c c 01- inc.o~nc
As we w i l 1 d i s c u s s l a t c r o n , con1 r a r y t o s o~nc ot l i c r th i n k c r s Ih11
1~ 0
'I';liiniy;111 does not l i mi t t h e SOI I I . CCS 0 1 ' i1icomc/z;lk71h -~ .~ a n ~ l o t h e r
e xpl i c i t l y ni ent i oned s o u r c e s ; he 1c;lvtrs t h e door open l o r new
t n x c s , i S n e c e s s a r y .
11111 I';i i ~ ~ ~ i y a h d o e s n o t d i s c u s s l h c ; ~l i ovt r s o u r c t 9 s o f i ncome i n
d c t a i I . 'l'he rc:lson i s t h a t t l rcy wcr-e wcl l -known t o t lie a r ~ t l l o r i -
t i c s of' hi s t i me . P e r h a p s , t h e nl;lttc,r- o r p111il i c c.upc.ncliturc was
more i mp o r t a n t t o I l i a ) , t hc, rcl -orcx, a s wc. ~ l ~ a l l see., ]I(! dc~vot c: s ,
ma j o r p a r t o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s aspect 0 1 - p u l ~ l i c f i n o ~ ~ c e .
Ac c or di ng t o 11 im t h e :I i n o f I i n a n r i ; I l lic\r1;11 t y sl1o11 l c l 11ot lit, t o
r ; ~ i s c r und; h u t t o i ~l l o l is11 c v i l s . 1 f i 1 1 1 c i 1 1 pcrl;tLty i s ~ n c : ~ n t
t o r ; ~ i s c I ' LI I I ~ S, i t miry hell' i n c l i l . l ' us i o~l ol' c v i l s , ; ~ni l h u r t the,
v c r y c n u s r o f p c n a l t y .
2
t r act t h ; ~ t k h a r a j . i s imposcd on ctvcry r i r t i l c k h a r s ~ i 1; 11r r l wh e t l ~ e r
.~ .. . .
i t grows o r n o t , w l ~ i l c ' ~ ~ s h r i s l e v i e d on growrl c r o p o n l y .
1
- -
A pas s ngc I'ron~ h i s l : ; ~t aw: ~ shows t l ~ a t . Ithn TLI ilniyah was a s t rong
- - . . .
supporter o f hut l get i ng and s t r i c t arlmini s t r a t i on 0 1 ' f i n ; ~ n c e s .
Ilc s a y s t h a t , "'l'lrc revelroe i n t r u s t ol- hcad o r r u l e r I I I I I S ~ Ihc
t r e x t e d on sound cont l i t i ons appr ovr d 1)y t h c liook o r A1 1aI1. A c l ~ n i -
n i s t r a t o r s s ho~l l t l he a p p o i n t e d iS t l i er c i s none t o l ook a l t e r
i t . . . . An i n s p e c t o r g e n e r a l shot l r l i)c : I ~ I I I ~ i nt ccl t o s upc r v i s c a 1 I
; ~ d i n i n i s t r n t o r s a nd c o l l e c t o r s accor d i ng t o i ~ c : ~ r l and r e q u i r e me n t s .
Somet i mes t h i s appoi nt meut 11eco111cs t h e nwst u r g e n t : ~ n d i mp o r t ; ~ n t
need i i i n l a c k o f s uch appointment, rcvcl l uc 11ray 11ot lhc c ol l c c t e c l
and s p e n t p r o p e r l y . He c ; ~ ~ . ~ s c , when cornpl ot i on o f :in oh1 i g a t o r y
t h i n g dcpcnds on o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e 1; l t t c. r a l s o 1)ecomes o h l i g a -
t o r y ; s omet i mes , t h e hcad hi mscl l l nny assume t h e por t l ' ol i o 0 1 -
i n s p c ~ t o r g e n c r a l i T work i s n o t mur.h and 11c i s a l ~ l e t o rtln the.
7
d c p a r t n ~ e n t e f f i c i e n t l y . " - I n b r i e f we call s a y t h a t : ~i ' cgr . di ng t o
l l ) n I' aimi yah, t h c r u l e r trns 17rce 11;lnd i n o r g a n i z i n g I ' i n a n c i t 1 1
a d mi n i s t r a t i on and c o l ~ t r o l t o t h e p u l ~ l i c - I h e r ~f f i t , l e ; ~ r n i n g 1-ron~
h i s own c. xper i cncc ;IS we l l a s I'rom t l ~ c c. xper i c~i ccs ol' o t h c r s . 11)
a l l c-ascs he must choos e hone s t and :11>Ie pe r s ons f o r t l ~ : ~ t pur -
3
pos e.
The I ~ a s i c p o i n t emphasizetJ l >y I I ~ I I 'l'a i r n i yah r c ga r d in): cxpcndi t u r e
i s t h a t tlre pub1 i c r evenue i s a t r t l st in t h e 1l;rntls ot ' : ~ u t h o r i t y .
1 .
id en^. MFS Vol . XXV, p. 150.
So l ~ e s houl d slicnd i t i n t h c b e s t i n t c r c s t 0 1 ' t h e p u b l i c a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e i l l s t r u c t i o n o f Al l a h . Ile s a y s j r ~ s t i c c s houl d l)o ~ ~ l a i n t ; ~ i ~ l c d
amollg pc opl e regarding f i r ~ a ~ ~ c c ~ a s c n j o incd l )y A l l a h ; I I I L ~ h i s
1
mcs s cngcr , and t l ~ c manager s o f i c vc nue s l ~; [ ve no rig111 t o tl i s t r i -
b u t e t l l e~r ~ a c c o r d i n g t o t h c i r whims, a s an owner d i s t r i l ~ i ~ t e s h i s
property. Uu t t h e y a r e o n l y c a r e t ; i kcsrs, v i c e r o y s and t r u s t c c s
2
and n o t t h e owncr s. Accor di ng t o llim tile head o f s t u t c h ; ~ s no
mol-c r i g h t t o pub1 i c r evcnuc t ha11 a c-omnion c i t i z e n . Ile q u o t e s
t h e cxarnplc o f t h c s ccond c a l i p h 'Omar b i n Khaf;HI) who was uskcd
hy a per s on t o i n c r e a s e some e x p e ~ ~ d i t u r c on 11i1nscl I' ( / o~n; l r ) . ' l ' l ~c
Ca l i ph rep1 i c d "Do you know t l ~ c c- x; ~i nl ~l c o r myscl f and t l l es e
p c o p l c ? ' I' lleir cxampl e i s l i k e a gr oup o f ~ i c o l ~ l c who wcr e i n
j o t ~ r n e y ilnd they g n t h c r c d t h c i r h e l o n g i ~ l g s and ~l cposi t . c. d i t wi t h
a pc r s on :~mong them t o spend i t I I I . So would i t 11c pr ope r
f o r him t o pr e l ' c r hi ms cl t o thcm i n t h e i r p r o p e r t y . , , 3
I hn l ' ai mi yah f o r h i d s t h c r u l e r t o give :I I W ~ S U I I ; I I I Y ; I I I I ~ U I ~ ~ t h ; ~ t
he docs n o t d e s c r v c , j u s t l ) ec; ~usc of l ~ i s w h i m o r nepot i s m c t c .
Ile i s s t r i c t l y a g a i n s t t h e c x p c n d i t u r c on t l l e i n s t i t u t i ous ol '
1
e v i l s l i k e p r o s t i t u t e s , s i n g c r : ~ , j o h c r s . In t h e c a s e of cxpcn-
c l i t u r c , p r i o r i t y s l ~ o u l d he gi ve n t o l l l c most i ~a p o r t a n t i t e ms ; cr l d
t h e next most i mpor t a nt ; I I I ~ I s o on, i l l t h c o f t h o g c n c r n l
5
we1 [ a r c o f Musl i ms.
'The main hc;cds o f e x p e n d i t u r e , i n llis vi cw, a r c a s Fol l ow:
a- p o o r and nc c dy.
11- u p k e e p i n g ar my f o r j i l l : ( l ~ n d ( I C ~ C I I C ~ .
c - In;l i nt cl nancc o f i n t e r n a l Law ; ~r l c l o r d r r .
(1- p e n s i o n s , and s a l a r y o f o f F i c . i ; ~ l s .
c - c d u c a t i on.
f - i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , R I I ~
g- p,cncr';ll we1 f a r e .
'l'hc a l ~ o v c i l i s c u s s i o n i s concer necl wi t h t h e ~novc; i l ) l c I l r i l pc r t y. A s
1 . .
1 l ) l c l . MI:S V o l . X X V I I I , 11. 5 b ? .
21-1-
~ b l d . MI : % Vol . X, 17. 280.
~ . . .
f a r i ~~i r novnl ~l c p r o p e r t y , l i h c l a n d , i s ( . onccr n( ~cI , Th n ' l' aimiynh
oppos es ~ h a f i ' i ' s vi ew t l ~ a t I I I I ~ I I I [nust Cl i s t r i t ) ut e i t a l s o . Ile s a y s
t h a t i t (lepencls oil t h c head; i S he t h i n h s t h a t i t s ( l i s t r i h u t i o n
i s ; ~ d v i s ; ~ l ~ l c , , he may d i s t r i h u t c i r r ol l owi ng t h e cx: r ~npl c o r t l re
I ' r opl ~ct ilnd i f he t h i n h s t h a t t Ire i ~r t er cbs t ol- conl~r~tlni t y r c q u i r c s
n o t t o d i s t r i h u t c i t , tllcn llc may do s o i o l l owi ng t h e p r a c t i c e
oT brnnr - t h e s e c o ~ ~ d c a l i p h .
I
T l ~ r r e i s no controversy o v c r the, I l c ~ ; ~ c l s o f c.xpc-ncliturc oS z ; l k Z h . .. . . . -
I ) c c a r ~s e i t s h e n e f i c i n r i e s I I ; I V C hccn n;~lnc:d i n I i n . It111
Ac c o ~ d i n g t o 1 1 i m t h e f i r s t two nlc:lrt t h e rrec,cly persons who have I I O
s ~ r S S i c i c n t income, wi t h t h e d i Pf c r c . ~~c - c t l r at onc t y p e of l ~e ol l l v
bcg v h i l c o t h e r d o n o t . A r i r l r pe r s on o r :I s t ur ( l y nl;111 ; ! hl c t o
e a r n wi l l not he gi vc n rrorn zakulr, ' Wor ker s olr z : ~ h i ~ h ' Incs;llls 11otl1
~~
tradition
SLI CI ~ ; I pc
mean.; L ~ I I ~
1 -
i d . p i . 66- 70.
'?- - ~
'. .
I ~ ~ I I I . M1;S Vol. X I X , p i . 2 5 7 - 5 8
3 . .
~ h l c l . MI,S Vol. XXV, p. 8 1 .
- -
d i r e c t l y t h e same obj e c . t i vc
ur r j ust rll 1 c r , may h;lrm t h e
r e g a r d s ut l l cr t y p e s o f cove
t io11 o f
i s . As
i 1 s houl d
be p a i d even i f t h e r u l e r i s not j u s t .
I
I i s i .s I ~ o c : ~ ~ ~ s c ~ he
r e g a r d s t h c i n s t i t u t i on o r goverlrrrlerlt t o 11e i l r c v i t a b l c cven
7
t hough i t may not be j u s t . "
a . . l i xpe~~cl i t ui - c ~- . . or1 . - - - 1)cferrcc. -~ ~ . cjlrc o f t l ~ v ~ > ~ i ~ n c I i o f t h e
s t a t e i s t o s a ve i t s pcopl c from t >xt cr n; r l a t t a c k . liven i n t l l c
govcr nu~cnt s i s d i r e c t e d t o t h i s end. In t l ~ e ;iy,e o f 11111 ' I' ai mi yah,
de f e nc e was t h e ut most n e c e s s i t y of t i ~n c , i n t h c wake o f cr ut ; adcs
and Mong61 a t t a c k s . Ile, t h c r c f o r c , i i np; l rt s ~ r c n t s i gni I i c ; ~ n c c t o
t h e e x p e n d i t u r e on army and ; ~ c ~ . u i l i a r i e s . Ap;irt from z:~h:ih ~ ~ .. ; i nd
glli~n.&a1l, r evenue from .. F; l i J . would \I(! t.licrlt 011 tlicln. Tl i c - y a r c t h e
I I I U S ~ d r ~ s c r v i n g o f . f a i ' i l l s t r i l - t s e n e i . . irrcolnc gai ned I'rom
cr~c.~ny withou:: a c t u a l f i g h t ) - bc c nr ~s c t l i cy a r e ~ h e s o u r c c of the,
L
a t t a inrrrcnt 01 s uch incomc. W;lr-widows ;ind t h c i r c h i l d r e n w i l l
a l s o 11c s uppor t e d L'rom pul, 1 i c r cvcnue. ' l' h i s was ; ~ h o u t dcl ' cncc~
from e x t e r n a l a t t a c k . As Far ns i ~ ~ t c r ~ l a l pc3:lce :11id s c - c l ~r i t y i s
0
~ o ~ ~ c e r n o c l , he s t r r s e s t 0 a t t h i s i ~~c- or nc w u l d i~ 150 1 ) ~ ' ~ [ i e n t 011
3
s a l a r i e s and wages o f t l i osc~ who ~ , I I ; I I , ~ t h e t e r r i t o r y . I I X ; I I I I ~ ~ I ~ ~
0 1 ' cxpcrld I t u r e on m:l i nt cni l nce o f i ~l t c>r n; l l o~, cl ur 1s t hc. ; ~l r ~o u ~i t
g i v c r ~ f o r r e c onc i 1 i : ~ l i o ~ ~ o f hc nr t 5 . Accor J in&: t o him such I I I U I ~ C ~
can he g i vcbn bot h t o be l i cvc?r s ; ~ n d n o n - t ~ c l i c v c r s , s o t h a t t hcy
mifilit i l ccept p e a c e f u l 1 i vi r l g : ~ r ~ d t h c i r mi s i h i r f i s avoided.
4
l i xpendi t ur e on pol i c e and ot hr Sr jlc;ice kccpi nf : f o r c e s iuiiy e;lsi l y
I)e i ncl uded i n I l l i s c a t e g o r y , o r t hcy m:iy 11c count ed wi t h thc,
; ~t l l ni ni s t r;lt i v e and m i n i s t c r i : i l i n; i l . I r i nc r y of t h e g o v c ~ n ~ n c ~ r t .
l a i d down by 1l1n ' Sai rni y; ~h rcp,:i rd i ng 1r ul ) l i c cxl >c*ndi t ur e i s t o
s t a r t Crom t h c most i l npor t ; ~nt and then go t o t l i c nc:xt i ~ n p o r t a n t
i t em. P r i o r i t y s houl d he gi vcn t o p1.11~luc.t i vc cx. pcndi t ur cs r ; ~t h c r .
T
t h a n unpr oduc t i ve ones.'* Si n c e i n . ~. ; i h?~h ancl S i S t 1 1 ) ! , I \ : I ~I I I I ; I ~I ~ ~
p o ~ r and ncecly peopl c have :I 1 i r e I I , t hur cxSur c, i n . t'ai' ..~ -
r cvenuc o t h c r s o c i a l and wc~1fart . works 11;lvc llccn gi vc n p r c i c r c n c c
o v e r t her~i . I f r cvcnue Crom zak5li i s not s u r l i c i c i ~ t and f a ?
~- ~ ~~~ ~~.
income l c a v c s no s u r p l u s t o lbe s p c n t o n tlleln, add i t iori:ll Funcls
m,iy he i . ; ~i s c d i'or them ;is wc ih.1 I I s e e s h o r t l y .
I n t l ~ e ahovc pngcs we have I t l ~ e ; ~ l ~ p r o a c d ~ 0 1 . 1t1n 'I'a iruiyah
t owar ds pub1 i c income ;111d puhl i c c~xy~c:nd i t u r c I I t I . l i i s
t rc:itlncnt o f cxpcncli t u r e i s inc1r.c ~ - u ~ n p r c h c n s i ve th:i11 t l ~ ; ~ t or
income. Ilc has gr ouped a1 l p~l h l i c i ncolnes i n t o t l i r c c c; ~t - cp, or ic'.;.
'l'hc h a s i s of t h i s d i v i s i o n i s a l s o t l ~ c t I I ~ ; I < I s o f t h e i r - e xpe ndi -
t u r e and t h c n a t u r c o f r evenues . Ilc f o r l ~ i t l s t;ix evasion ;inJ
a d v i s c s : ~ ~ l t h o r i t i e s t o d o j11st i r e i n impo.; i t ion and cc1l 1cc.t io11
ol' t ; l xcs , cven i f t he y a r e I I I e l s o t h a t a11 l ~ a v e c : q ~ 1 ; 1 1 s i ~ c r i -
f i c c . Ilc war ns a g a i n s t t l l c consccluc!nc.es oC ~ l i s ~ r i m i n ; ~ t io11 : ~ n d
i n j u s t ict! i n t a x i ~ n p o s i t i o n .
wh i c h i r i c l u d e p o l l t a x ~ . ; , t a x e s on 1;lrld ; ~ n d :11 1 l n i s c c ~ l l a n c o ~ ~ s
taxes, may n o t p r o v e t o h c s u l - f i ~ . i c ~ n t a 1 l t h e t i mcs (. or ;I govern-
ment f o r i t s d c f e n c e and dc' vcl oj~lnc-11 t c xpc nd i t u r c . N L I W t lie ( ( u c s -
t i o n i s wl i et l rcr s t a t c woul d h e ; i l lowc.(l t o ilttpose nc3w t : l s cs : I I I ~
f o r w ; ~ r i s v e r y c l r n r c vc n t l i c ! r u l e r i s no1 v e r y j u s t . The
ar1:11111(~11t i s t h a t iC t h e r e i s ricccl t o I' in;lncc. ; I war ; I I I ~ l ' i t ' l r t :is:liri.;
t h e c.nelny, t h e wcl 1- t o- do 1111tst c u l t t r i l > u t ~ i t , I I C C ; I I I ~ ( ' i t i s
h e t t r r t o pay some money t o t h e c o r r u p ; n u t h o r i t i c s o f your own
L
Sur d e f e n c e , ttlaut l c t t h e c~licnly s n; l t cl l ; i l l p o c t y W I I t . i g h t .
A t fro111 ' t r a d i t i o n s ' t h a t I:,) i n 1 h c I ' : I V O I I ~ o f tJ111%c t l l i ~ l h ~ r s
who l i ol d t h a t any t a x n t iort o t l i c r th:ilt /;!h;lJ! 1s ur i i us t C Y C C , ~ ~ i n
t h e c ; ~ s c o f wa r , 1l 1c. y sceln t o l i ol d t h a t s o u r c e s o r r c v c n c ~c
c I I I i I i ' I aliatnni Fa ' I ; I I ~ ; I I I ~ I I I I I I i 11 rn:I?ii l i I . I ;I I MI I S I i l l 1 i 11 ; I I ' ? i n ~ t n i ~ l i h : ~
- c -~ ~- .~-
~ ~~-p-
Gf 3 1 I I ~ L I I ~ . .. 1 1 1 1 ~~ 1 i ~ 1 - I - .~ ~ - I i ~ I - - I . I i I I I I .~~ I ~~ I ~ I I I ~ . ~~
.
I S i yz s a l i '
I . ' I . " As f a r cxl >ct i J i tllrc, i h ' ( - o n c ( ~r l i c ~l . i t i s ~ t ( ~ c ~ ~ s s : ~ r y i l l
i
I ' I ~ i t ~ i y l ~ , I 1 . X X X , 11. 3.12.
-4
p r e s c r i b e d by -- S h a r i t ~ l i a r e criougti t o meet t h c f i n ; ~n c . i n l ~ . c q u i r c -
mc n t s , and o n l y war i s a n e mc r g e n i y c o n d i t i on tl1;it may r c qu i r c
u n u s u a l l ' i na nc e . They had ol ?s cr vci l t h a t t h e h e a d s of s t a t e wer e
e x t r a v ; i g i l n t s und mos t o f t l l c i r c xpr l l di t u r c s we r e n o t 1-01. collmorr
we l f a r e . T h i s i s c l c a r f r um t h e s t ; l n ~ l t ; r k c ~l by I I I I ~ I I I I N ; L I I W ~
( I 223- 1277) who r e f u s e d t o g i v e 1cg; l l d c c r c v i n S; ~vou r oi-
i ~ a p o s i t i o n o f new t a x e s , a t t l i c r c, qucs t ol' t h e t h e n Sul t 511 Z5l 1i r
1\;1il1;1 r s , u n l e s s h c woul d n o t s u r r e n d e r 31 1 o r n a mr n t h c r ~ j o y e d hy
h i s i ami l y i111d h o u s e - wi v e s t o t h e l \ ; ~ i t ;11 m:?I and s t o l ) Irolir
- - -. .
c x t r a v a g ; l n c e .
1
S i n c e l b n l ' ai mi yah p r e s c r i b e s ;I n~111il)cr ol' d u t i e s [ ' or . ; t ; ~ t c a n d
i l ocs n o t o v c r l o o k t h e p o s s i l , i l i t y o f 1 ~i n a n c i : i l c l c f i c i c r r c y ,
h c i s o f t h e v i e w t h a t t h c r c mi g h t h e f i n a n c i : ~ l o h l i g a t i o n s o t h c r
t h a n zak5l 1. t l i s statement t h a t " p c o p l c s h o u l d l i el l l circh o t h e r i n
t h e ma t t e r o f f o o d , c l o t h ;ind s h e l t e r - ; t l ~ : ~ t t h c hc a d o l t h c s t ; ~ t c -
)
s h o u l d t a k e t h i s r e s p o n s i l 1 i l i t y and lie can f o r r c t l i c ~n t o d o i t ,'.
g o e s i n t l ~ c f a v o u r o f i mpos i ng f r r ~. t h c r - t a x e s i f t h e i r ~ ~ c o d s a r c
n o t i' ul l ' i l l c d hy regular i ncome O P t h e s t a t e . I I c s t r o ~l p , l y
coi rdcmns t h c t h i n k e r s who de ny t h e r i g l ~ t o f s t a t e t o i mpos e ncw
t a x e s . Ilc s a y s t h a t most o f t l r c ps e udo j u r i s t s wi t h i ~ n p c ~ - l v c t
knowl cdgc Jerry t h e o h l i g ; l t i o n i mp o s c ~l l ~ y t h e ~ h ; ~ r & l ~ ~ -~ ~. .. and h c l i c v c
t h a t " t hct r c i s n o r i g h t i n o n e ' s p r o p e r t y e x c e p t Zilklrh" ~ --- i s ;I
g c n c r a l r u l e , ancl t h e y a r c n o t nwilrc o f t h e t r ; i c l i t i or r r c l ) o r t c d
by l ; : ?t i mah i n t h e hook of ~ i r m i ~ l l ~ f t h a t t h e r e i s ; I c l a i m on o n ~ % ' s
"
.>
p r o p e r t y o t l i c r t h a n ~ zakR1i. . . .~~ l hn ' I ' a i r ni y; ~h' s s y ~ l t l r e s i s o f t h e two
s ecmi r i gl y c o n t r a d i c t o r y tr;icI i t io11s i > a l ~ p r c c i a b l e . I I < % s i l ys t l l i r t
k h a i l l ' i n a n c i a l old i g a t i o n s o t h c r tl1;111 :;rk;lh a1.c due. i l l o l l e ' s
-
- -~
~ ~ ' o l i c r t y h e c a u s c o f t wo cli f fc. rc, r~t T: l ct c)rs. ' l' hc l ~ a c t o r l >csl i i11c1
i l ~ r p o s i t i o n o f - zak;?li is t h c p o s s c s ~ i o l r o f p r o p c r t ; i n ; I c c r t i l i ~ r
' S ~ ~ G ~ T , op. c i t . ~ o l . I I , 1). I OS .
211)rr Ta i mi y a h , MFS Vol . X X I X , 11. 1!14.
3 . .
~ l ~ l t l . p. 187.
nmoi.int, t h a t i s p r o p e r t y i t st . 1 I - i s t h e rcasorl for. :tak:ili. Thus
~ ~ .~
t l i er c i s no r i g h t c xc c pt .. zahlili ~ . - i n o n e ' s p r o p e r t y d u r t o p r o p e r t y .
I n crtlicr wor ds , he cons i d c r s z; l h; l I i - . . : I S ;I wr al t l i t a x . As Tar ns
t h e ot her . f i n a n c i a l o h l i g a t i o n s ; I I . C conc. cr ncd, t h e f a c t o r , ill h i s
o p i n i o n , i s not p r o p e r t y , hut rlnergcrlcc o i ne e d, ; ~ n d rc, c[~~ i r c n ~c n t s .
For exalnplc expcndi t - ur e ~ I I r c l ; i t i v e s , i l cl p i n ca1; l mi t y c. tc. 111
such ~ i l s c s p r o p e r t y i s n c o ~ l d i t i o n , n o t ;i f ; l ct or l-or I - i r i : ~nci al
hc l p. l i very one ha s t o cont r i h u t c ; i cc~orcl i ng t o h i s c-xp:lc i t v .
Thus, i t hccomcs c l e a r t h a t t h c r c ;ire r i g h t s ot l i cr t ha n 7ahZli
when s uch needs a r i s c i n t l i c s o c i e t y , ; i n d - ~l l a r i ' 4h -- -. .. . Ii;ls s t r c s - ; c d
i ul f i . l l nr c nt of s uch needs i r r c s p e c t i v e o r t h e I cvcl ol: o n e ' s
wr n l t h . I mpos i t i on o f . z a k 3 h . . . - - - i s due t o c x i s t c r ~ ~ e oi' wen l t l i i n a
c e r t i ; i 11 ; ~mou~l t and i t has tci l ~ e t ; i her ~ out cven it' t l r er c i s no
b e n c Ci c i ; ~ r y o f zaki l h .- i n t h a t c . i t y ; ~ n d i t has t o lie s ~ n t t o ot l r cr
p l u c c s .
1
I l cr or c Ihll Tai mi yah no o t h r r t h i n k e r h: ~d ; ~dvoc; i t eel t hr l i r r a ~ ~ c i n 1
o h l i g a t i o n o t h c r t ha n -- z a k 3 h -. ~ ~~ - s o : ; t r ongl y c x~- c %pt I1)n ljazn~ ( 9 9 1 - l O( 1 4 )
who s a ys t h a t i t i s t h e dut y o f t l i c r i c h peopl e oC cvctry
t o s u p p o r t t h e poor ones . And t h ? r u l r r ha s :I r i g h t t o Sore.(,
thcnl t o do s o , i f -..... z a kZh ; I I I J ot l r cr r cvcnuc o f t h e ' 1' 1~r i 1~11t . y I S n o t
s u f f i c i e n t f o r them.
2
A conr par i s ion o f Ihn ' l ' ; l i mi y; l h' s c c o ~ ~ u mi c vi ews i n c l l ~ d i ng h i s
r e r l e c t i o n s on puhl i c Pi l ~; i nct % w i t h t h o s c of' hi - ; p r c d c ~c e s s o r s ;IS
we1 l a s t h e t h i n k e r s a f t c r h i ~n w i 11 I I C o ~ i r 111;lin conccr.11 i n t h e
f o l l o wi n g c h a p t e r .
L
Ihn I ~ ; I Z . I I I , .-r Ki t nh 3.47- a1 n.y.-v Mub:~l I n , ~- ell. y 1 n 1 S i r i : i i 1
Mu ~ r i k i ~ a l ~ , . . . , I . I , 1 . i 50- 59.
(CONCI.US1 ON)
A s w e h a v e S CCI I i n t h e pr c c c c l i ng c h ; ~ l t t c > r s , t h e e c o n o l ~ ~ i c i d e a s o i
I hn ' l ' ni mi yah a n d o t h e r Musl i m 1 ~h i n k c 1 . s 11:ive t h e i r o r i i ! i n i n t h e
I s l ; ~ mi c j u r i s p r ~ ~ d c ~ ~ c e , wliic11 i s t l ~ v SI I I I I t o U J o f c l r i ~ r i n j u n c t . i o n s
o f t h e ( ! L I ~ ' ; T ~ a nd t h e Su n n a h , ancl o f t h c l r g a l r eas oni n! ! o r an; l l ogy
and consensus o f t h e d o c t o r s o f the* r i mc . 111 t h e v e r y c o n ~e ~e n c e -
mc n t , t l ~ c Qur'211 11as c l e c l : ~r c d c l c ; ~ r l y t l i ; ~t i t s t cacl l i 111: s a r e n o t
meant f o r a n y p : ~ r t i c u l a r n a t i o n o r region b u t i t i s ~. c vc a l e c l Sor
t h c whol e manki nd. I t h a s givc7n :I b u n c l ~ o f i n j u n c t i o n s and
g c l i c r a l p r i n c i p l e s f o r ma n ' s i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l c o n d u c t , and
e n c o u r a g e d i t s f o l l o wc r s t c i u s e t h e i r t l i l n k l n g power .
I c t r r e s u l t 01- s u c h i n s t r u c l i o n s was a p p e a r ; l n c c o f ; I c h a i n
o f j u r i s t d o c t o r s a ~ l d a v a s t 1 i t r r a t u r c on ~ U I - i ~ p r u d ~ n r c . 'Shcy
t o u c h c d c v c r y a s p c c t o f 1 i Se i n c l u d i n g t h e cconor ni c o n e . Alllonfi
t h e Compani ons o f t h e I ' r ophcl t l ~ c . r c we r e ;I iiulnlicr o f c x l l e r t s i n
1sl : l l ni c j u r i s p r u d c n c c f r om whom p c o p l c used t o t a k e l e g ; ~ l rt 11 i n g s
on t h e ncw i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g t hem. Hy t h e cntl ol ' t h e i - i r s t
c c n t u r y ~~ l l i j -. r a l ~ -- t h i s s c i e n c e g o t t h e l'u 11 molncntull~ wl ~c n Clusl i n~s
e n t e r e d a ncw c r o , i n t h e s e n s e t11;lt t h e I s l a mi c c a l i p l l a t c s p r c a d
o v c r ;I l a r g c r p a r t o r t h e L I I O WI I c i v i 1 i zed wo r l d . 7'hc.y CnccJ new
c i v i l i z a t i o r ~ s ; and ncw pr ol r l ems a r o s e regard i n 8 t h c i r s o c icrl 1 i i. e,
b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s , t r a d e and c o ~ t ~ mc r c e , c t c . A riuml,cr o f s c h o o l s
i n j u r i s p r u d e n c e ; ~ p p c n r c d on ~ I I L ! s c c n c . 'I'hcy a na l ys c c l t l ~ c f a c t s
and h a s i c t e a c l l i n g s oC I s l a m, a ~ ~ c l p r r p a r r d t h c r t ~ r l c l a ~ ~ ~ e r ~ t n l p r i n c i -
p l c s :tppl i c a b l e i n a 1 1 k i n d s o f s o c i ; 1 1 p r o h l c ms . 'I'll? 1- 01 low i n s
s t a t e me n t o f Schumpet er i 5 more f ~ t t i n g t o t l i t ~ m t ha n ,lny one
- e l s e :
"They pr oduced p r i n c i p l e s t h a t wcr c not onl y nor ma t i vc , hut : l l s o
e x p l a n a t o r y . They c r c a t e d ;I j u r i s t i c l o g i c t h a t was ; ~ p p l i c a b l c
t o a wi de v a r i e t y 01 s o c i a l p ; l t t c ~- n . So Sar- ;IS t h e i r f a c t s wer e
economi c, t h e i r a n l a y s i s was cconoinic ; ~ n a l y s i s . ,, 1
I t i s wor t hwhi l e t o r ~ o t c h e r e t h a t t h e r unda~ncnt : ~l s o u r c c s o l
I s l a mi c jurisprudence, i n t h e f i r s t p l ; ~ c c , a r c t h e Q u 6 n and t l ~ c
-
Sunnah, and i n t h e s e c c ~ ~ d p l a c e a r e tllc q i y , ~ s - ~ -~ ( ann l og i c a l r eas on-
i n g ) ar t \ t h e i &~' ( c ons c ns us - of t l ~ e 'u1;lmn). l'llcy a r c suppl cment cd
hy some s e c o r ~d a r y sour ces: s t ~cl l ; I S ... 1 s t i l 1s 3n ~ - - . J 11re F C ~ C I I C C 1'01. t h e
b e t t e r ) , I s t i s l ~ l , ~ o r ~ : t s n l i l l r nr ~r . s; ~l ah .-- ~. ~ ~. ( c o n s i d e r a t i o l ~ of p u b l i c
i ~ ~ t e r c s t ) . - i ~ a r k r a h -~ ( n e c e s s i t y ) , e t c . Let us c o n s i d e r tl1e111 i n
some d e t a i l and s e e how t 11c. y d e a l t w i t11 t h e economi c pr obl e l l ~ ~ .
a . I I . Th i s i s t h e worJ of Al l a h t l ~ c Al r n i ~h t y i - cvcal cd
t o Mu\lamnrad Hi s mes s enger i l t ~ r i ng t wr nt y t h r e e y e a r s o l h i s pr o-
phct hood. The a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Qur'iir~ i s uncondi t i oual l y I ~ i r ~ ~ l i r ~ l :
i o r ;I Musl irn. Apazt from c c r t ; ~ i n i r ~j c l nc t i ons oF I ' ~~n t l : ~~n e n t a l
n a t u r e r e g a r d i n g man' s s o c i a l p r o l ~ l c ~ a s , i t h a s l a i d (low11 hroacl
and e s s e n t i a l maxi ~ns and I cgal 1 y cogn i z i a h l c v n l u r j ~ ~ r l g c ~ i wn t s .
Undue s p c c i f i c a t i c r n s t h a t may c r e a t c r i g i d i t y and l1;11.~1sl1ip I I ; I VC
been avoi ded. Some b a s i c ( ? I I ~ ; I I I I ~ tcclcrl i ngs ; ~t >out cconon~i c pr oh-
lems have hecn not ed down in t h e t ' ol l owi ng p:iges t o show how tl1c.y
11;lvc been c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e s t a ~ z t i l ~ g p o i n t l l y t h e Muslim d o c t o r s .
b. I h e Sunnah ( r n l i t i o n ) l ' he .. Sunnah - ~ s i mp l y means t h e s a y i n g
(=I) 0 1 t h e P r o p h e t , h i s ; ~ c t i o n ( T i ' l ' ) - and h i s t a c i t . a p p r o v a l
- 1
of s o me t h i n g s a i d o r done i n h i s p r e s c n c c r ... I t i s tlir-
s e c ond p r i ma r y s o u r c e o f l s l a l l ~ i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e . It s a u t h o r i t y
i s d c r i v c d f r om t h e Qu?fin a s i t ex111 i c i t l y d c c l i ~ r c s , "Wl i at cvcr
t h e Pr o p h e t o r d e r s y o u , a d o p t i t ; I I I ~ wh a t c v c r tic. ( ' or hi cl s , r c l ' r a i n
f r om i t . , , 2
I n mos t o f t h e c a s e s , t h e t r a ~ l i t i on i s ; I n c ~ x p l ; ~ r ~ a t i o ~ ~ o r i n t c r -
p r c t a t i o n o f t h e Qu r a l ~ i c v c r s c s . I t g i v e s r e 1 a t i v c l y nlore
d c t n i l c d commandments and TI I I CS i n v ; ~ r i o u s ; I S I ) C C ~ S 01' 1 i f e . IVc
s h a l l n o t e down bel ow a few s ucl l t e ; ~ c l i i n g s whi ch a r c ; ~ ~ l o p t c < l hy
I s l ; ~ mi c d o c t o r s a s g u i d i n g p r i n r i p l c s i l l t h e l s l i i mi c c>conolny.
However i t s h o u l d h c me n t i o ~i c <l t i c r e t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n 11;~s b e c n
made hc t wc c n t r a d i t i o n s ol- a p u r e l y l c p , ; ~ l i mp o r t and t h o s e o f a
n o n - l e g a l c h a r a c t e r . 'She latter i s conccr nccl wi t 11 n o r l - r c v c l ; ~ t o r y
ma t t c r s e . g . u s c O F scientific me t hods and t e c h n o l o g y ;111tl o t l ~ c ~ .
t c c l ~ n i c a l problems. Once whcn t h c I ' r o p l ~ c t ' s s u g g c s t i o r l a b o u t a n
a g r i c u l t u r a I t e c h n i q l ~ c was provc?tl wr o n g , h e a f Til-mctl, "1 i i l n h u t
;I human b e i n g . Onl y when I o r d e r s o me t h i n g r cg: r r di r i g y o u r
r c l g i u u s ma t t e r s , you w i l l ha vc t o nliicle 11y i t . 1311t i l 1 g i v c a n
n d i v c c h ; ~ s c d on my p e r s o n i i l o p i u i o n , i t i s i n c r c l y a n o p j ~ ~ i o n and
1 an1 o n l y o t ~uman b e i n g . Ra t h e r yo11 may know your worcl l y a f f a i r s
b e t t e r .
,, 3
The a l ~ o v c a f f i r ma t i o n o t t h e I' r*ophct provl t l ecl a h e l p i n g I I ; I I I LI i n
o r i g i ~ l a l t h i n k i r l g and p r o g r e s s o r s c i e n c c , s o c i a l s c i c ~ ~ l c c s ,
t e c h n o l o g y and o t l l c r a s p e c t s oP c i v i l i z a t i o n .
3
c f . , Thn Mi i j ah, Sunan . - .. . . - ( a : I l ar I l 1 y 5 ' a 1 Kut uh a 1 Ar ; ~h i ; l h ,
I ! l S3- 54) , Vol . IT, p. 8 2 5 .
c . . lPl? ( Co n s e n s u s ~~ o f o p i n i o n s ) -. - . . ' i' his i s t h e t h ~ r d i u ~ l d a ~ ~ r c n t a 1
p r i n c i p l e a n d a s c c o ~ ~ d a r y s o u r c e o F I s l a mi c j u r i s p r u d c ~ i c e . I t
r c f c r s t o t h e c o n s e n s u s o r t h c o p i n i o n s oC M ~ l s l i ~ r t h i ~ ~ k c r s o n ; i n
1
i s s u e a t a n y time. R c c o u r s ~ ~ t o -- i ~ 1 n 5 ' i s b n s c d o n t h e s a y i n g o r
t h e I ' r ophct t h a t iny p c o p l c c a n n o t a g r e e o n ; nl y wr o n g ] y guided
ma t t e r . ' B e s i d e s , grin' seems t o h e d e r i v e d r r om t h e s hi ~r u s y s t c n
o r d a i n e d by t h e Qur,Zn, t h a t i s "Tl l ci r ( Musl i n s ' ) m l t t c r s a r e
d c c i d e d t h r o u g h mu t u : ~ l c o n s u l t a t i o n . "' - I ~ n ~ i i * c a n I ) o r e a c h e d , i n
ma t t e r s wh e r e t h e r e i s n o c l e ; ~ r i r i j ut i c t i o n s i n t h e Q11r3n ant i t h c
Su n n a h , by d i s c u s s i o n arid d c l , ; ~ t c among t h e d o c t o r - s o f I s l ; ~ i u i c
j t l r i s p r u i l c n c e . Th e o p i r ~ i o n a d o p t e d hy a 1 1 d o c t o r s g e t s t h e
S h : ~ i ? a h 5 ; l n c t i o n t l ~ r o u g h - I . ~ . ~ I j m; i ' l ~, oos t s t h c s p i r i t o f c o r ~ s u l -
t a t i o n among t h i n k e r s .
1 . "OiyLs L - (Annl&al -- - I l e a s o n i n &) . - . . - - . - -
Ac c o r i i n g t o t h i s p r i n c i p l e
t he. b a s i s (' i l l a h ) o f a . s ha l ! i ; ~h ~ i n j u n c t i o n i s t o h c a s l - c r t ; ~ i net l
a n d t h e s amc r u l e t o h c ; ~ p p l i r d t o t h e new p r o b l e ms wh c r c t h e
s ame h a s i s i s p r e s e n t .
4
I f or c - r ; ~ ~ n p l e , e x c h a n g e 01' ~ o l k l l o r g o l d
o r e xc hi i uge o f s i l v c r f o r s i l ver . i s prohibited w i t h inequality
a n d 1 ~ 1 t e pa yme nt of o n e i n some t r a d i t i o n s . Ac c o r d i n g t o i h n
1.a irniy;ih t he h a s i s ( ' i l l nt r ) -- o f p r o h i b ~ t i o n i s t l r ; ~ t n ; ~ n T ~ ; ~ h . .~ ( nl oney-
n e s s ) . I J s i ng t h e . Q y a s h e a p p l i e s t h e snmc r u l i n g i n c a s e oS
e x c h a n g e o f c o p p e r For c o p p e r i l ' t h e y a r c us ed a5 lnoncy [ c h a p -
t e r V ) .
ucs i s a v e r y i mp o r t a n t s ot l r i - c o f i s l a ~ n i c j u r i s p ~ . u d c n c e . I <u l e s
a nd r o n r ~ ~ ~ ; ~ n c l s i n t h e Qur'51r a n d r l r c Sunna h a r e , a F t e r a l l , l i n l i r c d
' ~Tle1.1, M. A. , op. c i t . : I. I ; A Iluwhl i b i , M ~ ~ ~ ; I ~ I I I I ; L L ~ bl i i r l l f ,
A 1 I q.b h d k h a l l-.7-..4 F- Ai 13 l l r n -z7- l l s ul A 1 I I : l ) ur ; I I 11111 1 I ; I I Ma l a i n ,
-
5 , . . , , ~r q ; i , -- i i i h f : i J I T ; ; i I -. ~ - - ( 1 1 I : i q I ~ i ~ . . ( 1) a1nascus, 1! 1( 15) V. I , p. O4
2 1 . 1 ~ ~ M I 0 . c i t . Vo1. 11, 1). 1.303.
3. .
I h c Quv5n XL11: 38.
4 ? 3 1 e h , Muhammad ~ 3 7 b , o p . c i t . p. 1 7 2 ; A 1 Z; r r qn, op. c i t . p. 0 7 .
i l l n u a ~ t ~ c r , whi l e p r o b l c r , ~ ~ Paced by manhind a r e unl i mi t et l . uTG
pr ovi des t h c b a s i s Tor discovering t h e l.aw f o r new s i t u; r t i ons.
Thi s f u n c t i o n of 1s s l g n l f i c a ~ ~ t i n view of t h c { a c t t h a t
SharY!ih i s bi ndi ng f o r a l l t i u ~ e s t o cor:~c and f o r peopl e i l l
d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .
Ot her p r i n c i p l e s ol' j u r i s p r ~ ~ ~ l c n c c , c l o s e l y related t o ()iyss - a r c
-
i st i l l s i n --. ( p r e f e r e n c e l o r thc. I ~ e t t c r ) and . i s t i s l a l i . L-A ( c ons i i l c r nt i on
0 1 - publ i c i n t e r - e s t ) . .~ Ts t i l j s a ~i ~~ i ~ ~ c n n s t o p r c f c r ;i r - r l n t i v c l y l c s s
1
c1e; i r over a more cl ci i l . o r ~ c duc t o some o r h c r s t r o n g l , ; i sl s,
l i k e de c r e a s i ng h a r d s l ~i : ~. A s T ; I ~ . : I S i s t -- i g l a h i s conccl. ncd i t
1'cSer.s t o enact ment of a l a w ul ~cr c. t h c r e is no l aw, jiuidcd by
puhl i c i ~ r t e r c s t ,' f o r c x i ~ ~ s p l c i n l ~ o s i t i o n of new t a x c s , Si xa t i on
01- p r i c c s c t c . Somctirnes i s t i i n ~ . ~ and --.. isti_sli5J a r c cons i t l cr cd a s
s y~~onymous . T h i s p r i ~ ~ c i p l c of ~ i 5 t .. ~ ihsT111 o r i st islgl! . can be corn-
pa r e d wi t h t h e modern ' g e ~ ~ r r a l wcl f a r e ' p r i n c i p l e s . 1 I' we l ook
i n t o t he c o n d i t i o n s of .. i s t - i s -. - l a b, . . i t sceins t o he ver y c o~npr c l ~e n-
s i v c , and l o g i c a l . For i s t i s l l i h . - ~ ~ - - must he i n accor dance w i t h t i l e
.-'
s p i r i t and o b j e c t i v e s of Sh a r i : ~h ; ~ ~. - .~ i t s l ~ o u l d be l o g i c a l and
r u t i onal ; i t s h o ~ i l d be adopt ed t o reinove s o ~ ~ c g e r ~ e r a l I ~a r ds l i i p.
3
importance of t h e above merrt iorlcd l i i e r : i t ur c and i t s r o l e i n
economic a n a l y s i s of Muslim d o c t o r s wi l l not 1)o c-lttar unl os s we
c l t e some exampl es r e l a t i n g t o cco~l omi c a i f a i r s .
S
Al>E Zahr nh, Ug Gl ;11 F i q h ~- - ( I i r o: 11;jr nl F ~ k r a1 XrabL, 1 1 . ~ 1 . J ,
1 . 27! ) - 80.
The Qur an hns l a i d down t h e g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s Tor t l i s t ~ ~ b u t i o r i
p o l i c y i n t h c wake o f i t s r u l c s r e l a t i n g t o -- Faif. ACt er nami ng
t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o r f a i ' i t s a y s , " . . . . I n o r d e r t h a t i t may riot
--
( mer e1 y) make a c i r c u i t i ) et wct r i t l ~ e wca l t h y among you. l s l o n ~
i s a g a i n s t c o n c e n t r a t i on of weal t h a nd t h e 1 s l ; mi c s t a t e mus t
e n s u r e t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t l i ; ~p p c r ~. I f we s c ~p p l c me n t t h i s t e a c h i n g
w i t h t h e Qu r a n l c s y s t e m o f .. z a l i s h , ~- ~. a nd Qu r n n ' s emph; i s i s on v o l u n t a r )
e x p e n d i t u r e on t h e p o o r , r e l a t i v e s , and wcnhcr s e c t i o n s o f t h e
s o c i e t y , j t w i l l n o t be d i S r i c r 1 1 t t o g r a s p t h e s p i r i t . of' Tsl ar ni c
economy; t h a t is, means o f 1 i v e l i hood mus t hc e n s u r c d f o r e v e r y
o n e , c o n c e t r a t ~ o n o f we t r l t l ~ i s u u d c s l r n h l c and t h e r e must h e ;a
c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o r e d u c c i n e q u a l i t y and b r i d g e t h c ga p be t we e n
t h e r i c h and t h e poor .
-
2 . LAND & AGRICULTURE
Ag r i c u l t u r e h a s be e n e mpha s i z e d i n t h e Sunnah. A t r a d i t i o l ~
r e p o r t s t h e p r o p h e t a s s a y i n g "lle who gr ows c r o p o r p l a n t s (1
p l a n t -- wh a t e v e r a p e r s o n , h e a s t o r l > i r d e a t s o f i t , i t w i l l be
c o ~ ~ s i d c r c d h i s pdacph ( i . c . h c w i l l b e r ewnr dcd f o r i t ) .
2
- .-
Ap p r o p r . i ; ~ t i o n o f wa s t e l a n d h a s hc c n e nc our a ge d wh i l e i t s h o l d i n g
i d l e i s d i s c o u r a g e d i r i t h e f o l l o wi n g t r a d i t i ' o n :
"The o r i g i n a l r i g h t s o f ownership i n l a n d a r c Al l a h ' s 811cl l l i s
p r o p h e t ' s and t h e n y o u r s ; ~ F t e r wa r d s . Ilc who r c v i v c s dead l a n d
h a s t h e h e s t zl ai r n t o i t .
,, 3
'She p r i n c i p l e i n e a r l y I s l a m was t o d i s t r i h u t c t h c conquer. ci l
l a n d mo n g t h e s o l d i e r s , but t h e sec. ond r i g h t l y g u i d e ~ l c a l i p h
bmar r e t a i n e d i t i n t ! ~ c ha nds 0 1 - i t s I' ormcr owner s OI I t h e c o n d i -
t i o n t h a t t h e y wnul d pay khar. Tj . The c a l i p l ~ ' s s t a n d h a s e d on
t h 1 . c ~ wc l r a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , v i s . t o c he c k l a r g e l a n d e d p r o p e r t i c s
t h a t may r e s u l t i n i n c l l l c i e n t us? o r l a n d ; r e vc nue from
t h c s c l a n d s woul d h e a v a i l n h l c f o r wcl f a r e o f t h e i u t u r c g e n e r a -
t i o n ; ; ~ n d a v a i l a h i l i t y o f r e ve nue rrom t l ~ c s c l a n d s 101- d c f r n c e
anti we1 i a r e p u r p o s e s .
7 . I NDUS' I ' KY
I l x c l u s i v c r c l i n n c e on agriculture i s c o n s i d e r e d u n h e a l t h y . Due
i mpor t a nc c s h o u l d he g i v e n t o e a c h s c c t o r s o f economy. Al l k i n d s
o r i n d u s t r i e s ne e de d hy t h c s o c i e t y have hi3en c o n s i d c r c d by
Is1 ami c j u r i s t s a s ' s o c i a l 1 y oh1i g: l t or y ' . Su l . f i c i c n t pcXopl e
must ctllgagc t hem. Ot h e r wi s e i t wi l l be s t a t e ' s d u t y t o assume
r e s p o n s i l ~ i l i t v f o r t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n .
2
Tr a de and colnnlerce ha ve been v e r y common anlong Mu s l i n ~s from
e a r l y da ys . The p r o p h e t hirnhc.1 I' 11scil r o t r a d e h e c o r e hi.; p r o p h e t -
hood. I n one o f h i s s a y i n g s hc enc. ournged his followers t o
eng; l ge i n t r a d e a s i t c o n s t i t u t e d n i n c - t e n t l l s means o f Li v c l i -
3
honcl. Ile a l s o s a i d , : ' A p e r s o u who i mpor t s goods and p r o v i d e s
them i s f a v o u r e d i n his livelihood wh i l e ;I person who h o a r d s
goods i s a wr ongdoer ;lnd a c u r s e d o n c . "4 The s u h j e c t o f r r a d c i s
l h n ' l ' i ~ i ~ l ~ i y ; ~ h , a 1 l l i s h a h , 1) . 30.
3a1 G I I ; I Z ~ ~ > , op. c i t . p. 79.
41hn Maj ah, op. c i t . Vnl . 11, . 7 2 8
one oC t h e most d i s c u s s e d i n I s l : i ~ i ~ i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e .
Labour h a s be e n c o n s i d e r e d ;I r c s p e c t l u l v o c a t i o n wh i l e i d l c n c s s
h a s been condemned. The p r o p h e t ha s e r ~i o u r n g c i l his f o l l o we r s t o
work a nnounc i ng ' t h a t t h c nol i l c s t 1 i v e l ilrood i s man' s l i v c l ihooit
by h i s own hand.
1
I n o n e o f t h e t r ; ~ d r t i o n s , t h c p r o p h c t s a i d
a b o u t s u b o r d i n a t e s t h a t t h e y s110uld n o t I ) c g i v e n work I ~ c y o l ~ d
J
t h e i r ' c a p a c i t y , i C i t i s doni, t hc n t h e y s hnl l t d be h c l p c d . ' I n
t h c l i g h t o f t h i s t r a d ~ t i o n , I s l a mi c -- ~ h a r i ! ~ h - . . d c s i r c s normal i z a -
t l o n of wor ki ng h o u r s , a nd c xt r a p: l y~nc ut f o r c a c l ~ a d d i t i on31
wor ki ng hour . ' There a r c a nl.~lnl>er 01' t r ; l d i t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r c
s o c i a l s c c u r i t y f o r l a h o u r c r s . ]:or c xa mpl c , t h c p r o p h c t s a i d
' t h e p e r s o n who h a s been : ~s s i j i r l c d some work I l y U S , 111ust g e t a
hous e i f he d o e s n o t ha ve o n e , hc ]nust g ~ t ~ n a r r i c d ~f hc h a s n o
3
wi f e , he m u s t g e t a c onve ya nc e i F hi: l ~ a s n o t . Ile s t r e s s e d t h a t
a rnnn h a s o b l i g a t i o n t owa r ds h i s s o u l , and t oward. ; h i s body .....
3
T h i s e x p r e s s e s t h e cconol ni c v a l u e o f l e i s u r e . Most i n ~ p o r t a n t
i n s t r u c t i o n r e g a r d i n g s o c i a l s c c u r , l t y i s h i s s a y i n g t h a t I n
p e r s o n Gi e s l e a v i n g we a l t h i t w i l l he f o r h i s i n h e r i t o r s ; h u t
i f he l e a v e s h e l p l e s s s e r v i v o r s t h c y wi l l he h i s ( pr ol , l i c t ' s o r
5
s t a t e ' s ) r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . From t h i s t r a d i t i o n , t h e e a r l y w r i t e r
on I s l a mi c f i n a n c i a l s ys t e m AbL ' l l hai d d e r r v c d h i s o p i ~ ~ i o n t h a t
c h i l d r e n o f s u c h p e o p l e woul d g e t s u p p o r t f r om p u b l i c t r e a s u r y .
b
1. .
~ h ~ d . p. 7 2 3 ; I b n !laril>al, A\~mail, Musnad - . -- - - - ( n . p . , A1 Fl akt ab 3 1
TCl nmi , n . d . 1 , y o l . 111, p. 4t16.
3
I hn I j a nha l , op. c i t . Vo l . LV, p. L 2 0 .
4 ~ u h h ; i r ~ , op. s i t . Vol . TI, p a r t 7 , p. 31
3 . I
] h i d . p a r t 8 , p. 156; I hn Maj ah, 01' . c i t . Vol . 1 1 , p. ! ) I S.
-~ . -
I
bl\11i2 'llbaicl, -- Ki t Ab a 1 h w Z l ( Ca i r o : Fl akt abah a 1 ~ u l l i ~ i i t n l
Az ha r $ya h, 19hB)--;-[;71'37;
-
6. I'KOIIIBITED ECONOMIC PRAC'I'ICLS
Thc s c wcr e a few e xa mpl e s o f some p o s i t i v e t e a c h i n g s o f I s l a m
i n economi c ma t t c r s d e r i v e d from t h e Qul' 5n and t h e Sunnah. Let
u s i n d i c a t e some n e g a t i v e t . c ; ~ c h i n g s a l s o . ' l ' her c a r e a numhcr o f
economi c p r a c t i c e s whi ch a r c I l a r ~ni ul t o t h e s o c i e t y . 'I'he Qur'rln
and s unnah ha ve p r o h i b i t c d t hcm. He r e a r c somc instances.
The Qur'iin a nd Sunnah a r e s t r i c t l y a g a i n s t t h c p r ; i c t i c c o f i n t e r c s t
We havc a l r e a d y n o t e d t h e I s l a mi c v i e w- p o i n t i n t h c c o n t e x t o f
o u r d i s c u s s i o n on l b n Ta i mi y a h ' s a t t ~ t u d c t owa r ds i n t e r c s t ( Chap-
t e r V) . He r e i t seems wo r t h wh i l e t o r c ~ t c r a t e t h a t t h c QufZn
pr omi s e s we l f a r e on t h e ahandonmcnt o f i n t e r c s t . I t w i l l he
beyond o u r s c o p e , howe ve r , t o s u h s t a n t i a t c t h i s p o i n t t h r o u g h
d e t a i l e d a r gume nt s .
8. IIOARDING
Hoa r di ng i s a l s o conclcrnned i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s a s t h i s p r a c t i c e
amount s t o e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p e o p l e ' s n e e d s , and mi s u s c o f n ~ x r k c t
0 1
f r eedom. The p r o p h e t s : ~ i d " l h c h o a r d e r i s ;i wqngdocr .
9. FRAUI)UI.I:NT, GAMBLESOME AN11 USIIRIOIIS 1IUSINLSSI:S
I s l a m h a s i mbued economi c a c t i v i t i c s w i t h mor a l v a l u r s . I t ha s
p r o h i b i t e d a l l t h o s e economi c p r a c t i c e s wncr c f r a u d , ga mbl i ng o r
i n t r r e s t i s involved. The Qu r i n a s k s h c l i e v e r s n o t t o t o k c
o t h e r ' s we a l t h s i n t h e wrong way; i t must b e t h r o u g h t r acl e a n d
' /
w i t h t h e m u t ~ ~ a l c o n s c n t s o f e a c h o t h c r . ' 'She Sunn;th s a y s t h a t
1
Musl i m, op. c i t . , ' ~ i i h ~ a b r T m a 1 l b t i k i i r f i l l ~ t q w5 t : Vol . V , p . 5 6 .
2'1.1~c QurJ;In I V : 29.
one who p r a c t i c e s f r a u d i s n o t among u s ( t r u c musl i ms ) .
1
10. I' LACE OF SUCH LITERA'l'URli
Thc s c a r e few exampl es f r om a h o s t o r s ~ c h teachings. Our ai m
i s not . t o c o v e r t hem a l l . Our p ~ ~ r p o s c i s t o show how cconomi c
i s s u e s h e l d a n i mp o r t a n t p l ; ~ c c i n t h c r undamcnt al s o u r c e s oT
l s l a mi c j u r i s p r u d e n c e . I t i s I I L I W O I I < I C ~ I . i f- ~ i ~ l ~ j r c t ~ ; 1 i l ~ c S:I lcx
and p u r c h a s e , p r i c e , money, i n t e r e s t , l o a n s , d e p o s i t s , pr o1 i t
s h a r i n g , s h a r e c r o p p i n g , p u h l i c i ncome, h c a d s o r c x p c n d i t u r c c t c .
o c c u p i e d hundr e ds o f pa ge s i n s uc h l i t e r a t u r e . Th e r e may he two
o p i n l o n s r e g a r d i n g g i v i n g t hem n p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f cconomi c
a n a l y s i s , b u t t h c i r p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r y oC economi c t h o u g h t
c a n n o t hc d e n i e d .
C. I BN TAIMIYAII'S VIEWS AND
TIIOSE OF l l I S PREUECliSSOI~S
Most o f t h e e a r l y d i s c u s s i o n on economi c i s s u e s i s Cound i n l c g n l
wor ks wher e no s p e c i a l a t t c n t i o n i s p a i d t o cconomi c a n a l y s i s
a s s uc h. Th e r e a r e , howcver , s e v e r a l n o t e d s c h o l a r s who hnvc
d i s c u s s e d somc cconomi c i s s u e s a t l e n g t h , somc o t t hem exhibiting
a n a l y t i c a l i n s i g h t i nt o t h e i s s u e s t h c y d i s c u s s . I hn Tai mi yah
h e l o n g s t o t h i s s e l e c t g r o u p o f I s l a mi c t h i n k e r s .
I bn ' l ' a i s i ya h, comi ng i n t h e s e v c n t h c e n t u r y oC t i l e I s l a n ~ i c e r n ,
ha d t h e h e n d i t o f s t u d y i n g t h e e mi ne nt e a r l y j u r i s t s 01' I s l a m.
tle makes f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t hel u, g i v i n g h i s r e a s o n s when
he d i f f e r s f r om t hem. l <cl ow we s h a l l compar e h i s vi e ws with
somc o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s and c o n t e mp o r a r i e s on c e r t a i n i mp o r t a n t
i s s u e s .
-
-- ~
l 1 b n Na nba l , op. ~ i t . Vol . 1 1 , p p . 50, 242, 417; Vol . 111, p. 406;
I
Vol . I V, p. 45. I
1. SOURCES OF PUBLI C RLVENUl .
'The most i mp o r t a n t s u h j c c t discussed by t h e d o c t o r s 0 1 ' I s l i i ~i i i c
law i s t h c d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s oL' public r c ve nuc and t h e i r hc a ds
o f expenditure. AbD ' h a i d and Ahu Yn' l5 liavc d i v l d c d t h e s t a t e s
r cvenue i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , z a 1 3 h , gban i'mah and t ; ~ i'.
As wct
- ~. -
ha ve a l r e a d y me nt i one d, o p i n i o n s o f I s l a mi c d o c t o r s bas ed on
t h e QIII' Z~, t h e Sunnah, t h e - T j ni ? and t h e Qyiis. I hn T;iiniiyah h a s
a l s o a dopt e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o r t h c p u b l i c f i n a n c e ,
and i t was q u i t e n a t u r a l a s t h c y a l l r r l y on t h e same s o u r c e
and t h e same p r i n c i p l e s . Rut hc can he d i s t i n g u i s h e d Tro111
o t h c r s by h i s b r o a d e r c onc e pt o f l-ai' n s n o t e d above (Chap. VIL).
--
a. ZakBh. I n t h e c a s e o f zakiih a 1 1 d o c t o r s a g r e e t h a t i t s
-.-A
e x p e n d i t u r e w i l l he c o n f i n e d t o t l i c r i g h t he a ds o n l y me nt i one d
i n t h e Qufl n. But t h c y d i f f r r on t h e q u c s t i o n whe t he r i t must
be s p e n t on a11 he a ds e q u a l l y o r some o f thein can be f i v e n rnorc
s h a r e o r some of them c a n b r d e p r i v e d : ~ l t o j i c t h e r . A 1 blnwardi i s
o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i t must be s p e n t on a l l b c n e f i c i a r i c s i f t he y
1
a r e available. ~ b u ' I J b a i d and Abu Ya' l at r avc a dopt e d t h e v i e w t h a t
i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o spend i n a l l direction^.^ Mort: ma y be
s p e n t on some he a ds t h a n on o t h e r s , wh i l e some o t h c r s may he
n c y l c c t c d i f .?here i s no necd f o r spc.ndi.ng on s uc h he a ds . Abi i
YllsDf h:is c xc l ude d t h c MuBI1:ifnh ----- - a1 q u l l l h ( t h o s c whose h e a r t s
i
o r e t o be r ec. onci l e d ) from t h e hctcids o f c x p c n d i t u r c of z;th;lh.
--
The r e a s on i s t h a t he t h i n k s t h a t ill h i s a ge t h e r e was no need
o f s pe ndi ng on s uc h p e o p l e . I s l a m and l s l a mi c s t a t c was t o o
s t r o n g t o necd t h e i r goodwi l l t i 11~1 s u p p o r t . A 1 ~ i i w: ~ r . d i and Ah6
Ya'li have g i v e n Four r - easons Tor s pc ndi ng zak5h u n Mdal l ai ' nh a1
---- -~
' ~ 1 ~ z wa r d ? , op. c i t . p. 1 2 3
2
~ b i i ~ ; ; l r , op. c i t . p. 132.
3 ~ ~ n YGS UL' , op. c i t . p. 8 7 .
qul Uh, t h a t i s , t o s e c u ~ e t h c i r s t l p p o ~ t f o r Mus l i ms ; t o a v o i d
t h e i r mi s c h i e f ; a hope f o r t h e i r e n h r a c i n g I s l a m; a s i i ~ i i l a r hopc
f o r t h e i r t r i b e s a nd k i n s me n ' s c ~ n h r i ~ c i n g l s l a ~ n . Now i f s uc h
p e o p l e ha ve d e c l a r e d t h e i r 1sJ:lm t h c y w i l l be g i v c n f r om .- zah;ih - -
a c c o r d i n g t o a 1 ~ i i wa r d i . h u t i f t h e y a r e i d o 1 n t Qr s t h c y c a n n o t
b e g i v e n f r om t h e r e c e i p t s o f z ; t k n h . They mi ght he g i v c n Crom
o t h e r s o u r c e s . I ~ b t i r i i a s a y s t h a t t h e y w i l l be g i v c n ~ . ~ o m
z a ka h i n b o t h c a s e s . l h n Tai mi y; , l i a l s o anal ys ecl t h e e x p c n d i -
-
t u r e on ' Mu s l l a f a h a 1 q u l u h ' - :lnd h e g a v e i t a b r o a d e r incurling
i n whi ch he i n c l u d e d t h e ma i n t e n a n c e o f l aw and o r d e r and i n t c r -
n a l pe nc e a s wel l ( Ch a p t e r VI I I . p. 2 1 0 ) .
b. F i n a n c i a l O b l m i o n s -~ o t h e r ~ t h a n Za kSh. As f a r :IS t h e clues-
t i o n o f f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n zaknh i s c o n c e r n e d , a l
Mrlward'I i s a g a i n s t i t , and h e q u o t e s ;I t r a d i t i o n whi ch we have
a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d when we d i s c ~ ~ s s e d l h n ' l ' a i mi ya h' s vi ew i n t h l s
r e g a r d ( Ch a p t e r V I I I , p. 22: ). 'l'licrc a r e inany o t h e r t h i n k e r s
b c l o r e I hn Tai mi yah who have adopted t h e vi ew t h a t t h e r e a r e o h l i -
g a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n zak5h. AhG ' l l hai d f a v o i ~ r s t h i s opi l i i on a nd 111:
:i
q u o t e s ~h r f b ; ( d. 721) who h e l d t l i e same vi c w.
Whi l e a n a l y s i n g t he zak5l l sy5ter11 i bn ' l ' ai mi yah ha s p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t t h e r a t e o f z a ka h i s ha s e d on t h e l a b o u r i nvol vccl i n
- . . -
a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e good^.^ 'l'lic more t h e l a h o u r , t h e l ower i s
t h e r a t e o f zak9h a nd v i c e v e r s a ( Ch a p t e r V l I I , p . 2 0 8 ) . T h i s
a n a l y t i c a l vi cw i s n o t p r e s e n t i n t l i e w r i t c n i s of' o t h e r e a r l y
d o c t o r s .
'31 ~ n wa r d ; , op. c i t . p. 123.
2 ~ b u ~; i l : J, op. c i t . p. 132.
3 -
Abu %ba i d, op. c i t . p. 496.
4 ~ b n Yai mi yah, MFS Vol . XXV, p . 8.
c . -A- ~ h a n h a h . A s f a r a s g l ~ a n ~ m a l ~ i s conccr . ned, t h c d o c t o r s
.- - -. .. . - --
d i f f e r e d on t h e q u e s t i o n 0 1 ' cl i s t r i h u t i on o f t h e c onque r e d l a nd.
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n we have a l r e a d y d i s c l l s s e d I bn l ' s i ~ ~ ~ i y a h ' s
o p i n i o n and t h a t of some o t h e r s (Chapter V I I I , p. 215) . I t
s houl d be n o t e d t h a t nmollg h i s p r e d c c c s s o r s Yahyi b i n Xdnm ;11
ora as hi and AbG ' Uhaid had a l s o a dopt e d t h e same o p i n i o n ,
t h a t i s,
i t woul d be l e f t t o t h e d i s c r c t i o r r o f Im3m ( he a d oS t h c s t a t e )
-.
t o distribute s uc h l a n d o r t r e a t i t : IS Sai' and \ c a v e t l i c l a n d i n
-- -
t h e hands o f i t s owner on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e y wi l l llny k h a r 3 ~
.-
d . Fi xed kl l a r z j o r Pr opor t i on: l l ~~ i.;lnll ~. - - Tax. - Ac c or di ng t o AbCi ~ ; i l i
it was Ah6 ' Ubai d who pe r s ua de d c a l i p h a1 Mnl~~l; (11. 7 8 5 ) t o
ch:tngc t h e f i x e d k h n r z j . on l a n d wi t h t h e s hi l r c c r oppi ng (MuqT.~,?mnl~
Th i s was an i nl provcment on t h e c a r l i r r c o n d i t i o n . Abfi Yiisuf ; ~ l s o
reconmends t h e same s ys t e m. 'I'hc rei l bon g i vcn b y h irn expresses
h i s de e p a n a l y t i c a l i n s i g h t . Accor i l i ng t o him i C t h e amount oS
t a x i s f i x e d ( a s it i s i n t h e c a s e o f k l i a r 5 j ) , ~ i t w i l l r e s u l t i n
a l o s s t o t h e t a x p a y e r s i n t h e c a s c o f a s h o r t - f a l l i n pr odl l c-
t i o n s ; wh i l e i t w i l l be a l o s s t o t h e s t a t e i f t h e p r o d ~ r c t i o n i s
5
considerable. The r e a s o n i s t h a t i f a p e r s o n ha s t o pay :I
f i x e d amount o f t a x t h e n i n t h e c-asu o f s ma l l e r . p r o d u c t i o n he ha s
t o pay a hi gh amount i n term O F money f o r whi ch i t i s s o l d . Th i s
i s i cgs i ns t h i s i n t e r e s t . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i f pr oi 1~1c t i on i s l : l r ge ,
f i x e d t a x means a s ma l l e r amount i n t e r m o f money f o r whi ch i t
can hc s o l d . Th i s i s u n f a v o u r a l ~ l e ( o r t h e s t a t e whi ch h a s t o nucct
t h e money e x p e n d i t u r e on m: l i nt ennncc o r army 2nd dcf enc- c of t h e
t e r r i t o r i e s . Thus A115 Yiisuf ; ~ J v o c n t r s p r o p o r , t i o n a l t a x on l a n d
pr oduc c whi ch i s f a i r and e q u i t n h l e f o r bot h p a r t i e s whc t hc r t h e
4
c r o p i s good o r had. I n t h e writings o f [Iin ' l ' ai mi y; l l ~ wc f i n d hi s
-. -..- ~ . ~- -- - .
' A ~ G ' ~ h n i d , op. ~ i t . p. 8 5 .
* A ~ G ~ r f l i i , op. c i t . p. 1 8 5 .
3 -
Abu Yi i suf, op. c i t . p. 5 2 .
4 . .
l h l d . 1 . 57- 59.
-~
r e l c r c ~ l c e s t o t l i c abovc changes in l and t a x b u t tic ( l i d not
a na l ys e t h e pr obl em 1 i ke h i s pr - c~dcccs s or s .
c . n l U h r --- on I u s 1 ~ I s I -- I I I L I . 1 f a Nus1 ir11
a c q u i r e s k11al -a~; - l and he wuulcl 11:lvc t u pay k h : i r 5 ~ -. ~- a s wel l a s
' ushr. Thi s s t a n d was a d o p t c ~ l h y inost o r t l ~ c d o <- t o r s , l i k e Abii
'Ubtrid, a 1 Miiwartli and I i i y h A1 ~i i wnr d; i s :;i l ent about
t h c reasons.' Rut ARGt LI b; ~i d ha.; s a i d t ha t t l l ey a r c two s c p a r ; ~ t c
7
r i g h t s ; and o h j e c t i v c s of hhar 5i .- a r c o t h c r t1ii111 t hos e of ( usl 1r . -
. -
11'11 l ' a~mi yah has a l s o gi vc n t h e hamc r eas ons ( Cha pt e r V I 1 I ) .
Puhl i c e xpe ndi t ur e has al w: ~ys becn t h e special concer n of t h c
" 1
I s l a mi c t h i n k e r s . I t . must lic 1-cmc~l~erccl t h ; ~ t they h: ~vc clividecl
p u l ~ l i c r e c e i p t s i n t o t h r c c c a t e g o r i e s ;end t h c h a s i s o f t h i s
di vi r ; ion i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t l 1c. i r h c ; ~ d s o r e xpc n~l i t u r e . Ileatls
of expenditure of zal\.ih and gll:~ni-m:~l~ - . a r e p r e s c r i h c d liy t h c Q11l';in.
Ther e a r c onl y mi nor d i f f c r e n c c s i F any, i n t h e i r vi cws r e ga r di ng
e xpc ndi t ur c of t h e s e two i t ems o r p u l ~ l i c r c ve nur .
'l'hc t h i r d t ype of r e ve nue , .~ Fai' - . . R I I ~ i t s a u x i l i a r i e s provides ;I
wi der s cope of o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g ( i -. i t i h Rd ) . .. ~ i \ l Ch;~z;il i h;ls gi vcn
if, t h e nnmc oC ' . l'ai' -- . and wcl f a r e rcvcrruc' ( M Z 1 - ; ) I ~- M i l e 1 1 ~ - . Accord
irig t o hi111 such i nco~nc s houl d 1)c s p c n t on t h o s e 11c:lds onl y whose
h c n e f i t s r et l l r n t o a11 Mu s l ims, I'or c!sa~nplc, b u i l d j n g of r o a d s ,
pl ; l ccs n f wor s hi p, i n n s , r oads 1c;icl in!: t o Mahhah, a11cl t he o t h e r
3
s i mi l a r ma t t e r s whose h c n e f i t i s s11;lrcd b y ever y blusl i m . Ilc
mc l i ~ ~ t a i n s t h a t t h e wcl [ - ar e h ; ~ s cl i f l ' c~r ent : ~sl i cc. t s 311d t h r l ~ < ~ a d o f
s t a t e slioulil ;rct a c c or di ng t o tlir 11ced5 of tile t j mc .
1
I
-
; I ? M;?wardi, 01). c i t . p. 1 5 1 .
7
A i l l l i l , 0 . c i t . p. 126.
3
A1 ~ h ; ~ z ; l l ~ , op. c i t . Vol . 11, p. l b ( ~ .
4 . .
l hl c J . 1'. 1 4 1 .
A t a n o t h e r p l a c e he wr i t e s t h a t unc l a imcd p r o p e r t y ant1 r cvcnuc 0 1 '
we1 l ' ; ~r c c-an o n l y hc s p c ~ ~ t on pe r s uns I'rom whom we1 f a r e f o r common
l ~ l b l j c i s e xpc c t e d o r i t can Ilc s p e n t on s ~ ~ c h neady Ircrson who i s
una hl c t o e a r n h i s l i v e l i h o o d . In t h e I ' i r s t c a t e g o r y I I V i r ~c. l udcs
s c h o l u r s , s t u d e n t s , wzz i l l s , govcrnmcnt cmpl oyccs , army, s e c r e -
t a r i e s , mi n i s t e r s , phys i c i : ~ n s ct c. . I t mt3;ins t h o s c pc opl c wl~oscx
s c r v i t c s a r c nectlcd i n t h e f i c l 3 o i c d u c u t i m, mccl i c i n c , d c f c n c c ,
i n d u s t r y e t c . ' I hn ' l ' a i mi y ; ~l ~' s ~ ~ i c w s i n t h i s r e g a r d we have
cl i s cus s cd i n d e t a i l . l l i s approacl 1 i s ve r y s i ~ ~ ~ i l n r t u t l ~ ; ~ t o l ; 11
Rut from h i s wr i t i n g we cot l i d n o t know wl ~ c t h e r he was
o r i n d i r e c t l y i nl ' l uencet l by aL Cha z 5l i on t h i s p: l r t i cul : i r
~ , h ; ~ z n i l .
d i r e c t Ly
i s s u e .
Ibcrorc 3 1 ( ; t ~a z i i l I , QS~I AI I G ~ $ 1 2 I I ~ , I ~ ~ c : + l t wi t h t h e pr uhi C~n o i
p u b l i c c x p e n d i t u r c , i n n more t e c h n j c ; ~ l wily. Ilc q u o t e s ; I I I
e a r l i e r d o c t o r a 1 ~ 1 1 a r ~ r s ; ~ y i n g t h a t t h c s l ~ ; ~ r ~ o r Al l al l i ~n d I l i s
a p o s t l e i n ghanymah . -- . - wi l l hc spent on g e n e r a l wcl f a r ? o f Musl i ms,
l i k e mai nt enance o f army, ~ ~ r c p a r a t i o n ol ' arms and a~nmuni t i o n ,
c o n s t r u c t i o n of hr i cl gcs and d; l r ~~s , payment o f jrlclgcs ant1 11113ms
s a l a r i e s and o t h e r we l f a r e hc:lcls. I ' r i u r i t y wi l l b c given t o
t h e most i l a por t a nt , t he n t o t h e l l cxt most i mpor t unt . As we
have a l r e a d y ment i oned ( Ch n l ~t c r VI I I ) , I b n l ' a ~r nj ya h has t h c s a ~ r ~ c
-
view ahout ghanj ~nat i ancl o t h c r prlh 1 i r cxpcnd i t u r c .
Al~il Y; ~' l ; l i s ve r y c l e a r on t h e r o l e ol' pr ~hl i c c x p r n ~ l i t u r c . As a
r u l e " e ve r y income t h a t nccxds t o hc s pe nt on t h e wcl r:rrc o f a l l
Mus l i ~ns wo111d h r due on Ibait :11 1n31."' Ile d l v i d c s p ~ ~ l , l i c cxpcn-
- - -- . - --. - . . .
d i t u r c i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s . One, c x p c n d i t r ~ r c on t l ~ u s e pc opl c who
have a r l a i m t o i t 3 s t hey pr uvi de t l l e ~ r s e r v i c e s t o t l l c s t a t e
f o r cxamlllc t h e army. Thci r c l a i m i s not s u l >j c c t t o a vxi 1 ; r b i l i t y
1 . .
I I I I ~ . 1). 178-
1
-
'A1111 ~ a ; l : i , op. c i t . p. 137.
3 . .
1 t ) l l l . p. 251.
o f f u n d s . Th e s e r i g h t s a r c t o be f u l i ~ i l l c c l , wh c t h c r t h e i r i s
nroney o r n o t . Two, c xpe nc l i t ~11- e on g e r l c ~ ; ] I we1 i ; ~ r c .
Suclr c x p c n d i t u r e w i I1 I I c , 11r . o~ idc.iI t l r c r e 1s 1llorlc.y
i n t h c t r . c a s u r y . l' lrc f i r s t c a t c g o r y a l wa y s t a k e s l i r i o r i t y o v e r
t h c s e c o n d .
A q ~ ~ c s t i o n a r i s e s , however i n c:lscL t h c t r c a s u r y i s s h o r t of' I' uncl s
s h a l l t h c wc l l n r c c x p e n d i t u r e he I c Tt u n s a t i s l ' i c d . AhG Y a ' l 5
a n s we r s t h e q u e s t l o n by d l s t l ngl l i sl r i ng bet wc>cn p r o j c c t s wlrosc
ber l ef i t i s common t o a l l and p r o j e c t s whose h c n e f i t i s l i ~ r r i t c d
t o some l i c r s on o n l y nnci l ' or wl~om s u b s t i t u t e s rni j ~l rt h c :~vw i l a h l c .
E x p e n d i t ~ t r c o n t n e Cirst c a t e g o r y o f 1 ) r o j c c t s w i l l bc d u t y o f
a l l Mus l i ms . I n t l r c s ccont l c ; ~ s f l ~ o wc v e r , e v e r y Musl i m c a n n o t he
ol ' i i gc d t o p a y . ' ' , he p r i n c i p l e ; ~ d n l ~ t c c l l i y i\\,l; Y:ilTl a r c c l e a r ,
t h e c o s t ol a p r o j e c t S I I O L J ~ L I lie r e a l i z e d f r om t h o s e who b c n c f i t
L'rom i t . Whcrc t h e l i cnc>Fi t i s common, t h e r c . s p o ~ ~ s i ! ~ i l i t y t o
h e a r t h e c o s t w i l l h c g c n c r a l . R u t v h c r c h c n c l - i t i s l i 1 1 1 i t c J T O ;I
p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p , i t c a n n o t hc r c ; l l i z c d I'rom e v e r y p c r s o n . I n
s p i t e o r i r c c ( u e n t r c l - e r e n c c t o (!?id-i Abll ~ ; ; l n i I i s w t i , 1h1i
T:iirniy;llr d o e s n o t t a k e n o t i c e o f ; i l ~ovc a r r a l y s i s by All; Y ; < l 3 .
Q ~ d l AhCi Yn"l5 i s amo~r y t l ~ e few 1 s l ; mi c t h i n k e r s who explicitly
Incnt in113 t h e s u h j e c t o f pub1 i c 1 ~ o r 1 . o ~ ~r r g t l l ougl i n o t i n I I I I I C ~ det ; r i 1 .
Ile w r i t e s , " 1 1 t h e t r e a s u r y is s h o r t o f f u ~ i d Cur. t h e t wo t y p e s ol '
e x p c n d i t u r c ( mcnt i onc d al i ovc. ) t h e : ~ u t h o r i t y h a s a r i gl r t t o l ~ o r r o w
money on 1)clr;il f o f Ila ~ i t ; I 1 11151 t o spcrrd on , govcr ~l ment obi i g a t i o i r s
o n l y , n o t o n wc l f n r c l r cnds , p r o v l d c d t h a t t h c s t n t c f e a r s 0 1 '
di st ur . l ) ; i r r cc :ind t r o u b l e . ' l' hc s t l c c c s s o r s o f s u c h govcr r r mcnt wi l l
2
a l s o h e r c s p o n s i h l c t o r cl i ay t l r o s c d c l l t s .
A s i t i s c l e a r f r om t h e a b o v r s t a t e r n c n t , h e a l l o ws p u b l i c hor r ow-
i n g i n v c r y r a r e c a s e s a s a l i ~ s t ~ . c s o r t . May be h e f e ; l r s t11;it t h e
a ~ ~ t h o r i t i e s 1)orrow a n d f ; i i l t o r e p a y , o r r c s o r t t o e x t r a t a x a t i o n
i n o r d e r t o r e p a y t hem. Ilc i s n o t i n f ; ~ v o u r o C s pc nt l i ng hor r owc d
money o n we l f a r e progrnrnni cs a s t h e p r o v i s i o n 01- r u n d s Sor s u c h
p r o g r n m~~l e s i s t h c common d u t y o f ; I I I pcopl c ( f : r r d .... - k i f 5 l a h ) . ~ They
mi g h t I I C t a x c d 1-01. s u c h e x p e n d i t ~ ~ r . e ~ , i f t l r c r e i s I I C > C ~ f o r t h i s
k i n d o f e x p e n d i t u r e a n d t l ~ c t r e ; ~ s u r y c a n n o t h c a r i t .
4. PI(ICI: KIICULAI'ION
One . i mp o r t a n t p r o b l e m f n c c d i n ; ~ n y ccollorny 1s t h c problem o l
r l s e ; ~ n d f a 1 1 i n p r i c e s ;lnd q u c s t i on o l r c g r t l a t i11g t h c n ~ . Ver y
few s c l ~ o l u r s b e f o r e I h n '1':~ i m i y ; ~ l ~ , c o u l d a n a l y s e t h e p ~o l ) l c r n I n
economi c t cr r n. A1 ~ a w ~ r d i 1s a g a i n s t l i x a t i on o i p r ~ c c . Ile
r e f e r s t o Imiim Mi i l i k who ; ~c l v o c a t c s r c g n l ; ~ t i o n o f p r i c c i n f ood-
s t u f f s i n t h e c a s e o f h i g h p r ~ c c o n l y . ' We h a v c a l r c ; l t l y exami ned
Tbn Tn i mi y a h ' s o p i n i o n i n t h i s reg:] r d ( Ch a p t e
t h e p r o h l c m i n f u l l and a n a l y s e s i t economic;^
t i o n h c e x p l a i n s t h e f o r c c s t h a t ~ l e t c r ~ n i n c 1)r
~ n a t u r c d i n economics o u l y i n t h c 1 8 t h c c n t u r y
Yfi sul a l s o t o u c h e d t h e pr ohl cr n or' r i s c and Fa
I 1 I ) . Ilc d i s c u s s e s
l y . I n t h i s c o n n e c -
c c - a n i d e a t h a t
( 1 ' . 247) . Q; ~<I I AI)IT
1 i n p r i c e s i n some
1
o t h e r c o n t e x t . I3ut h c f a i t c t l t o g i v e a n a d e q u ~ l t c a n a l y s i s . '
I hn l ' a i mi y n h ' s a c c o u n t o f p r i c c r c g u l a t i on i s mor e s ompr e he ns i v e
t h a n o t h r r s a s h e f a v o u r s p r i c e f i x a t i o n i n c a s e o f ;a11 n c c c s s -
a r y c o m~ o d i t i e s , whe r e p r i c c i s a r t i T i c i n l l y i ~ l c r c a s e d . Mo r e o v e r ,
I bn ' l' :liniiyah s u g g e s t s p r o v i s i o n o f c e r t i i i u i ~ ~ l l u s t r i c s by t h e
s t a t e and f i x a t i o n o f wages a l s o , i f l ~ h c y a r c n o t J c t c r ~ n i n c d by
F r c c p l a y o f t h e mn r k c t f o r c c s ((: h: rl , t cr V1 1, p. 177 1. 'I'hc r e a s o r
i s t h a t h e , l i k e a 1 Ghaz51- i , c o n s i d e r s ' 1 i f f c r c n t i n d u s t r i e s and
1. .
~ h l d . p. 256.
Yiisuf', op. c i t . p. 5 2 .
s e r v i c e s a common ( l u t y ol' a l l MusL 11ns L ~~ k 1 5 y Ilc 11;1s
1 .
c l uot e ~l a 1 Chaznl t i n t h i s r c g; ~r c l . l'hc i ~ ~ ~ p l i c a t i on o f common
d u t y o f a l l Mus l i ms i s t h a t i l i t i s n o t s u f f i s i c n t l y done i t
w i l l be s p e c i f i c d u t y o f a l l a n d t h e s t a t ? , a s r c p r c ~ s ~ * n t a t i v ' o f
a l l , woul d ha ve t h e r e s p o n s i h i l ~ t y t o ; Ir-r; l nge i t . I ) c s r r i h i ~ ~ g t h e
-
i n d u s t r i e s a n d t r a d e s a s common i r c l i g i o u s ) dut i e s , a 1 ( ; 113~5l i
s t a t e s t h a t " I T t h e s e i n i l ~ ~ s t r i e s and t r a d e s we r e ahant l oncd.
i
cconomy woul d c o l l n p s c and t h e c r c : l t u r c s woul d perish.
5. MONEY
I ( c l 1 e c t i o n s on moncy a r c v e r y I-; i re wi t h t h c e a r l y t l i i r ~ k e r s , w l t h
-
t l i e e x c e p t i o n ol' a 1 C h l i z a l i . Wc h ; ~ v c ; i l r e ; ~ d y list-ussed i l )n
. .
I a i mi y ; ~ h ' s vi ews i n d c t a i l s . o r c I n , I (:n:iz:lli h a s a l s o
c x p l a i n c d t h e [ u n c t i o n s o f I I I OI I CY a s ~n c ~l i u m o f ~ x e h a n g c and
3
~ ~ ~ c a s u r c of v a l u e . 1 ) c s c r i l ) i n g t l ~ e i r i r o n v c n i c n c c s o f b a r t e r he
p o i n t s o u t p r o i ~ l c ms l l k c t i oui ) l c c o i n c i d c ~ n c c o f wa n t s and d i f i ' i -
c111t y o f s u b d i v i s i o n of g o o d s . Ile c o n s i ~ l c r t ; t h c c r c ; ~ t i o n oF
d i r h a m t i r n 5 r ( s i l v e r a n ~ l g o l d money) a s o ~ e o f t h e ) : r e a t e s t
. - - - - -. -
b o u r ~ t i e s o f Al l a h h c c a u s c i t s a v e s pcol i l e i r om t h c i n c o n v e n i e n c c s
o f h a r t c r . A1 GhazS 11 I ~ a s ;11 s o w ; ~ r ncd a h o u t t h c c o n s c q u c ~ ~ r c s
oC ~1c l ) a s e mc nt o f t h c i n o n c t ; ~~' y 1111ir. Ile s a y s , "To put ;I I ~ a d money
i n c u r r e n c y i s a n injustice. 'l'hc r c a s o n i s t h a t t h e p e r s o n who
makes t r l r r ~s i c t i o n wi t h t11;lt money i s l ~; Lr meJ. " Ilc f u r t h e r w r i t c s ,
"1: i r cui ; l t i o n ol' o n e bad ~1irh:crn i s wo r s e t l i i i n t h e f t o f I r undr c ~l
~~ - .- .- - -
d i r h a n ~ s , ~ ~ a s t h e f t i s [ ~ n c s i n ; ~ n d i r i s f i n i s h c d o n c c 1-or a l l ;
whi l c s p e n d i n g b ; ~ d money i s a n i ~ r n o v a t i o n whi ch ; ~ T f c c t s a 1 1 t l ~ o s c
who u s e i t - . "' Of c o u r s e , what u l c; l i ; l zn~T h a s wr i t l . c n i s c o n c c r n c d
.>
f . , i . 0 1 . I V , pp. 1 1 4 - 1 1.5,
3 .
hid. - Vol . 11, p. 93.
w i t h t h e a c t of a n i n d j v i d u ; ~ l . l 311t i f wc cxt cl l d i t t o t h e
gove r nme nt , i t w i l l g i v e 11s ;In cml,royn ic: c o n c e p t oT i n r l n t i o n .
Liecuasc wher e c o i n i s t h e o n l y mone t a r y u n i t , d e l ~ a s c n ~ c n t i s t hc
maill wa s o n oC i n f l a t i on. Ilin l ' ai mi y a l ~ i s a l l i t inor? c l e a r on
t h i s p o i n t a s h c s u g g e s t s t h c , gover. nmcl l t t o i s s u e rnoncy wi t l r i t s
r e a l v a l u e ( Ch a p t e r V , lip. l ?L- . <: ; ) .
So Car we ha ve c o n ~ p a r c J Ibrt 'I'airni Y J J I ' S V ~ C W S wi t 11 SOIIIC' u i h i s
p r e d e c e s s o r s ' vi e ws . Among h i s c . o n t c mp n r ; ~ r ~ r s I hn Qayy i111< :I g r c n t
t l ~ i r i h e r i n tiis own r i ght , a l s o c l i s c ~ l s s e ~ l marly economi c i s s u e s .
1: or t ur i at cl y , h e h; l p] ) c ~l s t o i ~ c ;I ve r y c l o s e pupi l . o f Ilin ' I ' ; I i n ~ i y : ~ h .
' I ' hcr ci - or e, i n niarly c a s e s he r ol l owe d t h e i c l c ; ~s o f l ~ i s Sl r ; ~i k l ~
~ ~
word by worcl. For c. xampl e, I I i s o u k I I I -. (1~1k1nTyal1 ~ '
hc t ouc hc d t i l e same t o p i c s whi cl l l l ~ n ' I' ni rni y: ~h cl i sr ussccl ill h i s
book "a1 ~ - l l i s ha h ~. f i ' 1 Tsl i n~", . . ~- 1 i kc i n s p e c t i o n ol ' ma r k e t , p r i c e
I
r e g u l a t i o n , monopol y and monopsony, cltc. 011 s evcl - : ~l o c c a s i o n s ,
l h n Qa y y irn r c p r o d u c c s 1bn 'l'iii111iy;111' s d i > c u s s i on v c r l ~ a t irn sorl ~c
t h i n g n o t s r ~ r p r i s i ng l'or ; I pupi l t o rlo a s , - I I C I ' T C ~ L I C I I ~ I y ~ I C ~ ~ I ~ O W -
l ccl ged h i s d i s c i p l e s h i p t o h i s Sh ; ~i Lh , 1b11 ' I ' ai mi yah.
2
-. - -- --
wor t h a ~ c n t i o n i n g . Ile s a y s t h a t " i t i s ;I wc l l known f ; ~c . t t h u
i n t e r c s t i s n o t p r o h i l ~ i t e d o ~ r l y on t t i c h a s i s ol' i t s To1.l~ and
t
i t s
name. Ilut i t i s p r o h i h i t c d d11e t o i t s n a t u r e , i t s i 1111)l i cat i orr
and i t s cons equences . " l IIc condemns a1 1 t h o s e practices wlrcrc
at t empt : is made t o l c g a l i z c ~ i n t e r e s t j u s t l )y some t r i c k s s uch a s
clian!:ing t h e name o r form. I n h i s al;e some pe npl c tried t o
p r a c t i s e i n t o r e s t . l' hcy uscil t h c word ' b u s i n c s s ' o r ' t r n n s a c t i o n '
1 - ~ I I I I I ... . f o r i n t e r e s t ; ~ r l t l changed t h e form by i n t r o d u c i n g a
mi ddl e man o r p r e t e n d e d s a l c and r c pur c ha s c . 1b11 Qayyim s a y s
t h n t i n t c r e s t i s pr es er r t w i t 1 1 a11 i t s c f f c c t s and r e a l i t y ill
t h e s e u s u r i o u s t r i c k s , a s i t i s found i n c a s c o f c x p l i c it i n t c r e s t .
Tn one s cr l s e, i nc l c nl c nc , ~ and h a ~ ~ s h n c s s i ~ ~ c r e a s c s i l l s u c l ~ c a s e s . -
Th i s is s o , becaus e t h e l e n d e r wol ~l d demand t h e amount Inore
s e v c r c l y a s he would t h i n k t h a t he was demanJi ng s o me t h ~ n g l e g a l l y
2
h i s due. Th i s i s a psycho- economi c a n a l y s i s of i r l t c r e s t pr a c -
t i c e s . We have s e e n ahovc t h a t l hn ' l' ainriynh a l s o h ; ~ d t l l c s;lmc
vi ew ( Cha pt e r V ) .
Ihn Qayyi m' s treatment 0 1 t l i c r i l ) a . ~ a l ~ - ~ f;lUl ( i n t e r e s t i n e xc l ~a nge
o l commodity w i t h unequal :lmollnt o f t h c same) i s c e r t a i n l y an
i ~npr ovcmcnt o v e r I b ~ r ' I ' ai mi yah' s t r e a t me n t o f t h e s u l ~ j c c t . l1>11
1'3 i mi yat ~ s a y s t h a t r i b 5 ~ a1 - I is ~ ) ~ - o l ~ i t ~ i t e J a s a p r c c a u t iona1.y
measur e iintl i t i s , t l l cr cl ' or e, ; ~l l owet l i n some c a s e s o f n e c e s s i t y .
Hut I h n ( p y y i r n has f u l l y anal ysccl t h e p r o h i h i t ion v l s ~ ~ c h ki nd of
3
i n t e r e s t i n h i s famous work '1'15111 a1 . . M I I W ; I ~ ' T ~ I ' . -. .~ . We have cx; ~mi ncd
h i s vi ews in some d e t a i l when we discussed Ibn ' l ' ; i i r ni v; ~h' s ; t t t i t u d c
t owar ds i n t e r c s t . IIc ha s cl i vi de<l t l rc two k i n d s o f i l l r e r e s t i n t o
r i l l j a l i ( c l e a r o r e x p l i c i t i ~ ~ t e r e s t ) and r i h a ' l kl ~; ~i ' T ( J i s -
. . ~ . --- -- -- - - - - - .
guisr.cl o r imp1 i c i t i n t e ~ . c s t ) . Ilc 11as d i s c ~ ~ s s e d t h e e v i l i1111crcrlt
i n hot h ki nds o f i n t e r e s t . Ac : c or di n~ t o him one ol: t h e o l >j e c t i v c s
of pr 0hi 1) i t i on o f --. rihB' 1 f ; l c ] l is t o pr ovi cl c f i t c i l i t i e s o r c xc h; ~ngc
f o r t h o s e who d o n o t u s u a l l y h a v e money and t h e i r ~ X C ~ I : I I I ~ C i s
nrdi nl y i l l t l i c f or m o f cornmocli t y Tor comn~ot l i t y.
We now t u r n t o economi c t l ~ o t ~ ) ; h t ill t l l c ( : I l l i s t i a n wc s t . ( : o n t r a r y
t o I s l a m wher e a l x r g e n u n ~b c r o i c c o ~ ~ o m i c t e a c h i n g s a r e f ound
i n t h e h a s i c s o u r c e s and w l ~ is11 c o n s i dcr s : economi c ; ~ c t i v i t i e s :is
I
n p a r t o f r e l i g i o n , ( : h ~. i s t i a n i t y :I Iwnys d i s c o u r a g e d I I I engage-
ment i n economi c c n t c r p r i s e . ' I' r:~de nnrl cornlllcLl-ce we r e c o n s i d e r e d
;I s
s i n s and t h e u r g e t o e: l rn rnorc was r - c ~a r d t . d / mc r c : ~ v n r i c ' e . Wc may
f iucl some o p i n i o n s on economi c s u h j c c t s s u c h a s " t h a t I ~ e l i e v c r s
s h o u l ~ l s e l l wh:lt t h e y h a v e i ~ n d g i v e i t t o t h e p o o r , o r t h a t t h e y
s l ~ o ~ ~ l d Lend wi t h o u t c x p c ~ c t i n g a n y t h i n g ( p o s s i b l y n o t e v e n r c p a y -
rncnt ) I'rom i t . "' I t i s c l e a r t h a t n o econol ni c t h e o r y ~ ; I I I be
b ~ l i l t on s u c h i d e a l i mp e r a t i v c s . ' ~ ' I I L I S t h c c a r 1 y C h r i s t i a n d o c t o r s
d i d 11ot I'intl a ny h ~ s e o r i n r . c . ~ ~ t i v e f o r i n v c t ; t i g n t i n g i n t o
e c o ~ ~ o n ~ i c p r o h l c ms 2nd f o r m ~ ~ l n t i n g theories. ' Thi s a t t i t u d c nccol l nt :
Tor " t l ~ c : g r e a t g; 1p" 3 Srom e a r l y ( : h r i s t i;rn i t y u p t o t h e mi d d l c o r
t l ~ e Mi d d l e Ages. 1, amcnt i n g on t h i s s i t l l n t i o n J os e pl l Sc11~1rnpct c r
wr i t c s , " What ever o u r s o c i o l o g i c : ~ l d i ; ~ g n o s i s o f t h e rnund; ~nc
a s p e c t s o f e a r l y ( : l i r i s t i ; ~ n i t y may h e , i t i s cleat t l ~ ; ~ t t h e
( : l ~ r i s t i a n Chur ch d i d not . ail11 : ~ t s o c i a l r cf or r n i n a ny s c n s c o t h e r
t h a n t h a t o f mo r a l r e f o r m o f i n l l i v i ~ l u n l h c h ; ~ v i o u r . At no t i n ~c
ha, t
e ve n b e f o r e i t s v i c t o r y , w h ic'h may,, rougI11y d a t c d f r om ( i o n s t a n t i r ~ c ' :
1:clict 01' Mi l a n (All. 3 1 3 1 , d i d t h c (:bur-ch a t t e mp t :I f r o n t : t l a t t a c k
1
cf'. , a 1 ( ; haz%l T, o p . c i t . Val. 1 1 , pp. 78-81
2
Schur npct er , 01'. c i t . p. 71.
3 . .
I I , I C I . 1'. 73.
on t he c f xi s t i ng s o c i a l s y s t r ~ n or- ; ~n y of i t s more i n~por t a nt i n s t i -
t u t l o n s . I t nevc1- ~) r onl i sed cconoolic p a r a d i s e , o r f o r t h a t
rl l at t cr any p a r a d i s c t hi s s id(. 0 1 t hc gr ave. 'l'llc llow and Why of
ccono~ni c mechanisms were I I I C * I I o f no i n r c r c s t c i t l ~ e r t o i t s
, - .
l cndcr - s o r t o i t s wr i t e r s . " l
As wc have nut cd i n d e t a i l I r c c t l I I I j u s t 0111~s 1 t e
was t h c c:lse wi t h Tsl ;ilnic t hi nker: ; . liconomic prohl CHI S 1r;lve 1hcc:n
t h e i r coi l cerns f r o ~n ver y b c g i n n i n ~ . Isl am h;ls pr'omisc<l pa r a dl s c
on t h i s s i d e of t h e gr ave not onl y t o i t s Sol l ower s h u t a l s o 1-01.
Ch r i s t i : ~ n s and J cws , pr ovi ded t hey f ol l owcd t l ~ c t r u e l e ; l Chi ngs
o r t h c i r d i v i n e s c r i p t s . ' l' l~e (!~ir'Til s: rys, " I ( tlicxy I I ; I ( I ubserved
t he 7'or;lh and t he (;ospcl and t l l at wllicll was r cvt s ol ed ~ul t o thcm
from t h e i r l . ord, t hey would s l l r cl y l l ; ~vc hcen ~~our i . ; l l od I'rom above
them and Crom beneat h t h c i r i . cct . " L Moreover t he ' Lcat l cr ' i n
[ s l am ;11ways r egar ded h i r ~ l ~ c l f r ~ s p o r ~ s i h l e f o r ccorl on~i c we1 1 h e ing
01 t h c 'Urnmall.
1r1 t he Ch r i s t i a n West t l l i i ~k ing on C C O I ~ O I I I ~ C prohl cn1 s t : ~r t ccl i n
?
twcl r t h c e nt ur y w i t h t hc d i s c o v e ~ y of A ~ i s t o t ' l c ~ ~cl cns t l r r ougl ~
Arab n ~ c d i ; ~ t i o n . 'To ql l orc Sc-hurnpcter ; ~p, ; ri n "Acccss t o Ar i s t o ~ l c ' s
t ho11~11t i1111nense1 y f a c i l i t a t e d t hc g i 18, :rntic t a s k hcl - o~- c them not
onl y i n ~ne t a pl l s i c s , whcrc t hcy 11xd t o lhreah now p a t h s , l l u t a l s o
i n t he ~ ) l ~ y s i c o l ; ~ n d s o c i a l s c i c ~ ~ i . ~ s , whcrc t hcv had t o s t a r t 1-rom
- - .- - - . - -. . - . .L . - . . - . . --- . .. .- ---
l i r t i c o r not hi i ~x. " -
Thc f i r s t s c h o l a r wort h merit Ion 1 i Al l >ci . t us Magnus [ I1!)3-1280)
1. . .
1I)1d. p. 7 2 .
'Thc Qu1511, V : 0 0 .
3 ~ c l l u ~ ~ ~ p c t c r , op. c i t . p. 8 8 ; t ~n d e r l i ned by us .
who t ouct l ed some economi c i s. ; ucs 1 i k c ' j u s t 111-ice and us ur y' . l l i s
d i s c i p l e S t . Thomas Aqui nas (1225-127. 1) who nppe; ~r cci a l t e r llilrl
and (Lied b c i o r c h i m absorbed h i s t cachor ' s i d e a s and ;111pl i c d l ~ i s
ideas t o s o l ~ ~ e o t h e r pr ohl cms . Ilc i s c or r s i dc r c d t h e I I ' . ; ~
r i . \ p' r escnt at i v oC h i s a g e and h i s t h o ~ ~ g l i t s gover r l c~l t h c wl ~ o l c
s c h o l a s t i c p e r i o d . lie i s a l mos t : I c o n t t ~ ~ o p o r ; ~ r y o r 11111 ' I ' ai mi y; ~h.
' I' hcrelorc!, i t secms w o ~ t h w h i l c t o cornparc l h n I ' : ~i ~r r i y: ~l r ' s vi c ws
wi t h h i s i d e a s . T h i s woul d s p a r e 1.15 f r om C O I I I ~ : I I . ~ I I ~ I l i ~ ~ t w i t 1 1
o t h e r s s chool men.
'l'hc pr ohl ems d i s c u s s e d I)y Aqu i 1l a5 w l ~ i c l ~ l';111 w i t h i 1 1 o u r s c opc ; ~ r c
t h o s e s o ~ r c c r n c d w i t h t ~ . ; l d c , t h c j u s t p r i c e , p r o p c r t y a n d l r s t l l - y .
'Thc.;c l cl cas wer e 111hcr i l ctl Ircim A1, i s t ot l c and Aqt l i nas 1. ~1 1 y :rdop-
t c d thcnl. Ilut i n c e r t a i n c a s e s 11e ~ n o d i F ~ c d them o r ~mpr ovc <l
ul)o11 thela a c c o r d i n g t o tile nerd o i h i s time o r 111 o r d ~ r t o 5yn-
t h c s i s e them wi t h Ch r i s t i a n t c a c h 1nf:s. A r i s t o t l c Tor h ~ r n w ; ~ s t11c
phi l o s o p h e r and t h e u n i v e r - s ; ~ t e ; l e h e r . I t slroul ~l l)c h o r ~ r c 111
IIILIIJ r h a t 11111 Tai r ni ynl ~ a l s o was acqunir~tecl wi t h Ar i s t o l l c . Ilc3
l-c;1<1 h i s wor ks h u t f ound him ; i s t r a y anti c r . ~ t i c i s c , < i hi 111 i n h i s
1
wr i t i r ~ g s . Th e r e f o r e t h c r c i s no q c ~ e s t i o n f o r hinl t o ; ~ ~ l u l l t h i s
o p r n i o n s . I t i s a l s o i ~ ~ t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t S t . ' l' ho~nas Aqui na s
was awar e o f t h c wr i t i n g s ;cnd t h i n k i n g s o r t h c Musl ~ I I I s c ho1; 1r s
l i k e I hn I < u ~ l ~ c l ( Av e r r o c s ) , 1b11 ~ ~ r l r i ( Avi c c nn: ~) c t c . Ile mi ): ht a s
wc l l hi t vc h c n c t i t c d Tr o~n t hc. i r c c ~ ~ i t r i l ~ ~ r t i o ~ ~ s . l r ~ ~ t 110 p r o o f i . i
a v a i l ; ~ l ) l c t l i a t l i u s t e r n t hi r r ker ' s i n t l l : ~ t p e r i o d wcr c I . a r t ~ i l i a ~ - w t t h
t h c c o n t r i b u t i o n s o r t h e W ~ . s t .
Aq u i n a s i s t h e j u s t p r i c e . ( ; c r ~n s o f t h i s i d e a we r e r ound i n
A r i s t o t l e . Al h e r t u s Magnus i n t rot l ucct l l a h o n r c o s t an;) l y s i s i n t h e
j u s t p r i c e , a nd t h e same was a d o p t e d by Aq u i n a s , wi t h some
r e f i n e n l e n t . We h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u 5 s e d h i s i d e a s i n t h i s r e g a r d
( Ch a p t e r 111) . A s con~par er l t o hi m, 11111 Ta i ~ n i y a l i ' s t r c . : ~t m~%nt o C
t h e s u l ~ j e c t i s mor e c o ~ n p r c h t ~ n s i v c . I n t l i c f i r s t p l : ~ c c , h c d o c s
n o t b a s e h i s t h i n k i n g on t h e Gr eek p l ~ i l o s o p h e r - f o r r e a s o i i s
a l r e a d y i ~l e n t i o n c d . Ile f ound t h e tcr111 11sed i n o n e o f t h e s a y i n g
o f t h e p r o p h e t . And i t was I ' r cquci i t l y u s e d i n t h e l i t c r a t u r c o f
1 s l a 1 1 1 i c j u r i s p r u d e n c . e . 'I'liei-c i s I r e s c ml ~ l a n c e l hct wccn Tlhn
' l ' a i n ~i y : ~h ' s c o n c e p t o f j ~ ~ s t p r i c c and t h a t o f Aq u i n a s . I:or b o t h
t h e j u s t p r i c c mu s t he ;I c o ~ p r t i t i v c ~ n ~ ; ~ i . k c t p r i c c : ~ n d t h c r c nus t
he no l f r ; ~ u d . 130th o f t hem : ~ d v o c ; ~ t e 1 Yx a t i o n o f p r i c e i n c a s e ;I
p r i c e ( l i l ' f e r e r ~ t f r om t h e j u s t pr i ce, i s 1)r:ing c. hargct l . h u t i n t l i c
c o n t e x t o f f i x a t i o n S t . Aqui n; l s c o n s i d e r s t h e e l e me n t o i t l ~ c
s u l h j e c t i v e v a l ~ ~ e o f a n o l h j r c t t o t h e s e l l e r o n l y , whi l c I hn
' I' :iirniy;~h t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e clc'mc.nt s o f t h e s u b j e c ' t i v c v : ~ l u c
o f t h c o h j e c t . f o r b o t h t h e s c l l c r and t h e b u y e r , whi ch l oakcs h i s
a n a l y s i s s u p e r i o r t o t l ~ a t ol' S t . Aq ~ ~ i n ; i s ( Cl i a pt c r 111, pp. 7 0 ,
HH).
1I1n 'I';i1111iy;1li -
I,. Ma r ke t ~. - Mechani sm - R 1' 1. i ci ri g. / i ~ ~ t r o d u c c ~ l Lo r c e s o f demand a11d
s u p p l y 111 d e t e r mi n a t i o n oP 1 ) r l c c s ( a t I T . I n t l i i 5 c a 5 c lic
c a n a c t u ; i l l y h e c o n s i d c r r d a s n p i o n e e r . Ac c o r d i n g t o S c l i u ~ ~ ~ p e t c ~ .
" a s r e g a r d s t h e t h e o r y oP t l i c met-h;~nism 01' p r i c i n g t l i c r c i s v e r y -
1 i t t l e t o r e p o r t h c f o r e t h c r ni t l ~l l t . O F t h e e i g h t e c n t l ~ c . c ~ ~ t u r y . "
L
I hn ' I' ai rni yah a l s o t l i s c u s s c ~t l p r i c e regulation lhy the. s t a t c :ind
g a v e an a c c o u n t o r monopol y, o l ii:opo l y ;ind ~ n o n o p s o ~ ~ y (1: h; l pt cr T I I ,
pp. 8 0 - 8 8 , 8 9 ) . Such i d e a s a r c ~ L I I I I I L ~ n e i t l i c r i n Aq ~ i i n a s , no].
w i t 1 1 o t h e r s c h o l a s t i c d o c t o r s f o r many c e n t u r i e s t o c o ~ c . A1);1rt
f r om j u s t p r i c e , 1bn Ta i mi y a h i n t r oduc e d c o n c c p t s l i kt : j ~ i s t
p r o f i t and j u s t coul pens at i o n .
~~ ~~ -. .
' ~ c h u l n ~ r t c r , op. c i t . p. 3 0 5 .
c . .~ I n t e r e s t and S t . A q t ~ i n s . S t . Aq u i n a s ' v i e ws a b o u t i n t e r e s t
a r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n themselves. On t h e o n e hand, he t r i c s t o
f o l low Ar i s t o : l e i vi e w t h a t money is h a r r c n , t h e r c i o r c , no
a d d i t i o n a l amount s h o u l d b e c h ; ~r j i e d on l o ; ~ n s . On t h e other I l n r ~ ~ l ,
he nl akcs c o n c e s s i o n f o r e x t r a p:lymcnt on t h e l>:lsis o f ti;rn~:ige
t h r o u g h l o s s o f e n j o y n ~ e n t 01, I'orc-gon' p r o l ~ t ( Ch ; ~ p t c r V ) . ' l ' hi s
is ;I c l e a r d i v e r g c n c c f r om t h e c: ~l - l i c r s t a n d . I n ' i i ~ n i l i s
v e r y s t r i c t on t h e ma t t e r o!' i n t c r P s t and no s u c h d i c h o t o n ~ y i s
f ound wi t h hi m.
d. 'fhinki*bout ~- Money. ~ 111 S t . Aq u i n a s ' w r i t i n g s no r c l ' l c c t i o n
i s f ound o n money. One Ni col c ( l r e s ~ ~ ~ c , :I Fr e nc h i : l n ~ r c l ~ l ~ ~ : i i ~ who
was h o r n a l mo s t h a l f n c e n t u r y ; l i t e r Ili111, h a s a t r e a t i s c i n whi ch
he t o o k up t h e ma t t e r o f mon(.y For d e t i ; ~ l c c l d i s c u s s i o n . A s wc
hove a l r e a d y n o t e d Sbn 7' a i mi y; 1h' s a c c o u n t 01 ~n o n c y i s 1,ric.i. y e t
hc mentioned a l l t h o s e p o i n t s xrld s o me t h i n g mo r e , b e t o r e Clresrl~c
( Ch a l ' t c r V ) . Th e r c i s I I ~ p o s s i l ) ~ l i t y o f Or es111, ~ 11av1ng been
a wa r e o f I b n Ta i mi y a h ' s wor k.
e . ~ l'ro~)!;c~~_N... ~.~ . A s vgn i n s t t h e ca.1' 1 y teachings o f C h r i s t i ; i l l i t y
r e g a r d i n g p r o p e r t y , whi ch was c l l ' e c t e d by t h e I ' l n t o n i c c o n ~n r u n i s t i c
nmde o f 1 i f c , St . . Aq u i n a s Fol l ow5 A r i s t o t l c ' s vi ew and d c l c n i l c J
p r i v a t c p r o p e r t y ( Ch a p t e r 1V) . I l c r e a l s o Aq u i n a s i s v c r y h r i c f .
On t l ~ c c o n t r a r y l b n 'l'a i mi yci l ~ i l i s ~ ~ u s s c s t h c pr ol >l cm i n ~ n u c l ~ d c t a i 1 .
Ile l a y s down t h e p r i n c i p l e s ol ' a c q u i r i n g o wr ~e r s l l i p a s wc l l a s
t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o v e r p r o p e r t y r i g h t . We c a n d i s t i n g u i s l l t h r e e
t y p e s 01' p r o p e r t y i n h i s w r i t i n g s , n a me l y , p r i v a t e p ~ ' o p c r t y ,
i o l l c c t i v e o r s o c i a l p r o p e r t y iind t l ~ e s t a t c p r o p e r t y . A 1 1 h i s
i d e a s i n t hi : ; c o n n e c t i o r ~ wr r c , o f c o ~ i r s c , ~ l ~ r i v e d rroni t h e I s l a n ~ i c
s o u r c c .
f . t l r . I o i c s Ap a r t I'r-om t h e al i ovc ni cl ~t i o ~ ~ o d subjects, i hn
T ; i i ~ n i y ; ~ I ~ t l e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l t lhr* I-arms o f l > u s i n c s s c o n t r a c t s , t h e
economi c r o l e o f t h e s t a t e i n p c o p l c ' s l i f c , s o u r c c s u f p ~ ~ l > l i c
r evenue and e x p e n d i t u r e , e t c . 111 s u c l ~ a r e a s , S t . A ~ L I ~ I I : I S ' c o ~ ~ t r i -
hut i on i s a l mos t r l i 1 . l ' hr Coi - ep, oi ~~g evaluation ol ' t h c t h o u g h t s
o f S t . Aqui nas - t h e r e pr e s c nt i i t i vc o l Wcst cr n Midcllc Ages ; I I I ~
t h o u g h t s o f l l ~ n l'a i mi yah c l c ; ~ r l y r e v c a l s llow f a r ahead o r h i s
we s t c r n c o u n t e r p a r t t h c 1xt t c. r was.
Our c v ~ ~ l u a t i on oC I hn T a i ~ n i y : ~ l ~ ' s vicws would he i n c o mp l ~ ~ t c i f wc
mi s s :I c o n ~ p n r i s o ~ ~ o f h i s i de : ~s w i t h t h o s e o f Ihn Kl ~: ~l c l ~i r ~, (13.12-
1 4 0 6 ) ' llc was bor n i n l ' u n i s f o u r y c a r s a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f T ~ I I
'l'a i mi y n h and he s p c n t most ol ' h i s t i mc s t h e r e . llc a l s o v i s i t c 3
d i f f e r v n t s t a t e s aud met t h e i r l i eads. Ile pas s ed h i s l a s t clays i n
Egypt whcr e he d i e d . l l i s h r i l l i ; ~ n t wor k, ~ bluq;~ddimuh .. ~ ~~ ~ ( : ~ n i n t r u -
d u c t i o n t o h i s t o r y ) i s c o r ~s i d c r c t l t hi : most s u l ~ l imc and p c c r l c s s
c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Mi ddl e Ages. I t i s a t r c a s u r e o f many
s c i e n c e s I i ke h i s t o r y , ps ychol ugy, s o c i o l u g y , gcogr apl r y, ccono-
1ni c. s c t c . lie has devot ed t h c f i lSth c h a p t e r 01' h i s . MrlVdd .- ... . imali - ..~ -
t o economi c pr obl ems b u s i n e s s :irlrl d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s . Al l ar t
fro111 t h i s , one s e c t i o n o f t l ~ c f i r s t c h a p t e r , t e n s c c t i o r ~ s o f t h i r d
c h a p t c r ant1 s i x s e c t i o n s o f t l ~ e f o u r t h c h a p t e r a r e a l s o c o ~ l c c r n c d
w i t h economi c pr obl ems .
I n t l ~ c commencement i t must 11c notcad t l ~ a t t h e ~ ~ a t u r c o I I hn
Kl ~ ; ~ l d f i r ~ ' s t l i s c ~ ~ s s i o n i s v e r y J i f f e r c n t Srom t h a t 0 1 - Ihn ' l ' ai rni y; ~h.
As w i l l hc c l e a r I:rom o u r ; ~ n ; ~ l y s i s t h e most s u i t a l > l c I I ; I JI I ' l o r
h i s i n q u i r y i s ' Economi c So c i o l o g y ' w11i Le l hn T a i ~ n i y ; ~ h ' s (11s-
c u s s i o n i s a p t t o be named ; I S ' I s l a mi c Pol i t i c a l l i c o ~ ~ o n ~ y ' . In t l l c
Li ght o i h i s e x p e r i e n c e , 1b11 Khaldiin f i r s t m h c s ;I t l l cor y t he n
t e s t i f i e s i t wi t h cv
economics o r , l e t us
s t r e s s i s on t h c des
j u s t economic pol i cy
i dcnce. l ' hus, h i s c c onor ~~i c s i s : L
s : ~ y , l >; ~s c d on e mpi r i c a l s t udy.
i r a b l c cconoinic pr : l t ' t i cc o r t h e
of t he s t a t e . So, i t i s gener al
cconon~i cs . The f ol l owi ng cor ~i p: ~r i s un w i 11 r a t i f y our
a. I ) C I I I ~ I I I ~ .~ and SLIE~Y. 1hn Ta in1 i y: ~h : ~n d T h 1 1 Khal d i i ~ i 110th have
poi nt e d oil: t h e e f f e c t oC i crc; i sc. i n dco~antl o r cl ecr r asc i n su11ply
on p r i c e s . Ihn Klrnldiin wr i t e s "w11c11 ;I c i ~ y has :I 1ii~:lily tlcvc-
l ope d, abundant c i v i 1 i z ; l t i o n and i s f u l l o r ' luxuries, t l i c ~. e i s a
ver y l a r ge demand f or t l i osc coi i ver ~i cnces and f or I ~ a v i l ~ g :is n1:lny
of tllenr as a per s on can expect i n view o f liis s i t u a t i o n . ' l' liis
r e s u l t s i n a veTv g r e a t s hor t a ge oC s1lc1i t hi ngs . hl;iny w i l l b i ~ l
1-or thcni, but tlicy w i l 1 he i n . short s uppl y. They w i l I he ricedrd
f o r miny pl l r poses, and prospc' rous licuplc. used t o l uxur i c s w L 11
pay e x o r h i t e n t p r i c e s ['or them, hc c ; ~us e t l ~ c y nced ~ I I L ' I I I mure i l ~ ; i n
o t h e r s . Thus XI S one can s e c , pr . i c Cs come t o 1)c I i i g l i . " ' At
anot hcl - pl a c e l ~ e d c s c r i h e s t he ct ' f cct o f i ncr car ; c o r ci ccr c~; ~s e of
s uppl y on p r i c e s . Ilc s a y s , " . . . . . . whe n goods a r c lew and r ; l r e ,
t h e i r p r i c e s go up. 011 t h e other hn~r d, when t l i c c o ~ ~ ~ ~ t i - y i s ne:lr
and t h e road s a i e f o r t r ; ~ v c l 1 i ng, h r r c wi l l Ire miry t o t r a n s p o r t
t hc goods. ' rliils t hcy w i 11 11c found i l l l a r g e qi i a nt i t i c s , a n ~l t he
2
p r i c e s wi l l go down.
Af t e r t h i s , l b n KhnldTin c i t c s cxnlnlllc o f t l i l ' f cr cnt jioo~ls xncl t h c i r
s uppl y i n d i l f e r c n t count r i c! ; :incl t he r i s c a n d Tal l ~ I I prices
accor di ng t o ~ v : i i l ~ l b i l i t y U S gooJ s . 110 j u s t n~~>nt i nr i s tlie Fac.ts
arid docs n o t p r e s c r i b e nny p o l i c y un tlie h a s i s o f h i s ol >s cr v; i t i on.
Wc l ~a v c seen l bn Ta i n~i ya h' s s t a l eiiient rcgart i i i ~ g tllc eSl'csc.t U S
i ncr c: i se o r decr e: i sr i n demand a n d s ~i p p l y O I I prices. l l c dor.; n o t
stol' a t t h i s . But on t h e h a s i s u f t h i s f a c t 11c. opl1osc5 f i x a t i o n
o f any p r i c c by non- ma r ke t f o r c e s . Hut wh r r e h e i i r l d s i mper t ' ec-
t i 0 1 1 i l l t h e ma r k e t o r e x c e s s on t h e p a r t o f suppliers 11c
rcc. ommc~l ds p r i c e r e g u l a t i o n ( Ch a p t o r T T T ) . T h i s i s n o t t o
b e l i t t l e t h e a n a l y t i c a l i n s i g h t o f 1l)n Kha l dun, b u t o n l y t o u n d e r -
l i n e t h e f a c t t h a t I b n ' fni mi ya11' s mu i n c o n c e r n b e i n g j u s t i c e , h i s
p o l i c y s u g g c s t i o n s s t a n d o u t more p r o mi n e n t l y .
1). Funct ion:; o f Mo n 3 . 111 t h e ' bl uq: ~cl ~l i m; i l ~' . ~ ~ ~. -. , we a l s o f i n d r c f -
I c c t i o n s on money, b u t t h e y a r c l i mi t c d t o somc o f i t s l ~ ~ n c t i o n s .
I bn Khal di i n w r i t e s , "God c r c a t c d t h e t wo ~ n i r l c r a l ' s t o n c s ' , g o l d
and s i l v c r a s t h e ( mcas l i r c 0 1 . ) vn l u r f o r n l l c a p i t a l nc c umul a t i o n s .
( Gol d and s i l v e r s a r c wh a t ) t h e i nTl al ) i t ; l nt s o f t l ~ e wo r l d , by
p r e f c r c n c c s , c o n s i d e r t r e a s u r e :rnd p r o p e r t y ( t o c o n s i s t o f ) . livcn
i f , u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u ~ n s t a n c ~ s , o t h e r t h i n g s ar c3 a c q u i r e d , i t
i s o n l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f u l t i r n ; ~ t c l y o h t a i n i n g ( g o l d and s i l v e r ) .
A l l o t l l e r t h i n g s a r e s u b j e c t t o ma r k e t f l u c t u a t i o n s , from whi cl i
( g o l d a nd s i l v c r ) a r c e xe mpt . They arc: t h e h a s i s ol- ~ ~ r o f i t ,
p r o p e r t y , a n d treasure. "I l l c r e I h n h.haldi111 h a s merit i oned t h a t
g o l d a nd s i l v e r a r c c r c a t c d t o b e i ~ s c d a s money a nd pc3rfornr t h e
f u n c t i o n o i medium o f e x c l ~a r ~l : e , me a s u r e o f v a l ~ i e and s t o r e 01'
v a l u e . l b n ' l ' a i mi y a h ' s accoL111t o f money i s a l s o v e r y h r i e l b u t
he c o v e r s many o t h e r a s p e c t s o r money. Ilc i s ma i n l y c o ~ ~ c e r r ~ c d
wi t h s t a b i l i t y i n t h e v u l u c o f money. l l ence h e pr occ. cds t o
d i s c u s s debasement o f c u r r e n c y and wa r n s t h e r u l e r s a g a i n s t i t s
c o n s c q u c n c c s ( Ch a p t c r V ) . tlc h a s n l s o tl i s c u s s c t t t h e pr oh lcm o r
i n t e r e s t , b u t 1bn Khal dun d o e s n o t t oucl l t l r i s i mp o r t a n t aspect
o f t h e cconomy.
c . Co o p e r a t ~ ~ . ~ . ~.~~ i o n . Co o p e r a t i o n i n e c o ~ ~ o m i c a c t i v i t i e s i s C I I I ~ ~ I ~ I -
s i z e d 1)y b o t h Lbn ' l ' ai mi yah and 1l)n Kh; i l dGn, and i t h a s hc c n
c o n s i d e r e d n ; ~ ? l ~ r a l i ' or human h c i n j i s . I hn '1';limiy;ih w r i t c s
"Mank~l l cl c a n n o t l i v e i n i s o l a t ion. Now when two o r more p e r s o n s
l i v e t o g c t h e r , t h e n t h e r e must h e c. oopcr ; l t i on t o do s or nr t hi ng
an<1 t o r e f r a i n f r om o t h e r s . " I
A t a n o t h e r p l a c e h e s d y s anki kind.'.;
we l f a r e i n t h i s wo r l d o r h e r . c ; i i t c r c. ; ~nnot h e a c h i e v e d wi t h o u t g e t
t o g e t h e r and c o o p e r a t i o n . So t h e r c \ h o ~ ~ l c l b e c o o l ) c , i , ~l i o n and
a s s o c i a t i o n t o a c h l c v e goo' ) and : ~ l l i a n c e t o r cmovc i n j ~ ~ r y . 'l'liert*-
f o r e i t i s s a i d t h a t man i s by 11:1t11rc a s o c i a l b e i n g . l h n
Tai nr i yah d o c s n o t e l n h o r n t c t l ~ c i dc; i and i t s economi c i mp l i c ; r t i u n .
I l ~ n Khal di i n i s mor e e x p l i c i t on t h i s s i i h j r c t . tle s t a r t s h i s
' Muquddi mnh' wi t h t h e same s t n t c l n c n t t hi r t ' lnan i s i ~ y n a t u r e a
- . -~
3
s o c i a l h c >i n g ' . Accor d i r ~ g t o 1 1 1 m p r o s p c r i t y ant1 b u s i ~ ~ e s s a c t i v i t y
d e p e n d s on t h e l i m i t o f c o o p r r a t i u ~ ~ anionl: p e o p l e . Ilc s a y s " As
i t i s known a n d wc l l e s t ; a b l i s l ~ c d , t h e i n d i v i d u a l ~ ~ L I I I I ; ~ ~ h c i n g c a n
n o t hy h i ms c l t o b t a i n a l l t h e n c c c s s i t ~ e s o f I l i e . A l I. h~1111an
I ) c l ngs l ms t c o o p e r a t e t o t h d t r n d i n t h e 1 r c l v i l i z , ~ t i o n . I$ut
wha t i s o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e r o u l l c r a t i on o l a g r o u p o i human
h c i n g s s a t i s f i e s t h e n e e d o f a number. many t i me s g r e a t e r ( t h a n
t h c ~ ~ ~ s e l v e s ) . I:or I n s t a n c e , I I O o n e , Ily h l ms e l l ' , c a n o l ~ t ; i i n t h e
S ~ I ; I T C 01' t h e wheat h e r l ecds f o r roucl. Hut when s i x o r t e n p e r s o n s
i n c l u d i n g a s mi t h and a c a r p e n t e r t o make t l ~ e t o o l s and o t h e r s
who a r e i n c l wr g e o f t h e o x e n , t h e pl uwl ng o f t h e s o i l , t h c 11;lr-
v c s t i n g o f t h e r i p e g r a i n , and n l l t h e ; c g r l c u l t u r a l activities,
undertake 1:o o b t a i n t h e i r l o o d and wor k t o wa r d t h a t p u r p o s e
e i t h e r s r p n r a t e l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y a n d t h u s o h t a i n t h r o u g h t h e i r
l a l ~ o u r :I c e r t a i n amount o f f o o d , ( t h a t amoul l t ) w i l l h e f ood f o r
a n u ~n h e r o f p c o p l e many t i mps t h e i r own. 'I'hc c o n ~ h ~ n r d l n l >o u r
p r o d u c e s mor e t h a n t h c n c r d s ;ind n e c r s s i t i c s of t l l e wo r k e r s .
, , 4
' l ' hi s l o n g p a s s a g e shows t h e i mpor t ; ~ncc? o f cooperation a s wr l l a s
11111 l ' a i mj y a h , A 1 - t j i s h a h , 11. 1 1 6 .
2. .
i h ~ c l . 13. 8.
3-
I bn Khal d u n , --- Muquddi mnh, - . -. . - 1) . 33.
4 1 <o s e n t h n l , E. . , op. c i t . pp. 271- 72
a d v a n t a g e o f t h e d i v i s i o n o r l a b o u r . I n h i s M u ~ ~ d d i s ~ : ~ h , we f i n d
-~ ---. -- .--
many passage: ; r e g a r d i n g c o o l ) e r a t i o n and d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . l No
d o u h t , on t h i s s u b j e c t h e c a n ma t c h Inany e c o n o mi s t s o r t o d a y .
d. I , al >uur Va l u e o f Goods. From d i r f c r c n t p a s s a g e s o F h i s
Muqaddi m~l h i t a p p e a r s t h a t 11c h e l i c v e s i n l a b o u r v: ~l r l c o f g o o d s ,
. .. ~-
and t h a t t h e r e a s o n o f p r o r i t i s o n l y ] : ~ h o u r . For ~ X ; I I I I P ~ C he
s a y s , " . . . . . p r o f i t i s t h e v: r l ue r ei l l i z c d f r om 1: 1hour . " 2 A t
a n o t h e r p l a c e h e s a y s , ". . . . . i t s l ~ o u l d h e f u r t l ~ e r known t l ~ : ~ t t h e
c a p i t a l a pe r s ol l e a r n s and ; t cqu i r c s , i T r e s u l t i n g f r om a c r a l t ,
7
i s t h e v a l u e r e a l i z e d f r om h i s 1:1I,otir" . . . . . " i t l ~ a s t l l t l s hecome
c l e a r t h a t g a i n s and p r o r i t s i n t h c i r c n t i r c l y o r f o r t h e 111ost
p a r t , a r c v a l u e r e a l i z e d r r om I I L I I I I ~ I I l ; ~l ) our ' "
' I
. . . . . . I t s h o u l d I>c
r cmcmher cd t h a t I bn ' l ' ai mi y: ~h f i i v c s e q u a l we i g h t i - or l i ~ n i l , 1: 1hour
a n d c a p i t a l i n r e a 1 . i z a t i o 1 1 ot ' t h e v a l u e oC goods ( Cl ~ a p t c . ~ . V T , pp.
147- 48, 1 5 2 . ) .
e . .~ Taxti t i on. 1 bn Kha 1dii11 h : ~ s d i s c u s s e ~ l pr ol ) l em o f puh1 i c
f i n a n c e , I ) L I ~ n o t i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l way, whi c h was b e i n g f o l l o wc d
f r om b e g i n n i n g . I3y ' t r a d i t i o n n l way' we mean a d i s c u s s i o n OI I
t h e r e v e n u e o f s t a t e , t y p e s o f t a x e s , t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s , l ~ c n d s
o f c x p e l ~ r l i t u r e , e t c . T n s t e i ~ ~ l of: d o i n g t h a t , l h n Khel di i n milhcs ;In
a s s u mp t i o n t h a t " a t t h e h e g i l ~ l ~ i n g o f d y n a s t y , t a x a t io11 y i e l d s u
l a r g e r e v e n u e f r om s ma l l a s s c s s mc nt - ; . A t t h e end o f t h e d y n a s t y
t : r x n t i o n y i e l d s a s ma l l r e v e n u e TI-om l a r g e a s s c s s mc n t s . " 5 The
r e a s o n i s t h a t i n t h e begi nni n! : t h c s t a t e f o l l ~ w s I I I U r ~ l i g i ~ u s
r u l e s and i mpos e o n l y t h o s e t a x e s whi c h a r e p r e s c r i l ~ c c l hy S I I ; I ~ ? ; I ~ -~ ---- ~
and t h e y a r e few a nd s i na l l . P e o p l e a r e c e r t a i n nhout t h e i r
amount . So t h e y work e f f i c i e n t l y and pay t a x e s h a p p i l y . On tlie
c o n t r a r y , when s t a t e r c a c h c s i t s c l i ma x , i t s r u l e r and o C i i c i a l s
e nga ge i n l u x u r i e s . Fo r t l i i s p u r p o s e t h e y i mpose d i i i c r c n t 11c.w
t a x e s and i n c r e a s e t h e amount or c a r 1 i c r t a x e s . T h i s l e a d s t o
d i s i n c e n t i v e on t h e p a r t 01' p e o p l e . So t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n d e c r e a s e s
and t a x e v a s i o n e n t e r s . Aga i n t h c y i n c r e a s e t a x c s and a g a i n
p r o d u c t i o n and t h u s r e v e n u e de c r c : i s c s and ;I v i c i o u s c i r c l e s t a r t s .
As a r e s u l t t h e c i t y Caccs r u i n . ' I hn Klialdfin rec.ommcnds mi ni -
mum t a x e s "Thc s t r o n g e s t i n c e n t i v e f o r c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y i s t o
l o we r a s much a s p o s s i h l c t h e amount s o r i n d i v i d u a l i mp o s t s l e v i e d
upon p e r s o n s c a p a b l e o f u n d e r t ; ~ k i n g c u l t u r ~ l c n t c r p r i s c s . 111 t h i s
manl l cr , s uc h p e r s o n s w i l l p s y c l ~ o i o g i c . a l l y d i s p o s e d t o u n t l c r t a k e
t hem, b e c a u s e t h e y c a n bc c o n f i d e n t o i ~ l ~ a h i n g a p r o f i t Crom t hem. "
I bn Khal dun i s a l s o a g a i n s t t h c st a t e t r a d e . "Cornr~~crc i n 1 a c t i v i t y
on t h e p a r t o f r u l e r i s h a r mf u l t o h i s s u h j c c t s and r u i n i o u s
,, 3
t o t h e t a x r e v e n u e . 'The r c a s o n i s c l e a r . I n t h i s L . ; I S ~ t h c r c
-
w i l l s t a r t a c o mp e t i t i o n hc t wc e n r u l e r a nd h i s s u l ) j c c t , wher e
t h e l a t t e r w i l l b a d l y he a f f e c t e d duc t o f o r mc r s ' power a nd
r e s o u r c e s .
f . S t a t e ' s . Rol c. From I bn Khnl dUns ' wr i t i n j i s i t a p1) c a r s t h a t
he d o c s n o t wa nt t h c s t a t e t o i n t c r l ' c r c i n cconomi c l i l'e o i
p e o p l e , o r i n o t h e r wo r d s , he s ccms t o be a d h e r e n t o r tlie p o l i c y
o i ' l a i s s c z r a i r c : On t h e c o n t r a r y l bn Ta i mi ya h c o n s i d e r s f o r t h e
s t a t c a n a c t i v e r o l e i n economi c l i r e o f p e o p l e .
The r e a s o n f o r t h e s e t wo d i f f e r e n t ; ~ p p r o a c l ~ e s i s tli;rt. i hn Kl ~; ~l dGn
c o n s i d e r s t l ~ e c h a n g e s i n s oc . i c t y t o b e ;I ~ c s u l t o f n a t u r a l f o r c c s .
T h i s l e a v e s l i t t l e s c o p e For a11 c f i o r t d i r e c t e d a t c h a n g i n g t h e
l c f . , i b i d . pp. 8 9 - 9 0 ( wor ds a r e o u r s )
2 . .
t b ~ d . p. 291.
-
p r e v a i l i n g c o n d i t i ons . Ac c or di ng t o h i m onc e a de c a y s t a r t s i n
a s t a t e i t c a n n o t be r c v c r s c ~ l . 011 t l ~ c c o ~ ~ t r a ~ . y , 1 l l r 1 ' L. ai mi y; ~h
b c l i c v c s t h a t t h e s o c i e t y i s m;ln-madc arid t h e r e must be c o n s c i o u s
e f f o r t t o i mpr ove t h c c o n d i t i o n o i t h e [ ~ c o p l c , t h e s o c i r t y and
t l i c s t a t e . I bn Khal dl i n s t a t e s wl ~ a t ha ppe ns ; wlii l c l hn ' l ' ; ~i l ni yah
e mp h a ~s i z c s d ~a t o u g h t t o 11:lppc.n. I n t l ~ c p r : ~ < - t i c a l lift a l s o t l i c
two l e a d i n g t h i n k e r s t o o k p a r r ill t wo d i f i ' c r c n t ways. I hn
or
Khal di i n' s c a r e e r seem5 t o hc h: i r ~nor l i s i ng : ~ r ~ d c o n ~ p r o ~ n i s irig n a t u r e ;
wh i l e il)rr ' T; ~i mi ya h' s p i c t u r e i s t h a t o f a r i g h t e r and :I man o f
s t r ~ ~ g g l e .
' I i mpor t a nt q u e s t i o n t h a t r e ma i ns i s whet l r cr t h c c c wxs ;Iny
i n f l u c n c c - o f I bn Ta i n ~ i y a h on 1 l 1 n Kl ~ a l c l ~ n a l ~ d , Tor t h : ~ t r nat t ?r
was l b n Khaldiin owar c oT l bn l ' a i mi ynh' s v i e ws ?
11111 KhcllJim mc n t i o n s I hn 'l';limiy;lh a t t wo p1; r cr s i n h i s famous
h i s t o r y h i t z b . - (11 C I t ~ a r and r r ul , ol - t ~ h i s ni c c t i ng wi t h thc* MongOl
k i n g i;h.izZn a l o n g wi t h somc o t h e r 'ul;1m5. Exc c pt t h i s , h e n c v c r
r e f e r s t o him i n h i s wr i t i n g s . Nut i t sccms mos t p r o h ; ~ b l c t h a t
11c was ; I W; I ~ C o f t h e i d e a s and c o n t r i l ~ u t i o n s o r Il )n l ' i ~ i ~ ~ ~ i y a h i n
d i f f c r c n t b r a n c h e s o r k n o w l r d ~ ~ . ~ .
Dur i ng I hn Ta i mi ya h' s c o n f i ncmcnt i n A l e x a n d r i ; ~ , Maghr il17s f rum
3
Morocco ~ I I J Tu n i s met hi m. I t i s l i k e l y t h a t t l ~ e y t r ; ~ns por t c . i l
h i s wr i t i n g s t o t h e i r countries and i n t r o c l ~ ~ c e d 11 i r 11 ; I ~ ~ I I K tl1c.i r-
'ulanCi -- - -- and s c l ~ o l a r s . TIILIS 1I)n Kh; ~l dGn mi ght h: ~vc hc c n ; ~ c i ] u ; ~ i r l t c d
wi t h h i s i cl cas wh i l c he was i n ' I ' I I I I ~ ~ and Mor.o~.c'o. liven i f we
assume t h a t hc c o u l d n o t come a c r o s s I hn l ' a i mi y n h ' s vi e ws i n
3
I . aous t , I I . , I b n Tai mi ynh ; t r t i c l c i n P r ~ q c l o p ; l c d i ; ~ - --- -. - o f -. I s l a m, . -
Vul . 111, p. 9 5 2 .
h i s own c o u n t r y , i t woul d l )e mos t p r o b ; j b l c t h a t d u r i n g h i s l a s t
t we n t y y e a r s s t a y i n Egypt h c wo~11d 11:lve r e a d hi m. When h e
r e a c h e d Hgypt , i t was o n l y f i f t y y e a r s a f t e r l b n ' I ' n i mi y a l ~ ' ~
d c s t h . Many c f h i s d i s c i p l e s we r e a1 i v c a t t h a t t i me . 111 t h e
o p i n i o n o f Dr . ' ~ 1 7 a1 ~ a r d r , l b n Khal di i n was i r r f l ue nc e l l hy a1
(; hazZl T and I h n Tni mi yah i n h i s c r i t i c i s m on l . ogi c . lle f i n d s
a rrunrher o f o p i n i o n s i n Mu ~ ? d d i n ~ a h . ~ - - of I b n Khal dun wl ~ i c h lrnd h e e n
expr es s ecl by I b n Ta i mi ya h rind a 1 ( ; h a z ? i l ~ when t h e y c r i t i c i s e d
t h e r e a s o n a nd l o g i c . Th e s e i d c a s a p p e r ~ r i n Mucl;~ddim;rh s ome t i me s
i n s i mi l a r wor ds and sol net i n ~ e s i n c l i f r c r e n t wor ds lhut wi t h t h e
same meani ng. i t i s i n t r r c s t i n g t o i ~ot - e h e r e t l ~ a t I h n Ta i mi ya h
I ~ a d p o i n t e d o u t a h i c r a r c l r y i n c r e a t i o n 3 a nd w e f i n d t h c same
4
t h i n g i n t h e Mucl;lddimah i n much d c t ~ i i I . ('1'11 i s h i v r a r c l ~ y i n
c r e a t i o n h a s however n o t l ~ i n g t o d o wi t h I l a r wi n ' s t h e o r y o f
Ev o l u t i o n ) .
3. ECONOMIC TllINKING AMONC FIIISI.TMS I N 'I'tIF I.A'Slil< I'liRlOil
Th i n k i n g on economi c p r o h l e ms and some ccononr i c a n a l y s i s ncvcr .
c e a s e d t o e x i s t i n I s l a mi c h i s t o r y . Wc Cind n c h a i n o r s c h o l a r s
a r t e r Il )n ' Tai mi yah who d i s c u s s c d economi c p r o h l e ms . Ap a r t lfroni
-
I bn Khal di i n we h a v e a 1 Maqr yz; ( 1364- 14413, J a l 3 l u d d ; n DnwwZni
( 1 4 2 7 - 1 5 0 1 ) , Shah ~ a l ~ u l l 5 h n l 11i hl nwT ( 170. 7- 1776) , lhrr ' Khi dr n
( 1784- 1836) e t c . Rut none o f t hem c o u l d s u r p a s s I b ~ i ?' ai n~i y: rl r o r
Ibri Khal di i n a nd t h c t h e o r y expounded hy t h e t wo c o u l d n o t he
i mpr ove d upon t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t c o u l d mat ch t h e we s t e r n
e c o n o n ~ i c s o f e i t h t e e n t h c e n t u r y onwar d. l l r r f o r t u n a t e l y t h e y we r e
bor n a t t h e e v e o f a d e c l i n e ill Musl i m s c i e n c e s a ~ r d c111 t u1. e.
l a 1 ward:, N T , E, ti q I bn Khal di i n, T u n i s : a 1 S h r i k e h ' 1 1
' I ' ~l ni s ; ~al i l i a 1 T a u z ~ , 1977J,I)T-48.
"
' i b i d . p. 61.
11111 T a i ~ n i y a h , MFS Vol . XXIX, p. 381.
4 .
c l . , I bn Khal di i n, Muyacl di mal ~, 1'17. 76- 77.
I n t h e t we n t i e t h c e n t u r y , Musl i m t h i n k e r s h a v e r e v i v e d t h e i r
e f f o r t s t o a n a l y s e and s o l v e economi c p r o h l e ms i n a n I s l a mi c
f r amewor k. Th e s e t h i n k e r s a r c d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d hy I bn Tai mi yal l .
Muhammad ashi id I Li i l Z o f 1' :gypt a nd s o l ~ ~ e o t h e r s h a v c t r i c d t o a d o p t
I b n Ta i mi y a h ' s a nd I h n Qa y y i m' s v i e ws a h o u t r i h a ' 1 I ~ ~ t l l a nd r i h x ' l -
-
na s i ' a h. ' !lid5 was v e r y f ond o f collecting l b n Ta i mi y a h ' s wor ks
and puhl i s h i n g t hem. Sa y y i d Ahul A ' I ~ Mautliid<, who h a s c o n t r i h ~ ~ t e d
c o n s i b c r a b l y t o I s l a mi c e c o n o mi c s , h i g h l y ' ~ l i p r c c i a t c s Il,n
Ta i mi y a h ' s wor ks . ' Mul~ammn~l n l Muhs r ak e x t e n s i v e l y q u o t e s l h n
Ta i mi y a h i n h i s book Nizurn a 1 l s 13m - a 1 I - d a nd I I C h a s
-L-. ... .. . -. . -
d e v o t e d a c o mp l e t e book t o exami n i ng l h n ' Ta i mi y a h ' s o p i n i o n s
3
r e g a r d i n g s t a t e a nd i t s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n cconomi c f i e l d . The
younge r g e n e r a t i o n o f I s l a mi c cconomi s t s , associated wi t h t h e
c o n f e r e n c e s and s e mi n a r s h e l d on I s l a mi c e c onomi c s i n r e c c n t
y c a r s , a s a l s o t h e s e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e As s o c i a t i o n o r Musl i m
S o c i a l S c i e n t i s t s i n t h c USA h e a r n d e e p i mp r i n t o f 1hn ' l ' a i mi yoh' s
v i e ws . Some o f t hem h a v e d i s c u s s e d I h n 7 ' a i m i y a ~ c o n t r i h u t i o n s ill
d e t a i l .
4
2
h l a u d ~d T, Sa y y i d Abul ~'15, T : L , ; L I ~ ~ I W:I ~I~Y:I'- . , - . . i - l ) i - ~- 11, ( l l c I h i : bl ar kazi
1 t 1 Is1:11ni , l ! l O Y 1 , pp. 73- 80.
' al Mnh?trak, Muhammad, . N i & ; ~ m . ~ ~~~ . a 1 .. . 7.----i.1 l s l k n 4--2 - a 1 I t t i 5 Z d ( Hc i r u t : I)5r
14+iTso- a 1 Fi hl - , - 1! ) 74) , c s p . 1 . 110-I. . , - , ncl 1 ) r i n t
160 1). ; K r i I b n 'I'a i i ni yah r i a1 l l aul ah wn Mac!% 'I'ad;1khkh111 7- - - .- ..i l l 3 -- - - I i .- ' - 1
M a m ; ~ - - l - ~ - l ~ n ~ Z ~ ~ e -. 1 rTt~T~-DTr--;<I-.T7 k r , 19 7 q;TLp T O 0 .
4 ~ o r e xa mpl e :
Kahf Mo l ~z e r , l ' hc Economi c Vi cws o f 'l'ay&d,ii_ I l ~ ! l ~ : T ; t ~ ~ ~ j ~ $ ~ l l ~
( I Lh3- 1328' ) . T h T - K t R a J i L - : i l - ~ e m ~ s t o f t h e I s T; ~ml c Ml ddl e
. . -
Ages , 1 9 7 3 , p. 29. Mimeo;
S i d d i q i , M. Nc j ; ~ t u l l a l ~ , I s l : ~ m k 5 ~ ; ~ ~ r ~ ~ a l l - c t - ~ i l k T ~ ~ ~ , t ~. - ( l s l a n l i c
Th e o r y o f p r o p e r t y ) ( La h o r e : Islamic Pub1 i Ta t l o n s , 1908) Vol. I I ,
pp. 189- 203; i dem. Some As p e c t s .~~ . ~ ~- .~ o f t h e . .- I s l a mi c ~- Econoluy ( 1 ) c l h i :
Ma r ka z i Makt ahah l s l o m ~ - ~ 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 95- 88;
Sh e r wa n i I I . K. , ' I bn- c- ' l ' ai mi y a h ' s liconomic. ' l ' hought ' , .. I s1: l mi c . . - L i t e r a ~
t u r c ( Lnhor e : 8 ( l ) , J a n . 1 3 5 6 ) , pp. 9 - 2 3 ;
-
c o n t d . . . / .
Thesc a r e a few exampl es of l hn ' I ' ai mi yah' s i nf l ue nc e on modcrn
I s l a mi c t h i n k e r s and wr i t e r s on C C ( I I I O ~ ~ C proI?lems. In t h e words
o f W . Montgomery Wat t , " l hn T:timiyah has pr of oundl y a l t e r e d t h e
c onr s e of t h e o l o g i c a l t hought i n I sl am and h i s i n f l u c ~ ~ c c i s s t i l l
pr egnant f o r t h e f u t u r e . " '
G . SIGNIFICANCE 01: 7'111-: ECONOMI C VlI.WS OF 1IiN TI\IMIYAII
From t h e f or e goi ng c h a p t e r s , i t wi l l he c l c a r t h a t lhri T, ~ i ~ n i y a h
was n e i t h e r a pur e t h c o r i s t , nor pur e uconon~i c 11 . s t 0 1 i a ~ l . I l i s
p o s i t i o n i s l i k e a p r a c t i c a l d o c t o r who i n v e s t i g a t c s t h e e ~ e n t s ,
checks t h e d i s e a s e , p r e s c r i b e s t h e remedy a n d l a y s JVWII some
r u l e s f o r h e a l t h y gr owt h. 'I'akc t h e cxarnplcs o f p r i c e r e g u l a t i o n .
I n l hn Tai nl i yah' s opi ni on t h e r e a r e c e r t i l i n h a s i c hun~an needs
l i k e f ood, c l o t h i n g , s h e l t e r c t c . t11;1t must b e i u l r i l l c d , and t h e
s t a t e i s r c s por i s i bl e t o arrange Cor t h e salrle. I n t h i s r e ga r d i t
may f i x t h e p r i c e of goods. Hut t h i s r i g h t i s not a b s o l ~ ~ t c ,
hccousc he knows t h a t p r i c c 1s det er mi ned hy t h e f o r c e s of dcma~id
and s uppl y. Only i n t h e c a s e whc.rc p r i c e i s i ncr casccl due t o
excesk o r i mpe r f e c t i on c r e a t e d by s e l l c r s , t h e s t a t e sl r o~113 S i x
t l ~ c p r i c e . lle i s a l s o awar e o f t h e bad e f f e c t s o f p r i c e r c gul a -
t i o n . The r e f or e he f a vour s ' commi t t ee i d e a ' where thc5 i n t e r c s t of
bot h l j uycrs a d s e l l e r s i s c ons i de r c t l , s o t l ~ a t t hey c:ln t r ; ~ ~ l c , whol
hc; ~r t ccl l y ; i n c l t h e pos s i hi l i t . o f h l a c k i nar het i ng and h i d i n x goods
e l i mi nat cd.
--- - .. .- ~ -~
Ahn1; 13, I l y a s , ' Ihn Tairniynh on i s l nr ni c Llconomics' , Voic-c .- . o f 1sl a11' .~
( Ka r a c hi , g i l l ) , Aug. 1 9 0 1 ) , l)p. 557- 569.
l s l ~ n ~ i ~ a l ; , 1974j , Vol . I , p. ' 455.
' wat t , W. Montgomery, op. c i t . Vol . I , p . 163.
I n t h c siinle wily h i s c o n t r i h u t i o n r c ~ ~ r d i n g t h e r o l e o r s t a t e i s
h i g h l y a p p r e c i a b l e . Ile d i s c u s s r d t h c nccd o f s t a t ? ;111d i t s
d u t i c s t owa r ds t h e economi c l i f c o f pe opl e . I n p u b l i c f i n a n c e ,
he condemns t h e u n j u s t t : i xes of. 11i s t i me and a dvoc ; i t c s :I j u s t
t a x a t i o n p o l i c y . On t h e c x p c ~ ~ d i t u r c s i d c , whi ch was n e g l c c t c d
u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g o r t h e present c c ~ t u r y , hi s c o n t r i h u t i o n i s
s i g n i r i c a n t .
Our s t u d y o f t h e economi c vi e ws o r l hn Ts i mi ya h h a s revc; l l ccl
t h e ma t u r i t y o i his t h i n k i n g on economi c ma t t e r s ancl t h e c o n c c r n
f-or j u s t i c e whi ch g ~l i t l c d him i n ; i l l I t i s pol i c y s u g g e s t i o ~ i r e l a t j n g
t o cconorni c ma t t e r s . 'I'hough t hc' r c i s a v a s t 1 i t c r a t u r e on I hn
' l ' ai mi yah, h i s economi c vi e ws I i ave, t o t h c h c s t o f o u r knowledge,
n o t h c e i ~ s t u d i e d s e p a r ; i t e l y t i l 1 I . Thus o u r work I I I L I ~ f i 1 l a
g a p i n t l ~ c s t u d y of 1b11 ' I ' a i ~n i y ; ~h .
Economi c t h o u g h t o f Musl i m s c l ~ o l a r s i n t h c p a s t i s , i n i t s e l f a
n c g l e c t c d s u b j e c t . 'I'hc r l e gl c c t i s most u n f o r t u n a t e :IS Mus l i ~n
t h i n k e r s l i k e ll,n Tai ni i yal l b e l o n g t o ;I p e r i o d when economi c
t h i n k i n g i n t h e West had y e t t o 1, cgi n. Lly r e p o r t i n g t h e c ' o n t r i -
b u t i on o f ;in e mi nc nt thinker o f t he mi d d l c a g e s , we hopc t o f i l l ,
t o some e x t e n t a gap i n t h c l l i s t o r y of economi c t hought a l s o .
'I'hc Tsl al l l i c wo r l d t o d ; ~ y i s on r h c t h r c s l r l ~ o l ~ l of a r c s u r g c n c c ,
w i t 1 1 many Musl i m S c h o l a r s l o o k i n g t owa r ds t h c i r intellectual
h c r i t a g e u : ~ i n c e . Llconomic i s s u c s have a s p e c i a l s i g n i 7
Ci c a nc c i n t h i s c o n n e c t i on. Among t l l c v a r i o u s pol i c y q u e s t i ons
f .3 . .
. c l n g Musl ill: c c onor ni s t s and st.;ltcsllieli i s t l i c c c o n o n ~i c r o l e of
t h e s t a t e and p r o h l ~ m s r e l a t i n g t o pr o1i i l ) i t i on o r i n t c r c s t , ; ~ n d
i mpl e me nt a t i o n o r !iIlar;':~li t a x c s . Our s t ~ ~ d y i s 1 i kc1 y t o dr aw the,
a t t e n t i o n o f t h e s e s c h o l a r s and s t a t e s me n t owa r ds 1h11 ' r ; ~ i i ~ ~ i y ; ~ I ~ ' s
wor ks a s h c h a s s ome t hi ng t o ol ' f cr - .
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I b n ~ a ~ h r ; ~ i r d l
I b n a 1 Ukhiiwah
a 1 hi dry, Muhammad
La o u s t , 11.
- -
Ma q r i z i , l ' agi udd&
Ahmnd b. 'Ali
A l w a r ' A h,
Muhammad a 1 Da ga r i
Ma'Cl i m a 1 j ~ ~ r l l l h T i Ah>;lm a t j i s hnh
-
eGlT\ v y , eFenen;-IToKXon : TI m b v
Un i v e r s i t y Pr e s s , 1938: F I I ~ . t r .
1 1 3 p . , Ar a h i x T e s t 247p.
-
' a 1 Nash'ah a 1 ' l l r nf yah 1 i i h n Ta i mi vnh
Wa T: t kwI nuhu . . a 1 1:ikr-7 i n I J s bi i ' nl Vi q h
-. - - - - --
n l Isl smi wa Mahr aj i i n I b n Ti l l ~~~i y J i l l ,
- ..-.-8 - 2 T--. -
I'P .
2 Vo l s .
a1 Ml l bzrak, Muhammad
Musl i m, Ahul l l asnn
Musl i m b. Ha j j a j a 1
Qus hi ~ i r i
Nu wa i r i , ~ h a h a b ~ ~ c l J T n
Ahmad b. ' Abdul l 5h
Qa l qs hnnd? , Ahul
'Abb5s Ahiuad b. ' ~1:
Thc Qur'iin
-
a 1 S h n i z a r i , Ahdur
Knhmun h . Na*r
' 1 a 1 1 I ' i n Ihn Ta i mi ya h'
' P r e f a c c r -- a 1 Siyiisah a1 Sh:lr'Tah
w i t h 1) re r a c c 1<yyill M ~ ~ E r ? i k M E i f m :I d
Be i r u t : 1)ar a1 Kut uh a 1 ' Ar al , i ah, 1 9 6 6 ,
146p.
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u h u I . R V o l s . i n 2 .
~ i > r < y a h , 1 9 i 8 , 32 V o l s
-
S a r a k h s i , ~ h a ms u d d i n
Muhammad
Sur i i r , Muhammad
~ a m ~ l u d d i n
c
~ u ~ i i t i J a l Z l a1 ~ ; n
Abd a 1 Ra l ~n~a n
~ n b r i z : , Muhammad
b. ' Al ) d u l l 3
a 1 ' ~ m a r i , Ibn
F a d l u l lab
1971- 77, 2 0 Vo l s .
Mi s h k Bh a 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ 7 1 l ~ ~ h
Ern;isTilT-;l 13Xttt16 s 1 I s l>nli ,
1961, J Vol s .
~ ~ a T ~ 3 t Mi 2 1 . nlin 'Ahd a1 FarB'enah
i E ' 1 z n , Al e x n n J r i a : M n t m i 1 . 3 h
a1 E Yl l Ku h r a , 1 9 3 1 , 340p.
C a i r o : a 1 Majlis a 1 Al a l i 1Iiay;tll a1
l'unun wo ' l Adah, 1963, p. 9 2 5 .
Z i adel l , Ni col a
OTt IERS
La o u s t , 11.
Maudi i di , S . Abul A13
-
Sl ~a r a i u c l d i n , ( ~ b d u s
S ma d ( e d. )
~ i d d i ~ i , Muhammad
Ni j a t u l l a h
Essni Srl r l c s Do c t r i n e s S o c i a l c s c t
- - ~~
P o l i t i1~11e dc ~ Tnki - d- di n b. ' l ' ni r ng; ~ ~-
r e : L'lnstitut F r a n y a i , I!lST,
755p.
~611 ( I n t e r e s t ) , l l c l h i : Mnr kazi
K I X ~ : I ~ ; I ~ I s l a mi , 1 9 b 8 , 408p.
I ) c l hi : Mnr kazi Maktabah Islami, 1 9 6 8 ,
1721) .
. , ,
pp. 7 3 - 8 0 .
2 Vo l s .
No t e : F o l l o wi n g i s t h c g l o s s a r y o f i r i ~ p u ~ . t n n t h r o \ > i c t Pl -ni s th:~t. ha ve
o c c u r r c d f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e t e x t . ' l ' l ~c wor d h;3s a l s o h c c n e x p l a i n c c l
a t t h e p l a c e wh e r e i t L-arne F i r s t . 'l'llus t h e wor d o c c u r r - c d o n c e 0111)
h a s n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d i n t h ~ s g l o s s a r y .
A j 113d = a r my , mi l i t a n t s
a 1 A m r Z l ;11
I l i l ~ l ~ y a h = r e v e n u e c o l l c c t c d on mo n t h l y h n r i s
'nt a = Ci n a n c i a l g r a n t , p e n s ~ o n
Athmiin ( s i n g .
t I i a ma n =l >r i c e ) = price o r t h e o b j c c t s wh i c h a r c u s e d t o h c
i d a s i C , l i hc. g~7L0, s i l v e r , c oi l 1 c t c .
-
Ijh I I I I ~ I i = non- Mus l i m [ ~ r o t e c t c d s u b j e c t o f Mus l i m bt a t e
~ ) %n %r = g o l d u n i t o f c . l ~ r r c n c y
I
U i r ham = s i l v e r u ~ ~ i t o f mo n e t a r y s y s t e m
I
Fa i' = S p o i l o l w;lr
I
F a l s ( p l . bul i i s ) = I k s i g n a t i o n o f t h e c o p l i c r c o i n
~ n l 1 5 t l T n ( b i n g .
Fa 1 15!1) = f a r me r o r l a n d - t i l l c r
Pal-<! ';I i n = i n d i v i d u a l l y o b l i g a t o r y
F a r 4 Ki f s y a h = s o c i a l l y o l ) l i g a t o r . y
Fat aw: ( s i n g .
Fa t wa ) = a c o l l c c t i o n o r l c g a l r u l i n g s
Fa t w5 ( p l . f a t ZwZ) = I c g a i 1. ~11 i n g o r o l ~ i n i o r r o n n p o i r ~ t o f
l s l a n l i c l a w issued h y a c or npc t c nt a u t h o r i t y
Fcdd511 = r nc a s ur e o f l a n d , a s r c
F i q h = S c i e n c e o f t h e Sl ~ a r i ' a h , 1 s l ; mi c j ~ r r i s p r u d e n c c
Ghaban i 3 h i s h = c h a r g i n g : In c x o r b i t a n t p r i c e f rorn : I I I un:lw;irc
p e r s o n wh i c h may n o t h c x c c c p t c d by a n y o n c
knowi ng1 y
= b o o t y
= Or a l T r a d i t i o n ol' t h e P r o p l ~ c t
- '
= l c g i t i l n c r t c , o b j e c t p e r mi t t e d b y t h c S l i ; ~ r i n h
= i l l e k i t i m a t c or. t h a t p r o h i b i t e d h y t h e
Sh' l r 1a11
= Mi g r a t i o n o f t h c I' r-ophct Lo bl;~d:nah
= t a x ~ o l l ~ c t c d 011 l u n a r n~ont l i
= a n i n s t i t u t i o n f o r supervision ovcr-
e c o n o mi c a n d s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s
= ~ h n ; i ; i h pun i s h l n c n t s o n ccr - t ; ~ i n o l ' r c n c c s
= 11ire o r l c ; ~ s c c o n t r a c t
= d u b i o l ~ s I i i r c
= cons t bl , s us of - I s l a mi s c h o l a r s on i~ p o i l ~ t o f
I s l a mi c 1i 1w
= o r i g i n i l l t h i n k i n g
= cansn t i o n , r e a s o n
= hc nd o f t h e S t a t e , a u t h o r i t y , c a l i p h
-
= me t i n g t h e Sl i al ' i ah punishments
= a d n ~ i n i s t r a t i v e g r a n t i n g oE 1;1n(l
l a n d i n p o s s e s s i o n o f S u l t En
= Iio l y wa r .
= t a x , p o l l - t s x
= t a x , l a n d t a x
Q&!I
Qar3r:t ( s i n g .
Qi r r 5 f )
Qi yZs
ki ghba h
Ra w k
Raf 1
Rib:
.LLihL.itL..w.
= o r i g l n n l a n d c r e a t ivc t h i n k e r
= e v i l
= A t a x i n~pos ed o n Ch r i s t i a n s under some
M m l G h S u l t 3 n s
= I q t 3 h o l d e r . 1 q t 5 g r a n t e e
-
-- -
= c o n f i s c a t i o n of' p r o p e r t y
= p a r t n e r s h i p
= a pe r s on unawar e of t h c p r e v a i l i n g ma r ke t
p r i c e
= l c s s e o r l a n d f o r c u l t i v a t i o n a , qa i ns t
.pi1y1ner1t o f t h e pr oduc e a s r e n t
= l . c g: ~l minimum o r t h e minimum I i mi t o f
p r o p e r t y on whi ch zrikah i s iraposcd
= Ca r e t
= a na l ogy
= wi l l i n g n e s s
= A Copt i c word meani ng me a s ur e
= pound ( a u e i g h t )
= i n t e r e s t
= i n t e r e s t d u e t o une qua l ~ b a r t e r -. cxchangc ...
KhnrZj al bus5t Tn = t a x on Tr u i t t r c c s
Kh a r I j a1 zil.a$h = t a x o n a g r i c u l l u r c
Ma'Zd
= He r c a f t c r , l i f c a f t c r d e a t h
i.lria6l1 = Economy
Maghhi m = l ) oot y
= s n c r c d 1; i w o f I s l a m
= r a t e , p r i c r
= p a r t n e r s h i p
= t c r r i r o r y u n d c r a S n l t n n
= a s y s t ~ m h a s c d on mut ua l c o n s u l t a t i o n
= p r i c e f i x a t i o n
= j u s t p r i c i n g
= p r i c i n g oT l ; ~ l ~ o u r
= t r i c k t o o h t a i n money
= h e l i e f i l l o n c God and d e n i a l o f t h e e l s e
= i u q t p r i c c o r p r i c e o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t
= Monr y- ncs s
= j ~ l s t wnEe o r wage 3 f t h e r q l l i v a l e n t
= d o c t o r s
= M11?1ims a s n wh o l e
= i n v n l i d c o n t r a c t ?
= v a l i d c o n t r a c t s
- u? nge
= t a x i mpn5r d on t h c c r o p s o f Mus l i ms
= r c l ~ ; ~ t c d l ~ c t o n n t u r n l c a l a mi t i e s
= commorlly a c c e p t e d f a ~ h i o n
-
= A t a x irnlmstxd on dhimn& i n Mamliik r e g i mc
= a g e n t
= governor, g u n r d i n n
= a r e l i g i o u s t r u s t
= gover nment , s t a t e
= a t a x imposed r e l i g i o u s l y on p r o p e r t y of
F111slilns when i t r e a c hr s a c e r t a i n l c v e l .
= i n j u s t i c e

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