The Arab 'Cultural Awakening (Nahda) '

The Arab 'Cultural Awakening (Naha)', 1870-1950, and the Classical Tradition
Author(s): Peter E. Pormann

Source: International Journal of the Classical Tradition, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Summer, 2006), pp. 3-
20
Published by: Springer
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T h e A r a b 'Cultur a l
A wa ke ning(Na h da )',
1870-1950,
a nd th e Cla ssica l T r a dition1
PET ER E. PORMA NN
Pr a e sidi Sociisque
Colle giiCor por is Ch r isti
inA ca de mia Oxonie nsi
T h e Cla ssica l T r a ditionis ofte nstudie d fr om a Eur oce ntr ic
point
of vie w. T h e
pr e se nt
a r ticle
a r gue s
th a t th e A r a b wor ld is a s much h e ir to th e
le ga cy
of Gr e e ce a s th e 'We st'. It doe s so
b y focusing
on
th e
r e ce ption
of Cla ssica l
A ntiquity dur ing
th e so-ca lle d A r a b ic 'Cultur a l
A wa ke ning' (Na h da ),
1870-1950. It
inve stiga te s
mor e
spe cifica lly 1) h owGr e e k
e pic
a nd dr a ma tic
poe tr y,
wh ich h a d not
b e e n
pa r t
of th e ve r sions
pr oduce d dur ing
th e
gr e a t
tr a nsla tionmove me nt in
e igh th -
to
te nth -ce ntur y
Ba gh da d,
wa s r e nde r e d into A r a b ic; 2) h ow
Gr e e k
dr a ma
inspir e d
A r a b ic
pla ywr igh ts,
with
T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim
ur ging
h is fe llow
countr yme n
to
e nga ge
with th e Cla ssica l
h e r ita ge ;
a nd 3) h ow th e
gr e a te st
A r a b inte lle ctua l of th e twe ntie th
ce ntur y
T a h a IHusa in,
fough t
for
Gr e e k
a nd La tinte a ch -
ing
insch ools a nd
unive r sity.
Wh e n
de fe nding
th e
study
of cla ssica l
la ngua ge s,
lite r a tur e , a nd civilisa tion, one
ofte n invoke s th e
a r gume nt,
a t le a st outside a ca de mia , th a t 'our ' We ste r ncultur e is
fir mly
r oote d in th e Gr a e co-Roma n a nd th e Jude o-Ch r istia n tr a ditions.
Studying
cla ssics
me a ns
discove r ing
'our own'
h istor y
a nd
h e r ita ge , th e r e b y b r inging
us close r to our -
se lve s. T h is
que stion
of cultur a l
ide ntity
h a s wide r
r e pe r cussions
a nd
impinge s
on cur -
r e nt
politica l
de b a te s such a s th a t a b out wh e th e r or not
T ur ke y
sh ould b e a llowe d to
join
th e
Eur ope a n
Union. Some
a r gue
th a t a n Isla mic
countr y
ca nnot b e
pa r t
of
Eur ope ,
since
it doe s not sh a r e inth e cla ssica l tr a ditionwh ich
gr e a tly h e lpe d
to
sh a pe
We ste r ncultur e .
Eur ope ,
so to
spe a k,
is constr ue d a s th e h e ir of th e two tr a ditions
just
me ntione d to th e
e xclusion of th e oth e r , in th is ca se th a t of Isla mic
T ur ke y.2
T o b e sur e , th e a ncie nt Gr e e ks
1. T h e
or igina l
ide a for th is a r ticle wa s
spa r ke d b y my r e a dingJ6r g
Kr a e me r 's b ookoncultur a l
h istor y (se e b e lown. 10) a s a n
unde r gr a dua te ,
a nd r e kindle d
following conve r sa tions with
Me linda Powe r s a fte r a
long
a nd
b oozy nigh t dur ingwh ich we
e njoye d
th e
ple a sur e s
of Me r -
ton's
High
T a b le . It h a s
pr ofite d imme nse ly
fr om th e comme nts of
colle a gue s
a nd fr ie nds wh o
r e a d e a r lie r dr a fts, na me ly Ste ph e nHa r r ison, Me linda Powe r s, SimonSwa in, a nd Olive r T a -
plin,
a s we ll a s th e e ditor of th is
jour na l
a nd a n
a nonymous
r e fe r e e . Iwould like to
e xpr e ss my
pr ofound gr a titude
to a ll of th e m. T h is a r ticle is de dica te d to th e Pr e side nt a nd Fe llows of Cor -
pus Ch r isti
Colle ge , Oxfor d, wh o ma de me a me mb e r of th e ir Se nior CommonRoom
dur ing
th e a ca de mic
ye a r 2004-5, a s a sma ll toke nof
my a ppr e cia tion
for th e ir kindne ss.
2. A n
inte r e sting
a nd
r e fr e sh inge xa mple
b oth
for
th e
study
of Cla ssics
e xpla ining
'our ' (Eur o-
pe a n) ide ntity,
b ut
a ga inst
th e notionth a t
T ur ke y
doe s not
b e long
to
Eur ope
is Bor is Joh nson's
r e ce nt b ookT h e Dr e a m
of
Rome (London: Ha r pe r Collins, 2006), b a se d on a BBC
docume nta r y
with th e sa me title .
Inte r na tiona l Jour na l of
th e Cla ssica l T r a dition, Vol. 13, No. 1, Summe r 2006, pp.
3-20.
4
th e Cla ssica l T r a dition / Summe r 2006
a lr e a dy
e nde a vour e d to de ma r ca te th e mse lve s fr om th e constr ue d oth e r , th e 'b a r b a r ia ns',
b ut
th e y
did not h a ve r e cour se to th e notionof a
Eur ope a nide ntity.3
T h is ide a th a t th e Gr e e ks a r e 'our ' Gr e e ks, th a t th e r e is a
spe cia l
linkb e twe e nGr e e k
cultur e a nd
Eur ope ,
is still
pr e va le nt
inth e
study
of th e cla ssica l tr a dition.
Sur ve y
cour se s
of We ste r nCultur e h a ve e ve nb e e ndub b e d 'Fr om Pla to to NA T O', th us
sugge sting
a di-
r e ct linkb e twe e n th e Gr e e k
pa st
a nd th e
Eur ope a n-or ,
in th is ca se , Nor th -A me r ica n/
Eur ope a n-pr e se nt.4
T h e influe nce of Gr e e k
th ough t
is not, h owe ve r , limite d to
Eur ope
or th e We st. Ina r e ce nt a r ticle , Rob e r t
Wisnovsky
h a s
a r gue d
th a t one could
e qua lly
we ll
spe a k
of a tr a dition'fr om A r isti to 'A b dt'-th a t is to
sa y
fr om A r istotle , ca lle d A r ist in
A r a b ic, to th e
gr e a t Egyptia n
r e for me r Muh a mma d 'A b di (1849-1904)-b e ca use Gr e e k
th ough t
influe nce d A r a b o-Isla mic
ph ilosoph y
not
only
in th e Middle
A ge s,
b ut h a s con-
tinue d to do so until
toda y.5
T h e
pr e se nt pa pe r pr opose s
to looka t th e influe nce of cla ssica l ide a s onth e so-ca lle d
na h da (lite r a lly 'a wa ke ning'),
th e cultur a l a nd inte lle ctua l
r e sur ge nce
b e twe e n 1870a nd
1950in
Egypt
a nd oth e r A r a b countr ie s. T h is cultur a l r e viva l coincide d with
politica l
move me nts
ca lling
for a n e nd to colonia l
tute la ge ,
for socia l r e for ms, th e lib e r a tionof
wome n, a nd so on.6 T h e focus h e r e will b e once r ta ininte lle ctua l
de ve lopme nts, wh ich ,
to b e sur e , did not occur ina va cuum, na me ly 1) th e tr a nsla tionof cla ssica l Gr e e k
poe tr y
into A r a b ic; 2) th e
r e ce ption
of Gr e e kdr a ma in th e A r a b wor ld; a nd 3) T ih l H.usa in's
pr ogr a mme
to a dd La tina nd Gr e e kto th e cur r iculum of
se conda r y
a nd
te r tia r y
e duca -
tionin
Egypt.
T h e se th r e e
e xa mple s
will illustr a te th a t th e influe nce of th e cla ssica l tr a di-
tiontr a nsce nds th e confine s of
'Eur ope '
a nd
'Eur ope a n'
cultur e e ve ninth e mode r ne r a .
1. Gr a e co-A r a b ic T r a nsla tions
It is a we ll-knownfa ct th a t
vir tua lly
a ll scie ntific, me dica l a nd
ph ilosoph ica l
wor ks a va il-
a b le in la te
a ntique
A le xa ndr ia we r e tr a nsla te d into A r a b ic in ninth - a nd
te nth -ce ntur y
Ba gh da d.7
T h e Gr e e kte xts wh ich b e ca me a va ila b le inA r a b ic
th r ough
th e e ffor ts of tr a ns-
3. Cf. E. Ha ll, Inve nting
th e Ba r b a r ia n: Gr e e k
Se lf-de finitionth r ough T r a ge dy (Oxfor d: Cla r e ndon
Pr e ss, 1989); G. Str oh ma ie r , 'Die Gr ie ch e nwa r e n ke ine
Eur opie r ',
in: Politica
Litte r a r ia :
Fe stsch r ift fa r
Hor st He intze zum 75.
Ge r b ur tsta g,
e d. E.
H6fne r ,
F.
P. We b e r (Glie nicke /Ca m-
b r idge ,
Ma ss.: Ga lda + Wilch
Ve r la g, 1998), 198-206; r e pr .
in
G.
Str oh ma ie r , He lla s im Isla m,
Diskur se de r A r a b istik6 (Wie sb a de n: Ha r r a ssowitzVe r la g, 2003), 1--6.
Se e a lso A . Botr os (e d.),
De r Na h e
Oste n--e in
T e il
Eur opa s? Re fle ktione n
zu Ra um-und
Kultur konze ptione n
im mode r ne n
Na h e nOste n, Ex Or ie nte Lux 6
(Wiir zb ur g: Er gonVe r la g, 2006).
4. For a
cr itique
of th is vision, se e Da vid
Gr e ss,
Fr om Pla to to NA T O: T h e Ide a
of
th e We st a nd Its
Oppone nts (Ne wYor k: Fr e e Pr e ss, 1998).
5. Rob e r t
Wisnovsky,
'T h e Na tur e a nd
Scope
of A r a b ic
Ph ilosoph ica l Comme nta r y
inPost-cla ssica l
(ca . 1100-1900A D) Isla mic Inte lle ctua l
Histor y:
Some
Pr e limina r y Ob se r va tions', inP. A da m-
son, H. Ba ltusse n, a nd M. W.
F.
Stone (e ds.), Ph ilosoph y,
Scie nce a nd
Exe ge sis
inGr e e k, A r a b ic a nd
La tinComme nta r ie s, Supple me nt
to th e Bulle tinof th e Institute of Cla ssica l Studie s 83/1-2, 2
vols. (London: Institute of Cla ssica l Studie s, 2004), ii. 149-91.
6. For a h istor ica l conte xt of th e
lite r a r y
tr e nds de scr ib e d h e r e , se e th e e xce lle nt intr oduction
b y
J. L. Ge lvin, T h e Mode m
Middle Ea st: A
Histor y (Ne w Yor k, N.Y.; Oxfor d: Oxfor d
Unive r sity
Pr e ss, 2005).
7. Cf. D. Guta s, Gr e e k
T h ough t,
A r a b ic Cultur e (London: Routle dge , 1997).
Por ma nn 5
la tor s
pr ovide d
th e founda tions not
only
for A r a b ic me dicine , ph ilosoph y, ma th e ma tics,
me ch a nics a nd oth e r scie nce s, b ut a lso h a d a n
impa ct
onA r a b ic
ph ilology
a nd
poe tr y,
a s
we ll a s on Isla mic
th e ology (ka ltim)
a nd
jur ispr ude nce
(jiqh ).8
T h e r e we r e , h owe ve r , ce r -
ta inte xts wh ich we r e ne ve r tr a nsla te d. For insta nce , pr ose
a uth or s such a s
T h ucydide s
a nd De mosth e ne s we r e knowninme die va l Isla m
only b y na me , a nd most Gr e e k
poe tr y,
wh e th e r
e pic,
dr a ma tic or oth e r , r e ma ine d untr a nsla te d a nd h e nce unr e a d. A n
e xce ption
is Me na nde r 's se nte ntia e or monostich oi, wh ich we r e
ga th e r e d toge th e r
indiffe r e nt colle c-
tions a nd some time s cir cula te d unde r th e na me of
Home r .9Dur ing
th e na h da , th is situa -
tion
ch a nge d.
A s
Jor g
Kr a e me r h a s
pe r sua sive ly a r gue d,
a uth or s such a s Sula imin a l-
Bustini (1856-1921) a nd T ih a iHusa in(1889-1973) fe lt th e ne e d to tr a nsla te some of th ose
Gr e e kwor ks not
ye t
a va ila b le inA r a b ic inor de r to foste r th e cultur a l r e viva l.10
T h e y
did
so with
a stounding
succe ss.
Sula imin a l-Busta niwa s a wr ite r a nd
politicia nh a iling
fr om a fa mous Le b a ne se
fa mily.
His fa th e r
Butr us (1819-83) wa s th e
instiga tor
a nd e ditor -in-ch ie f of th e fir st mod-
e r nA r a b ic
Encyclopa e dia ,"
for wh ich Sula iminwr ote a numb e r of e ntr ie s a t diffe r e nt
time s of h is life . Sula ima n's
gr e a te st
contr ib utionto A r a b ic le tte r s, h owe ve r , is h is tr a ns-
la tionof th e Ilia d into A r a b ic, pub lish e d b y
th e Cr e sce nt Pr e ss (Ma tb a 'a t a l-Hila l)
of Ca ir o
in 1904.12 It is a
r e la tive ly la r ge (27
cm x 18
cm) volume of 1260
pa ge s, conta ining,
a s its
long
title
sugge sts,
a nintr oduction
(pp. 5-200),
th e tr a nsla tionof Books 1-24
(pp.
201-
1151), a nd
glossa r ie s
a nd indice s
(pp. 1153-1260). A s a l-Busta nih imse lf
e xpla ins
in h is
pr e fa ce ,
h e de cide d to r e nde r th e Ilia d into A r a b ic ve r se , b ut wa s
na tur a lly
fa ce d with a
8. Cf.
e .g.
P. E. Por ma nn, E.
Sa va ge -Smith ,
Me die va l Isla mic Me dicine , Ne w
Edinb ur gh
Isla mic Sur -
ve ys (Edinb ur gh : Edinb ur gh Unive r sity Pr e ss, 2007) [inpr e ss];
P. A da mson, T h e A r a b ic Plotinus
(Duckwor th : London, 2002); R. Ra sh e d, R. Mor e lon, Encyclope dia of
th e
Histor y of
A r a b ic Scie nce
(London: Routle dge , 1996); K.
Ve r ste e gh ,
Gr e e kEle me nts inA r a b ic
Linguistic T h inking,
Studie s in
Se mitic
La ngua ge s
a nd
Linguistics
7
(Le ide n: Br ill, 1977); W. He inr ich s, A r a b isch e
Dich tung
und
gr ie ch isch e Poe tik, Be ir ute r T e xte und Studie n8 (Be ir ut, Wie sb a de n:
F.
Ste ine r , 1969); J. va nEss,
60Ye a r s
a fte r :
Sh lomo Pine s's
Be itr iige
a nd
Ha lf
a
Ce ntur y of
Re se a r ch onA tomism a nd Isla mic T h e -
ology, Pr oce e dings A ka de mya h
h a -le umit h a -Yisr a e lit le -ma da im 8.2 (Je r usa le m: Isr a e l A ca d-
e my
of Scie nce s a nd Huma nitie s, 2002). P. Br uns (e d.), VonA th e nna ch
Ba gda d:
Zur
Re ze ption
gr ie ch isch e r Ph ilosoph ie
vonde r
Spia ta ntike
b is zum Isla m, He r e dita s: Studie nzur A lte nKir ch e n-
ge sch ich te
22 (Bonn:
Bor e ngisse r ,
2003), sta te s: 'Die mitte la lte r lich e Kultur de r isla misch e nWe lt
ist
je de nfa lls
oh ne die dur ch da s Ch r iste ntum we ite r ve r mitte lte
gr ie ch isch e Ph ilosoph ie unde nkb a r , die s
gilt
e twa
ga nzspe zie ll
fiir
Sta a tsth e or ie n wie a uch de nEinflufi de r a r istote lisch e n
Ph ilosoph ie a uf
die
a r a b isch e Lite r a tur a nd
T h e ologie insge sa mt.'
9. Cf. M. Ullma nn, Die a r a b isch e
Uib e r lie fe r ung
de r
soge na nnte n Me na nde r -Se nte nze n, A b h a ndlunge n
fiir
die Kunde de s
Mor ge nla nde s
34.1 (Wie sb a de n:
F.
Ste ine r , 1961); J. Kr a e me r , 'A r a b isch e
Home r ve r se ', Ze itsch r ift
de r De utsch e n
Mor ge nliindisch e n Ge se llsch a ft
106 (1956) 259-316.
10. J. Kr a e me r , Da s Pr ob le m de r Isla misch e n
Kultur ge sch ich te (T iib inge n:
Ma x
Nie me ye r Ve r la g,
1959), 3-4.
11.
Kita b da 'ir a t a l-ma 'a r if(Be ir ut:
Ma tb a 'a t
a l-ma 'a ir if,
1876-1900).
12.
Iliyda t Ha mr r a s,
mu'a r r a b a
na zma n
wa -'a la ih a
Sa r h
ta 'r ih ia da b i
wa -h iya musa dda r a b i-muqa ddima
ft
Ha mr r a s wa -Si'r ih f
wa -a da b a l-Ya ina n
wa -l-'A r a b wa -muda yya la
b i-mu'~a m
'a mm wa -fa h a r is
(Home r 's Ilia d, tr a nsla te d into A r a b ic ve r se , with a h istor ica l a nd
lite r a r y comme nta r y; pr e f-
a ce d with a nintr oductiononHome r a nd h is
poe tr y,
a s we ll a s th e lite r a tur e of th e Gr e e ks a nd
th e A r a b s; a nd
a ppe nde d
to it a r e a
ge ne r a l
le xicona nd indice s) (Ca ir o: Ma tb a 'a t a l-Hila l,
1904). Cf. M. Kr e uz, 'Sula yma nA l-Busta nI's
A r a b isch e
Ilia s: EinBe ispie l fir
A r a b isch e nPh il-
h e lle nismus im
a usge h e nde n
Osma nisch e nRe ich ', Die We lt de s Isla ms 44 (2004) 155-94.
6
Inte r na tiona l Jour na l of th e Cla ssica l T r a dition / Summe r 2006
numb e r of
difficultie s.'3
T h e
gr e a te st
one is
ce r ta inly
th e diffe r e nce b e twe e n Gr e e ka nd
A r a b ic me tr e . Like its Gr e e k
counte r pa r t,
A r a b ic me tr e is
qua ntita tive :
a fixe d
se que nce
of
sh or t a nd
long sylla b le s
constitute s e a ch ve r se . Howe ve r , it a lso
r e quir e s
th e e nd of e a ch
ve r se (a nd some time s in th e ca se of th e fir st ve r se , th e e nd of e a ch
h e mistich ) to
r h yme .
T h us, wh a t th e A r a b s ca ll
da r a r a t
a S-fi'r (me tr ica l constr a int) we igh e d h e a vily
on h im.
Mor e ove r , h e h a d to a r a b ise
ma ny
of th e Gr e e kna me s, a nd
tr a nspose
Gr e e k
poe tic
code s
a nd conve ntions into A r a b ic. Inor de r to illustr a te h owh e
a ppr oa ch e d
th e se
pr ob le ms,
le t
us looka t h is fir st th r e e ve r se s14:
Ra b b a ta S-fi'r i'a nA h tla b ni
Fila
a n'idina
wa -r wr
h tida 'ma n wa b r la
dka ka idun'a mma I-A h a 'a
b a lh h a
fa -kir a mu
n-nufa si
a lfa t
ufa fla
li-A dIsinunfidna
munh a dir a tin
wa -fa r a
t-ta ir u
wa -l-kila b u l-quyIla .
Mistr e ss of
poe tr y,
a b out A h il, sonof
Filia ,
r e cite ve r se s for us, a nd te ll th e b ur n-
ingwr a th , disa str ous.
T h is wa s a de ce it [ka id], wh ose
de ca y pe r va de d
th e
A h ji';
th e nth e nob le souls
found th e ir de sce nt.
T o
A dis th e y
we r e
conve ye d, sinkingdown, wh ile th e b ir ds a nd
dogs
cut th e
ch ie fs to
pie ce s.
T h e se th r e e ve r se s tr a nsla te th e fir st four a nd a h a lf line s of th e Ilia d:
Milvtv Q6LE
8a d
fnh k'idb we O 'A XXliog
oih opla vr lyv, vpi' 'A Xca toig dkye '
A '1KE
noXcdg;
6'
i~08liougpuXv4g 'A i'6t
spotia
e v
ipWcWv, a czoig
&
SO)kptLa T e XE8 K0VEOOLV
oWvoiol
r e
CcOLt,...
T h e se fir st th r e e ve r se s, a s we ll a s th e ne xt fifte e n, a r e
compose d
inth e me tr e ca lle d
h a fif
(lite r a lly
'th e
ligh t (or nimb le ) one '), ch a r a cte r ize d
b y
a
se que nce
of wh a t one
migh t
ca ll
ia mb ic (v-v-) a nd tr och a ic (-v-v) e le me nts.s'5T h e
r h yme
(qdfiya )
is
-I, occur r ing
in th e
fir st ve r se a t th e e nd of th e fir st a nd se cond h e mistich , a nd th e na t th e e nd of e a ch line .
We se e th a t A ch ille s b e come s
A h fl,
Pe le us
Ftla (ma yb e
inor de r to
r h yme
with wa b ila ), th e
A ch a e a ns A h a ' a nd Ha de s A dis. T h e na me s a r e th us conve r te d into A r a b ise d for ms in
wh ich a ce r ta ininflue nce of Mode r nGr e e kca nnot b e de nie d. Inth e note s to h is tr a nsla -
tion, a l-Busta nijustifie s
h is tr a nsla tiona nd
e xpla ins
th e h istor ica l conte xt, a s we ll a s th e
lite r a r y te ch nique s
a nd tr a ditions. For insta nce , th e fir st ve r se
r e quir e s
mor e th a none
pa ge
of note s. T o illustr a te th e
gr e a t
ca r e ina ll ma tte r s of a r a b isa tiona nd
inte r pr e ta tion
wh ich
a l-Busta nita ke s, it is use ful to tr a nsla te
pa r t
of h is
longnote 16:
[1] ih tida m
wa b il
('b ur ningwr a th , disa str ous') me a ns
str ong, ina uspicious a nge r
(ga da b
fa dT d
ma 'Sin).
[2] T h e
poe t b e gins b y a sking
th e
godde ss (Oe a
[sic
in
13. ib id.
pp.
77-89.
14. ib id.
pp. 203-4.
T h e se ve r se s h a ve
pr e viously
b e e n discusse d
b y Ka dh im Jih a d [Ka zim
Gi-
h a d],
'A l-Bustini, tr a ducte ur de I'llia de ', Re vue
d'ltude s
Pa le stinie nne s 56 (ito 1995), 79-100, on
pp.
89-90.
15. Se e W.
Wr igh t,
A Gr a mma r
of
th e A r a b ic
La ngua ge ,
2 vols. (3r d e d., Ca mb r idge , 1896), ii.
367-8
(a
221).
16.
a l-Busta ni, Iliya da t Ha mir a s
(a s inn. 12), pp. 203-4; in
squa r e
b r a cke ts some
e xpla na tions
a nd
pa r a gr a ph
numb e r s a r e a dde d for discussion's sa ke .
Por ma nn 7
Gr e e kle tte r s]) to r e cite ve r se ; h e r e fe r s to th e
godde ss
of
poe tr y
a nd
ge nius.
[3] He [sc. Home r ] b uilds h is
poe m
on th e fa ct th a t A ch ille s, son of Pe le us, th e
b r a ve st of a ll h e r oe s, is de ce ive d [ka id].
[4] T h e Gr e e ks, inth e ir
'Pe r iod
of
Ignor a nce
(ga h ilfya )'
[i.e . wh e n
th e y
we r e
pa ga ns], wor sh ippe d piously
a nd b e lie ve d
fa ith fully,
so th a t
th e y
we r e incline d
to solicit th e
h e lp
of th e ir
gods
in
a ny unde r ta king,
a nd a dh e r e d
str ictly
to
pr oph e cy
a nd
a ugur y.
For th is r e a sonth e
poe t b e gins b y a sking
th e 'Mistr e ss of
Poe tr y (Ra b b a t a S-A i'r )'
for
h e lp,
so th a t th e
spir it
[r la h ]
of ve r sifica tion
(na zm)
a nd
r e cita tion(infa d) b e se nt into h im; h owe ve r , h e
goe s b e yond
th is
b y ma king
h e r
r e cite
poe tr y h e r se lf, a s if sh e we r e owe d th e distinction[of h a ving compose d
th e
poe m],
wh ile h e [sc. Home r ] is
only
th e tr a nsmitte r wh o dicta te s wh a t h e
h a s le a r nt fr om h e r
ove r flowingspir it [fa id r tzh ih a ].
We h a ve h e r e th e utmost
pie ty
a nd th e sounde st fa ith .
[...].
[5] Oth e r Gr e e ka nd Roma n
poe ts dur ing
th e
'Pe r iod of
Ignor a nce (ga h ilr ya )'
followe d Home r 's
e xa mple , e spe cia lly
in th e ir
longe pic poe ms
such a s th e
gr e a t
La tin
poe t Vir gil,
wh o sa id: "Musa , mih ica usa s
me mor a [inLa tinle tte r s; A e n. 1.8]". [. ..] [6]
Simila r ly, [T or qua to]
T a sso sa id inth e
ope ning
of h is
poe m: "O Musa , tu
spir a
a l
pe tto mio
ce le stia r dor i[inLa tinle tte r s;
Ge r usa le mme Lib e r a ta , 1.1 a nd 8]", a s doe s th e
English poe t
Miltonin Pa r a dise
Lost:
"Singh e a ve nly
Muse ". Both
[poe ts]
a skth e mistr e ss of
songs [r a b b a t a l-
a ga ntr ]
to r e cite ve r se , a nd
th e y
a ddr e ss h e r a s th e
h e a ve nly
r e cite r of ve r se , a nd
so on.
[7] T h e A r a b s, onth e oth e r h a nd, did not fla tte r th e
ob je cts
of th e ir [sc. th e
A r a b s'] wor sh ip,
nor th e fe ma le de mons
[ginniytt]
of th e
poe tr y wh o, in th e ir
[sc. th e A r a b s'] opinion, ga ve
th e m
pr oph e sie s. [. . .]
T h e
comme nta r y
fir st
([1])
de a ls with
que stions
of tr a nsla tiona nd
compr e h e nsion.
T h e
A r a b ic te r m
ih tidi7m (lite r a lly: 'b ur ning; b e ing
consume d
b y fir e ') inth e se nse of
'b ur ning
wr a th ' is
r e la tive ly r e ch e r ch 6, a nd th e r e for e ne e ds
e xpla na tion.
He th e n
goe s
on to e x-
pla in
wh o th e 'Mistr e ss of
poe tr y (Ra b b a t a l-A i'r )' is ([2]). T h e
sligh tly e lliptica l
r e ma r k
th a t Home r 's
e pic
is b uilt on a ka id
(de ce it) r e fe r s to h is
b e ing
tr icke d out of th e
posse s-
sion of Br ise is a nd h e nce
a nge r e d ([3]).17
Inth e ne xt
pa r a gr a ph ([4]),
a l-Bustini
pr a ise s
th e Gr e e ks for th e ir
pie ty,
wh ich
e xpla ins wh y
Home r invoke s th e
godde ss h e r e , wh e n
b e ginning
h is
poe m.
It is r e ma r ka b le th a t
a l-Bustni;r e fe r s
to th e
pe r iod
of Gr e e k
pa ga n-
ism a s
a h ilr ya ,
a te r m
nor ma lly de noting
mor e
spe cifica lly pr e -Isla mic time s, wh e n th e
A r a b s we r e still
ignor a nt
of Isla m. T h e r e is some de b a te a b out wh a t th e te r m
g,a h iltya
or ig-
ina lly me a nt, b ut it wa s
ge ne r a lly
unde r stood a s
'pe r iod
of
ignor a nce '
fr om th e
e igh th
ce ntur y onwa r ds.18
In
pa r a gr a ph [7], a l-Bustinicontr a sts th e
g;7h iltya
of th e Gr e e ks with
th a t of th e A r a b s, a nd th is h e doe s
th r ough out
h is
pr e fa ce
a nd note s. He a lso
points
out
some
pa r a lle ls
to Home r 's
ope ning
inGr e e ka nd Roma nlite r a tur e , nota b ly b y quoting
fr om
Vir gil's
A e ne id
([5]), a nd la te r
Eur ope a n
lite r a tur e in Ita lia n
(T a sso)
a nd
English
(Milton)
([6]).
17. Ka dh im Jih a d, wh o a lso discusse s th e se line s ('A l-Busta nitr a ducte ur ' [a s inn. 14], pp. 89-90),
tr a nsla te s b oth
ih tida m
a nd ka id a s 'col~r e ', b ut th a t is not
r e a lly
th e
me a ning
of th e la tte r ; se e
M. Ullma nn, Widr te r b uch
de r Kla ssisch e n A r a b isch e nSpr a ch e (Wie sb a de n: Ha r r a ssowitz, 1957ff.),
s.v., i. 484b 9-486a 4.
18. Cf. B. Le wis e t a l., a r t.
'dja h iliyya ', Encyclopa e dia of Isla m, 11vols. (2nd e d., Le ide ne tc.: Br ill,
1960-2002), ii. 383-4.
8
Inte r na tiona l
Jour na l of
A ndr a s Ha mor ih a s discusse d th e
qua lity
of
a l-Busta ni's
tr a nsla tionwith
spe cia l
r e f-
e r e nce to th e sixth b ook,19wh ich is, a ccor ding
to one A r a b cr itic, 'th e most
pr ofound song
of th e
Ilia d, ma king
th e
gr e a te st impr e ssion
on th e soul, e spe cia lly
since it conta ins th e
de scr iption
of th e sce ne of He ctor
ta king
le a ve fr om h is fa ith ful wife A ndr oma ch e a nd h is
only
son'.20He come s to th e conclusionth a t
a l-Bust~ni
ofte nfa ils to r e nde r a ll th e sub -
tle tie s a nd
poe tic e xpr e ssions
of th e Gr e e k
or igina l
into A r a b ic. For insta nce , stock
ph r a se s
such a s
ne r a a tEp6Evr a a tpooqib a 6
('h e utte r e d
winge d wor ds') a r e
simply
r e nde r e d a s
qula ('h e sa id'). Like wise ,
a l-Busta ni
e mploye d
A r a b ic
clich e s,
wh ich
a ga in, a ccor ding
to
Ha mor i, do not
conve y
th e e xa ct
me a ning
of th e
or igina l.
Such cr iticism is
ce r ta inly
cor -
r e ct, inth e se nse th a t
a l-Busta n1, ope r a ting
unde r th e constr a ints of me tr e , r h yme
a nd A r a -
b ic diction, de pa r ts
some wh a t fr om h is sour ce . But wh a t e lse could h e h a ve done ?
A ny
tr a nsla tion, e spe cia lly
one in ve r se , will h a ve to
tr a nspose
th e te xt fr om one cultur e to
a noth e r , a nd th e r e for e h a ve to
compr omise .21
A noth e r cr itic of
a l-Bust~r ni's
tr a nsla tionis
Ka dh im Jih a d, wh o, unlike Ha mor i, compa r e d
th e A r a b ic tr a nsla tionnot with th e Gr e e k
or igina l,
b ut with a numb e r of Fr e nch tr a nsla tions.22 He r e b uke s
a l-Busta ni
for h is ofte n
ob scur e
voca b ula r y.
In th e ca se of
ih tida m wa b r l
('b ur ningwr a th , disa str ous'), ufil ('de -
sce nt'),fa r d ('cut to
pie ce s')
a nd
quya l
('ch ie fs'),
th e dictionis a r ch a ic a nd inne e d of
e xpla -
na tion, pr ovide d
inth e
note s.23
Ka dh im Jih a d ma ke s th e se
points, h owe ve r , not to de ni-
gr a te a l-Busta ni--wh om
h e a dmir e s
gr e a tly-,
b ut r a th e r to a r r ive a t a b e tte r
th e or y
of
ve r se tr a nsla tion. A
poe t h imse lf, Jih a d conclude s h is a r ticle
b y sa ying24:
Ce
qui
e st ma nqud e nfinda ns ce s tr a ductions a r a b e s de s
tpopie s
h omdr ique s
e st,
a
notr e
se ns, une occa sionde
fe r tilise r
la
la ngue
e t la
podsie
a r a b e s
pa r
un <r e tour >r a dica l
(<r e tour a mont>, dir a it Ch a r )
?
une a ncie nne
oe uvr e
unive r se lle .
Wh a t is misse d in th e se tr a nsla tions of Home r [sc. b y a l-Busta ni
a nd a l-
Ha lidi],25
inour vie w, is th e
oppor tunity
to fe r tilise th e A r a b
la ngua ge
a nd
po-
e tr y b y
a r a dica l 'r e tur n' (a 'r e tur n
uph ill',
a s [Re n6] Ch a r would
sa y)
to a n
a ncie nt a nd unive r sa l wor k.
19. A ndr a s Ha mor i, 'Re a lity
a nd Conve ntionin BookSix of Busta ni's "Ilia d"', Jour na l of
Se mitic
Studie s 23 (1978), 95-101.
20.
Mila 'l Sa wa ya , Sula ima na l-Busta ni: Ilivysda t Hiinmr a s (Sula ima n
a l-Busta nI: th e Ilia d of Home r )
(Be ir ut: Ma kta b a t Sa dir , n.d.), 86.
21. Cf.
Lor na
Ha r dwick, T r a nsla ting Wor ds, T r a nsla ting
Cultur e s (London: Duckwor th , 2000).
22. 'A l-Bustmni tr a ducte ur ' (a s inn. 14), p. 88, h e
sa ys:
'En
compa r a nt
e ntr e la tr a ductionde
L'Ilia de
pa r
a l-Busta nie t ce lle
fa ite
e n
fr a nga is
pa r
Fr idir ic
Mugle r [Homb r e , L'llia de (6d. La Diff6r e nce :
Pa r is, 1989)], c'e st-&-dir e e n
pr e na nt
la
de r nikr e
comme tr a duction
pilote , fa ute
d'a voir
a ccks
a
l'or igi-
na l
gr e c
(pr ocidd
dont nous a vons
signa ld,
da ns
l'intr oduction
de ce tte th ise , le s
a va nta ge s
e t le s limite s
e t
qui
doit se r vir
pluta t
de
moye n
de
compa r a ison
e ntr e une tr a duction
fr a nga ise , pr dfir ie
i~d'a utr e s tr a -
ductions da ns la
mme la ngue pour
se s
qua litis poftique s,
e t la tr a ductiona r a b e e n
que stion),
nous
pour r ons
a voir une idie de la
pottique
mob ilisle
pa r
le tr a ducte ur lib a na is [sc.
a l-Busta ni]
e t de
la pr o-
ximitM
ou nonde sontr a va il a ve c
la
te xtur e
r de lle
de
l'dpople .'
His th e sis, r e fe r r e d to h e r e , fr om
wh ich h is a r ticle is a ne xtr a ct, is e ntitle d: 'La tr a duction
po6tique
ch e z le s A r a b e s,
XIXe
e t
XXe
si&cle s:
e ssa i de
podtique compa r de ', th b se
de doctor a t,
Unive r sit6
de la Sor b onne -Pa r is
IV,
D6pa r te me nt
d'dtude s
a r a b e s e t
isla mique s (Pa r is, 1995).
23.
'A l-Bust~ni
tr a ducte ur ' (a s inn. 14), pp. 89-90; se e th e note s in
a l-Busta nm, Iliya da t Ha imtr a s
(a s
inn. 12), e .g. p. 204, n. 2:
'quya l
a r e le a de r s
(zu'a ma ')
a nd h e r oe s
(a b ta l)'.
24. Jih a d, 'A l-Busti~ni
tr a ducte ur ' (a s inn. 14), p.
99.
25. 'A nb a r a Sa la m
a l-Ha lidi, a l-Iliya da
(T h e
Ilia d)
(Be ir ut:
Da r
a l-'ilm
li-l-ma la yin,
1979); id.,
Udtsa
(Odysse y) (Je r usa le m: Ma kta b a t Ba it
a l-Muqa dda s, 1980).
Por ma nn 9
T h is visionof Home r a s a unive r sa l sour ce
ca pa b le
of
e nr ich ing
diffe r e nt lite r a tur e s a nd
la ngua ge s th r ough
tr a nsla tionis a
point
to wh ich we sh a ll r e tur na t th e e nd of th e a r ti-
cle (b e low, p. 20). T h a t Busta ni's Ilia d
inspir e d
inte r e st a nd
e njoye d popula r ity
in th e
A r a b ic-spe a king
wor ld is illustr a te d
b y
th e fa ct th a t it sa w a numb e r of
r e pr ints,
a nd
th a t A r a b ic sch ola r s studie d it
close ly. Jose ph a l-Ha im, for insta nce , pub lish e d
a mono-
gr a ph
e ntitle d Sula ima na l-Busta nt a nd th e Ilia d in1956, inwh ich h e discusse s
a l-Busta ni's
life a nd wor k, with
spe cia l
r e fe r e nce to h is tr a nsla tionof th e Ilia d;26 a nd
Mih 'l1 Sa wa ya ,
a lr e a dy quote d a b ove , de vote d a b ookto th e sa me
sub je ct.27
Both a r e full of a dmir a tion
for
a l-Busta ni's
e r uditiona nd
poe tic qua litie s.
Not
only
did
a l-Busta in
imme r se h imse lf
in
sch ola r sh ip
a b out Home r a nd Gr e e k
poe tr y
in
ge ne r a l,
a s
th e y r e cognise ,
b ut h e a lso
de vote d a conside r a b le a mount of time to
r e se a r ch ing
h is own
poe tic tr a dition, th e ode s
of Pr e -Isla mic A r a b ia , wh ich we r e to se r ve a s a n
inspir a tion
for h is ve r se . Mor e ove r , h e
discusse s some issue s wh ich we r e th e conce r ns of h is
da y;
for
e xa mple
h e
compa r e s
th e
situa tion of wome n in th e Ilia d with th a t of th e wome n in
pr e -Isla mic A r a b ia , a s a l-
H&im
pointe d
out.28
A noth e r tr a nsla tor of Gr e e kve r se
dur ing
th e
na h da
wa s
T a h a
Husa in, pr ob a b ly
th e
most fa mous A r a b inte lle ctua l of th e twe ntie th
ce ntur y.
Bor ninto a
fa mily
of mode st
me a ns a s th e se ve nth ch ild of th ir te e na nd b linde d a t th e
a ge
of two, h e wa s se nt to a nIs-
la mic sch ool (kutta b ), wh e r e h e le a r nt th e Qur 'a nb y
h e a r t. La te r h e e nte r e d a l-A zh a r Uni-
ve r sity
inCa ir o, wh ich th e n
pr ovide d
a n
e xtr e me ly
tr a ditiona l e duca tion.
Disa ppointe d
b y
its conse r va tism, h e le ft to e nr oll in th e
ne wly
founde d se cula r
Unive r sity
of Ca ir o,
fr om wh ich h e wa s th e fir st
pe r son
to r e ce ive a doctor a te . A fte r studie s a t th e Sor b onne
wh e r e h e ob ta ine d
ye t
a noth e r doctor a te , h e r e tur ne d h ome to ta ke
up
th e ch a ir of A r a b ic
lite r a tur e a t th e
Unive r sity
of Ca ir o. In1926 h e
pub lish e d
a b ookon Pr e -Isla mic
poe tr y
(FT S-Si'r a l-ga h ilr ). Init h e
a pplie d
th e me th ods of h istor ica l sour ce cr iticism, wh ich h e
h a d le a r nt in Pa r is, to th e ode s of A r a b ia
a lle ge dly compose d
in th e so-ca lle d
'T ime
of
Ignor a nce
(ga h iltya )'.
He
a r gue d
th a t
ma ny
of th e
poe ms
conta ine d in
a nth ologie s
a nd
Qur 'a nic comme nta r ie s
da ting
fr om th e
mid-e igh th ce ntur y
onwa r ds we r e infa ct fa b r i-
ca tions of la te r time s, inve nte d to
e xpla in
ce r ta inve r se s of th e Muslim
Holy
Wr it. T h is
sta nce wonh im little fa vour inth e mor e conse r va tive
qua r te r s
of
socie ty,
wh ich de cla r e d
h im a n
a posta te . De spite
th e se tr ia ls a nd tr ib ula tions, h e continue d to wr ite a nd te a ch ,
a nd, in1950, e ve nb e ca me Ministe r of Educa tionfor th e sh or t
pe r iod
of two
ye a r s.
T a h a H.usa infe r ve ntly b e lie ve d in th e ne e d of A r a b o-Isla mic cultur e to r e for m b y
a dopting
a nd
a da pting
We ste r ncultur e , a nd
b y cr e a ting
its own for m of
mode r nity.
For
h im, th is me a nt
e mb r a cing
a
pa n-Me dite r r a ne a ncultur e , to wh ich
Egypt,
a s we ll a s
Gr e e ce a nd Rome , b e longe d.
He insiste d th a t th e
Egyptia n
mind
('a ql,
b e tte r r e nde r e d
b y
Ge r ma nGe ist) is not Ea ste r n, b ut linke d to th a t of th e Gr e e ks. Inh is influe ntia l b ookT h e
Scie nce
of Educa tion, h e
puts
it inth e
followingte r ms29:
T h e r e for e , th e a ncie nt
Egyptia n
mind is not Ea ste r n, if one unde r sta nds
b y
'th e
Ea st' Ch ina , Ja pa n, India , a nd oth e r
a dja ce nt r e gions.
T h e
or igin
of th e
Egyptia n
26. ~Czif
a l-HSim,
Sula ima n
a l-Busta nr wa -l-Iliya da
(2nd e d., Be ir ut: Da r
a l-Kita b a l-Lub na ni,
1960).
27. Se e a b ove , n. 20.
28. Cf. a l-Ha lim, Sula ima n
a l-Busta nl wa -l-Iliya da
(a s inn. 26), 104-6.
29. T a h a Husa in, 'Ilm a t-ta r b r ya (T h e Scie nce
of Educa tion), a l-ma oa ma 'a a l-ka mila
li-mu'a lla fa t a d-dukta r
T nh a Husa in(T h e Comple te
Colle cte d Wor ks of Dr T .a h a Husa in), 16 vols (Be ir ut: Da r a l-Kita b a l-
Lub n~a n, 1970-4),
vol. 9; h e r e , p.
24.
10 Inte r na tiona l Jour na l of
mind
is in
Egypt, ye t
influe nce d
b y
na tur a l a nd h uma nconditions wh ich sur -
r ounde d it a nd
h e lpe d sh a pe it, so th a t it
gr e w
a nd
de ve lope d, influe ncing
oth e r
ne igh b our ingpe ople s,
a nd
b e ing
influe nce d
b y
th e m. T h e
pe ople
wh o we r e
fir st most influe nce d
b y
th e
Egyptia nmind, a nd th e nmost influe nce d it, we r e
th e Gr e e ks.
He th e r e for e cla ime d Gr e e kcultur e to b e
intima te ly
linke d to h is own. We sh a ll se e inth e
la st se ctionof th is contr ib utionth a t h e wa nte d to intr oduce Gr e e ka nd La tininto th e
sch ool a nd
unive r sity cur r iculum, b ut fir st, le t us lookmor e
close ly
a t h is e ffor ts to
b r ing
th ose
pa r ts
of Gr e e klite r a tur e wh ich h a d not b e e ntr a nsla te d into A r a b ic inth e ninth a nd
te nth ce ntur ie s close r to h is fe llow
countr yme n.
T h h a Husa inh a d studie d Gr e e ka nd La tinwh ile in Pa r is. He tr a nsla te d a ll b ut one
of
Soph ocle s'
e xta nt
pla ys, na me ly Ele ctr a , A ja x, A ntigone , Oe dipus
th e
King, Oe dipus
a t
Colonus, a nd
Ph ilocte te s.30
T o wh a t e xte nt h e b a se d h is tr a nsla tions onth e Gr e e k
or igina l,
a nd wh a t comme nta r ie s or oth e r ve r sions h e use d, is a
que stion
wh ich would me r it fur -
th e r r e se a r ch . His conce r nwith Gr e e kdr a ma , h owe ve r , wa s not limite d to Gr e e ksour ce s.
He a lso tr a nsla te d a numb e r of Fr e nch
pla ys, de a ling
with Gr e e k
myth ologica l sub je cts
such a s Ra cine 's
A ndr oma que
or A ndr 6 Gide 's
CEdipe
a nd T h isle .31He wa s move d to un-
de r ta ke th e tr a nsla tionof th e la tte r two
pla ys
a fte r Gide h a d r e a d th e m to h im
pe r son-
a lly.32
His
a ppr oa ch
to tr a nsla tionis
r a dica lly
diffe r e nt fr om th a t
a dopte d b y a l-Busta nT .
Wh ilst th e la tte r use d A r a b ic ve r se to
e xpr e ss
th e
me a ning
of th e
or igina l,
a nd
supplie d
copious
note s
touch ing
b oth h istor ica l a nd
lite r a r y pr ob le ms,
T a h a
Husa inis conte nt with
le tting
th e te xt
spe a k
for itse lf. His
only
a dditions consist in minima l
sta ge dir e ctions,
wh ich a r e
ob viously
not b a se d on th e Gr e e k
sour ce .33 Mor e ove r , unlike
a l-Bust~ni,
h e
use s
pr ose ,
not ve r se , to
conve y
th e
me a ning
of h is sour ce te xt. Le t us lookmor e
close ly
a t th e
b e ginning
of th e
A ntigone 34:
A yya tuh a
l-'a zlza tu
Ismr na ,
a yya tuh a l-uh tu l-'a ziza tu
ta 'r ifina
'a da da l-a la mi wa -miqda r a
S-A a qs'i Ila dr
a ur a ta nsh u Uwr dfb a su
wa -lla d_ a r a da
Zitsu a n
yungisa b ih r .h a ya ta na kulla h a .
30.
Min
a l-a da b
a t-ta mtr lf
a l-Ya na nt: Sa fia kir s
(Fr om Gr e e kDr a ma :
Soph ocle s), ib id., vol. 15, pp.
5-
290: Ele ctr a
pp. 7-55; A ja x pp. 57-101; A ntigone pp. 103-141; pp. Oe dipus th e
King143-194; Oe di-
pus
a t Colonus
pp. 195-250; Ph ilocte te s
pp.
251-290. He did not tr a nsla te th e T r a ch inia e for r e a -
sons wh ich r e ma into b e
e xplor e d.
31. Ra cine , A ndr oma que , ib id., vol. 15, pp. 291-348; Gide ,
CEdipe , T h iske , ib id., pp.
451-574.
32. Inh is
de dica tor y
le tte r to Gide ,
T a h a
Husa in
sa ys:
'MonCh e r
A ndr e
Gide ,
/ Pour vous a voir e n-
te ndu nous lir e
<CEdipe >>
e t <T h isle >
je
sa is la
pa r ticulib r e
te ndr e sse
que
vous a ve z
pour
e ux. / C'e st
pour quoi je
le ur
a ppr is l'a r a b e , a finqu'ils puisse nt
a ux le cte ur s de l'Or ie nt dir e votr e
me ssa ge , qui
e st
confia nce , cour a ge ,
str cnitt. /
Ils timoigne r ont
a usside ce tte
gr a nde
a dmir a tion
que j'a i pour vous, e t
qui, de puis
notr e r e ncontr e , e st de ve nue une si
pr iciouse
a mitil / T a h a Husse in/ Le Ca ir e , le 7Octob r e
1946', ib id.
p.
453.
33.
E.g.
in
A ntigone , p.
105
(b e ginning): 'City
of T h e b e s a t sunse t, infr ont of Cr e on's
pa la ce '; p.
111
(fir st a ppe a r a nce
of th e wa tch ma n, v. 223): 'a wa tch ma n, a ppa r e ntly confuse d, b e gins
to
spe a k
a fte r a
longwa ve r ing'; p.
121(b e for e th e se cond sta simon, v. 582): 'T h e se r va nt le a ve s
toge th e r
with th e two
gir ls [sc. A ntigone
a nd Isme ne ]'; p.
122 (a fte r th e se cond sta simon, v. 626):
'Ha e mone nte r s fr om th e middle door '; e tc. T h e se
sta ge
dir e ctions
ma y pr ovide
a nindica tion
a s to wh a t
se conda r y
sour ce s or tr a nsla tion
T a h a Husa inma y
h a ve use d.
34. ib id.,p.
105.
Por ma nn 11
O b e love d
Ismins,
oh b e love d siste r ,
Do
you
knowth e numb e r of
pa ins
a nd th e
qua ntity
of
suffe r ing
wh ich
UwT dib ls
h a s
b e que a th e d
to us
a nd with wh ich Zis wa nts to
spoil
a ll our life .
T r a nsla ting:
Q2
KOLVVb
a utid6X.ov
'IOfr v1T ~l Kdpa ,
&p'
6o0'
6 t
ZEi;g
r 6iv e n'
Ot&loou KCLK6V-
a ,
OcOov
oiX Vov
xt
lOtWoLV
te Et;
One fe a tur e of T a h a Husa in's
style e me r ge s imme dia te ly:
th e
simplicity
with wh ich h e
r e nde r s
comple x
Gr e e kdiction. For insta nce , th e
h igh ly poe tic e xpr e ssion'KOLVb v
a i6db &Eh ov 'Ioa lt0vgKdpa (lite r a lly: 'common, sa me -siste r ly
h e a d of Isme ne ')', wh ich
A ntigone use s, is
put
into a much mor e
pr osa ic
for m:
'A yya tuh a
l-'a zfza tu
Ismmn, a yya tuh a
l-uh tu l-'a zr za tu (lite r a lly:
'Oh b e love d Isme ne , oh b e love d
siste r ')'. T h e
ima ge
of th e
'h e a d
(Kdpa )'
is
la cking,
a s is th a t of th e ir b ond
(KOLv6v).
He
r e pe a ts
th e
fa ir ly
common
wor d
'a zzza
(b e love d) twice , a nd a r r ive s a t a
sligh tly
mor e
sole mn
tone
b y intr oducing
th e
voca tive with
a yya tuh a (oh ), mor e for ma l th a nth e nor ma l
yd
(oh ). T h is
r e la tive ly
fr e e
r e nde r ing
wh ich a ims a t
compr e h e nsib ility
a nd
simplicity
of
e xpr e ssion
is a lso visib le in
a noth e r fa mous
pa ssa ge ,
th e
b e ginning
of th e fir st
sta simon35:
la qa d
ma li'a
l-'a la mu
b i-l-mu'gizsti
wa -la kin
l
a a a dda
i'~a za n
mina
l-insa ni
T r uly,
th e wor ld is full of mir a cle s, b ut th e r e is
noth ing
mor e mir a culous th a n
ma n.
noXd Qd e w~Ld KOGib v dv-
OpwiT ou e lv6T Epov
T ~XEL
Fir st, T a h a H.usa inintr oduce s th e ide a of th e 'wor ld
b e ing
full (ma li'a l-'a la mu)',
wh e r e th e
Gr e e k
me r e ly
h a s
'ma ny
a r e th e ...'. His tr a nsla tionof
&e lv6g,
a
notor iously
difficult
te r m, is like wise
quite inte r e sting.
It is r e nde r e d a s
mu'giza t
(plur a l
of
mu'fiza ), lite r a lly
me a ning'mir a cle s', b ut a lso r e la te d to th e wor d
i'a z,
a te ch nica l te r m to de note th e inim-
ita b le
style
of th e
Qur 'in.
T h is is
impor ta nt
b e ca use for
a ny spe a ke r
of A r a b ic, th e te r ms
mu'giza a nd
i'fa z
use d h e r e would e voke a notionof
some th ing
divine
b e yond
th e
powe r
of ma n. If th e r e for e th e ch or us
sa ys
th a t th e r e is
noth ing
a fa dda
i'ga za n
(mor e e xtr e me in
i'gta z)
th a nma n, th e nth e
conve ye d me a ning
is
e xtr e me ly str ong.
T h e two sh or t
pa ssa ge s
ma ke one
th ingpla in:
T a h a Husa ina ims a t
pr oducing
a tr a ns-
la tionde void of a r ch a isms a nd
h igh ly poe tica l voca b ula r y,
a tr a nsla tionwh ich ca n
e a sily
b e unde r stood
b y
th e
a ve r a ge
A r a b ic r e a de r or
spe cta tor .
Inth is h e
migh t
h a ve b e e ninflu-
e nce d
b y
ce r ta in
lite r a r y
te nde ncie s of th e time in Fr a nce ; Pr ive r t, for
e xa mple , wh o,
de spite
h is sur r e a lism, use d
e ve r y-da y la ngua ge
inh is
poe tr y,
influe nce d A r a b ic wr ite r s
such a s Ma h mtid
Da r win.
T h e se
stylistic pr e fe r e nce s go
h a nd inh a nd with th e de sir e to
le t th e te xt
spe a k
for itse lf, a nd a r e
r a dica lly
diffe r e nt fr om th ose of a l-Busta ni. Ye t
T a h a
Husa inwa s b y no me a ns th e
only
wr ite r with a ninte r e st inGr e e kdr a ma . Onth e
contr a r y,
35. ib id., p. 114, cor r e sponding
to
vv.
332-3.
th e Cla ssica l T r a dition
/
Summe r 2006
th e
b ur ge oning
A r a b ic th e a tr e of th e la te nine te e nth a nd
e a r ly
twe ntie th
ce ntur y pr oduce d
ma ny pla ys dr a wing
onGr e e ka nd, to a le sse r e xte nt, Roma ncla ssica l te xts.
2. A r a b ic Dr a ma a nd th e Cla ssica l T r a dition
A
pe r usa l
of th e List
of Pla ys
inA r a b ic or T r a nsla te d into A r a b ic in th e Na tiona l
Lib r a r y
in
Ca ir o, pub lish e d
in1960, sh ows th a t some a r e b a se d onGr e e k
myth , including":
T e le ma ch us, b y
Sa 'd A lla h
a l-Busta ni, Ca ir o,
1897.37
A ndr oma ch e . A
Sta ge Dr a ma , b y A dib Ish a iq, Ca ir o, 1898.38
T h e
Downfa ll of Cle opa tr a , b y
A h Ima d
Sa uqi [1868-1932], Ca ir o,
1932.39
Pygma lion, b y
T a ufiq
Ha kim
[1898-1987], Ca ir o, 1944.40
Oe dipus
th e
King, b y T a ufiq
Ha kim [1898-1987], Ca ir o, 1949.41
T h e
T r a ge dy of Oe dipus.
A Ne w
Sta gingof Soph ocle s'
Immor ta l
Pla y, b y
A h ma d
B~ika tir
[1910-69],
Ca ir o,
1949.42
T o b e sur e , th e y
a r e a ll Ca ir o
pr intings,
some of wh ich ca me out a fte r th e
pla y
in
que stion
wa s
or igina lly pe r for me d
or
pub lish e d,
b ut
th e y
sh ow th a t cla ssica l
sub je cts e njoye d
some fa me a nd fa vour inth e la te 1890s a nd 1930s a nd 1940s.
T h e y
a lso a llowus to ma ke
a numb e r of
points
a b out th e influe nce of th e cla ssica l tr a ditiononA r a b ic dr a ma tic wr it-
ing. Spa ce
doe s not a llowa de ta ile d discussionof th e va r ious
pla ys
b a se d on cla ssica l
th e me s, or a
soph istica te d a na lysis
of sour ce s onwh ich th e a uth or s dr e w, wh e th e r inth e
or igina l
or intr a nsla tion; it is, h owe ve r , wor th
h igh ligh ting
a numb e r of sa lie nt fe a tur e s
a nd individua ls. For th is
pur pose ,
two studie s
b y
A r a b cr itics a r e
pa r ticula r ly
use ful: th e
fir st e ntitle d
Myth
in
Conte mpor a r y Egyptia n
T h e a tr e
1933-1970---Book
One :
Myth ologica l
Sour ce s in
T h e a tr e 43
a nd th e se cond Gr e e k, Eur ope a n
a nd A r a b ic T h e a tr ica l
A tte mpts:
Fr om
[MMa r a n] a n-Na qqa S
[(1817-55]
to
[T a ufq] a l-HIa kr m.44
36. DA r a l-Kutub , Qism
a l-Ir uA d
(Na tiona l Lib r a r y [of Egypt],
Infor ma tion
De pa r tme nt), Qa 'ima 'a n
a t-ta mtilT ynt a l-'a r a b tya wa -l-mu'a r r a b a (A List of
Pla ys
in A r a b ic or T r a nsla te d into A r a b ic)
(Ca ir o: Ma tb a 'a t
Da r
a l-kutub a l-Misr iya , 1960).
37.
T ilr ma k
ta 'lr fSa 'd
A lla h
a l-Busta ntl
(Ca ir o: Ma tb a 'a Hindiya ,
1897). T h is me mb e r of th e
a l-Busta ni
fa mily
could not b e tr a ce d. T h is is most
like ly
a
mispr int,
a nd th e na me sh ould r e a d 'A b d A lla h
a l-Busta ni
(1854-1930); cf. J. A b de l-Nour , a r t.
'a l-Busta ni', EI2 (a s
in
n. 18), supple me nt p.
159.
38. A ndr a ma k-r iwa ya ta gth r sT ya , ta 'lIf A dib Ish h a q (Ca ir o: Ma tb a 'a t
Sa lm, 1898).
39. Ma sr a ' Klfya b a tr a ta 'lifA h .ma d a uqi (Ca ir o: Ma tb a 'a t Misr , 1932).
40.
Bigma liya nta 'lijf T a ufiq
H.a kr m (Ca ir o: Ma tb a 'a t a t-T a wa kkul, 1944).
41.
A I-Ma lik
ldr b , ta 'lf T a uftq a l-H.a kim (Ca ir o: a l-Ma tb a 'a a n-Na mda gr iya ,
1949). English
tr a nsla -
tion
b y
Willia m M. Hutch ins, Pla ys, Pr e fa ce s,
&
Postscr ipts of
T a wfiq
a l-Ha kim, 2 vols., UNESCO
Colle ctionof
Re pr e se nta tive
Wor ks:
Conte mpor a r y
A r a b A uth or s Se r ie s
(Wa sh ington:
T h r e e
Contine nts Pr e ss, 1981-84), pp.
81-129.
42. Ma 'sa t
Udr b ,'a r a d
ga dr d
li-ta mlr ltya t Sa fa klts a l-h a lida ta 'lr f
'A lt
Ba ka tfr r
(Ca ir o: Ma ta b i' a l-kita b
a l-
'A r a b T , 1949).
43. A h ma d Sa ms
a d-Dina l-Ha ga ii, A l-usta r a
ft
a l-ma sr a h a l-Misr i
a l-mu''sir 1933-1970---a l-Kitib
a l-a wwa l:
ma sa dir
a l-usta r a fr
a l-ma sr a h (Myth
in
Conte mpor a r y Egyptia n
T h e a tr e
1933-1970--
BookOne :
Myth ologica l
Sour ce s inT h e a tr e ) (Ca ir o:
Da r
a t-T a qa fa li-t-tib a 'a
wa -n-na r , 1975?).
44. 'A b d
a r -Ra h ma nYa gi, Fi
1-guh a d
a l-ma sr a h .ya a l-Igr iqr ya , a l-Ur a b r ya , a l-'A r a b r ya mina n-Na qq(i
ila
l-Ha kfm
(Gr e e k, Eur ope a n
a nd A r a b ic T h e a tr ica l
A tte mpts.
Fr om
a n-Na qq3
to a l-Ha kim)
(Be ir ut: a l-Mu'a ssa sa
a l-'A r a b iya li-d-dir a sa t wa -n-na gr ,
1980).
Por ma nn 13
A r a b ic dr a ma in
ge ne r a l
e volve d out of th e conta ct with
Eur ope a n
th e a tr e
dur ing
th e
ninte e nth
ce ntur y, wh e n, a fte r
Na pole on's e xpe dition
to
Egypt (1798-1801), th e cultur a l
inte r ch a nge
b e twe e n th e two sh or e s of th e Me dite r r a ne a nincr e a se d
conside r a b ly.4s
A l-
th ough
th e r e a r e some
indige nous
A r a b ic
lite r a r y
for ms such a s th e sh a dow
pla y (h a yil
a z-zill), mode r nA r a b ic th e a tr e
de ve lope d
unde r th e influe nce of
Eur ope a n-mostly
Ita l-
ia na nd Fr e nch , a nd, to a le sse r e xte nt
English -dr a ma
a nd
ope r a . Ma ny e a r ly pla ys
dr e w
on Fr e nch sour ce s such a s Molib r e , Ra cine a nd
Cor ne ille .46
It is th e r e for e not
sur pr ising
th a t th e fir st two
pla ys
on th e sh or t list a b ove a r e
inspir e d b y F4ndlon's T e lh ma que
a nd
Ra cine 's
A ndr oma que r e spe ctive ly.
A h ma d
Sa uqi (1868-1932), th e ne xt a uth or on th e list, wa s
e qua lly
influe nce d
b y
Fr e nch
dr a ma .47Ha ving
studie d in
Montpe llie r
a nd Pa r is fr om 1887to 1891, h e wa s e x-
pose d
to such cla ssica l dr a ma tists a s Ra cine , Cor ne ille a nd
Sh a ke spe a r e ,
wh ich we r e ofte n
pe r for me d
onth e Fr e nch
sta ge .
He wa s a ve r sa tile a uth or a nd
poe t, wh o, b y b e ginning
to
wr ite
pla ys
for th e th e a tr e wh e nh e h a d
a lr e a dy
won a ccla im onth e A r a b ic
lite r a r y sce ne ,
le nt th e dr a ma tic a r t a ve ne e r of
r e spe cta b ility
wh ich it h a d h ith e r to la cke d. He
compose d
se ve n
pla ys
in tota l, of wh ich th e
Downfa ll of Cle opa tr a
de a ls
spe cifica lly
with a fa mous
e pisode
fr om cla ssica l
h istor y.
Unlike Pluta r ch a nd
Sh a ke spe a r e ,
h is most
pr omine nt
sour ce s, h e doe s not
de pict Cle opa tr a
a s a
ma n-e a ting, a tte ntion-se e kingda nge r ous woma n,
b ut r a th e r a s a h e r oine wh o h a s th e inte r e st of h e r
countr y, Egypt,
a t h e a r t. Eve nh e r suicide
a ppe a r s
inth is
ligh t:
it is h e r ultima te sa cr ifice for h e r h ome la nd, wh ose fr e e dom sh e is not
willing
to sa cr ifice . Ma r k
A ntony
is a lso ch a r a cte r ize d inmor e
positive
te r ms. T h e se ch a r a c-
te r isa tions a r e
cle a r ly
influe nce d
b y
a ce r ta in
Egyptia nna tiona lism, e n
vogue
a t th e time .
Wh ile
A h ma d Sa uqipa ve d
th e
wa y
for A r a b ic th e a tr e , it is
ce r ta inly T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim
(1898-1987) wh o
put
dr a ma
fir mly
onth e
ma p
inth e A r a b
wor ld.4Y
Like
Sa uqi,
a l-Ha kim
studie d la winth e Fr e nch
ca pita l
inth e 1920s, b ut inste a d of
ge tting
h is
de gr e e b y a vidly
r e a ding
th e ma nua ls of
jur ispr ude nce ,
h e
spe nt
a
gr e a t
de a l of h is time inth e th e a tr e , a nd
wa s ma r ke d for e ve r
b y
th e
gr e a t pe r for ma nce s
of th e cla ssics onth e Pa r isia n
sta ge .
He wa s
a
pr olific
wr ite r with 46 b ooks, mostly pla ys,
to h is na me .49A fr ie nd of
T .h h i
Husa in, h e
sh a r e d h is vie w th a t
conte mpor a r y Egyptia ncultur e , a nd
e spe cia lly
th e th e a tr e , wa s in
ne e d of a r e tur nto th e cla ssics. He
puts
h is
opinion
most
e loque ntly
inth e
pr e fa ce
to h is
Oe dipus
T h e
King,
fir st
pub lish e d
in1949, fr om wh ich it is wor th
quoting
mor e
e xte nsive ly50:
If
only
a
lite r a r y figur e
h a d r ise n
a mong
us
dur ing
th e la st
ce ntur y
or two to
cr y
out
que stioningly:
"O A r a b ic lite r a tur e , fr om a ncie nt time s th e r e h a ve b e e nb e -
twe e n
you
a nd Gr e e k
th ough t
close tie s a nd b onds. You h a ve , h owe ve r , tur ne d
45. For a b r ie f
h istor y
of A r a b ic dr a ma , se e Muh a mma d M. Ba da wi, 'A r a b ic Dr a ma :
Ea r ly
De ve l-
opme nts',
in: id., T h e
Ca mb r idge Histor y of
A r a b ic Lite r a tur e :
Mode mr n
A r a b ic Lite r a tur e (Ca m-
b r idge : Ca mb r idge Unive r sity Pr e ss, 1992), 329-57; a nd A li a l-Ra 'i, 'A r a b ic Dr a ma since th e
T h ir tie s', inib id., 358-403; for a
ge ne r a l
discussionof th e
impa ct
of
Na pole on's e xpe dition
on
th e A r a b wor ld, se e Be r na r d Le wis, T h e Muslim
Discove r y of Eur ope (London: Ph oe nix, 1994).
46. Cf. A tia A b ul
Na ga ,
Le s sour ce s
fr a nga ise s
du
th e a tr e igyptie n(1870-1939) (A lge r :
Socidtd Na -
tiona l d'tdition e t de Diffusion, n.d.).
47. Se e ib id.
pp. 269-275; a l-Ra 'i, 'A r a b ic Dr a ma since th e T h ir tie s' (a s inn. 45), 358-9.
48. Cf. Rich a r d
Long, T a wfiq
a l Ha kim, Pla ywr igh t of Egypt (London: Ith a ca Pr e ss, 1979).
49. Se e th e list of h is wor ks in A r a b ic a nd tr a nsla tiona t th e
b e ginning
of
T a ufiq a l-Ha kim, A l-
ma sr a h a l-muna wwa ' 1923-1966 (Misce lla ne ous T h e a tr e 1923-1966) (Ca ir o: A l-Ma tb a 'a a n-
na mida giya , 1968?), iii-v.
50.
T a ufiq a l-Ha kim,
A I-Ma lik
ldr b
(Oe dipus
th e
King),
Ma kta b a t
T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim a -a 'b iya
(T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim's
Popula r Lib r a r y)
15(Be ir ut: Da r a l-Kita b
a l-Lub nA nin,
n.d.), pp. 13-14;
30-32;
your
fa ce
a wa y
fr om th e
poe tr y
it h a s. Howfa r will th is
r uptur e go?
Wh e nwill
a r e concilia tion
(sulh )
b e a ch ie ve d b e twe e n
you
a nd Gr e e k
poe tr y?
Conside r it a
b it. A llowit to b e tr a nsla te d a nd r e se a r ch e d.
Pe r h a ps you
will find in it some -
th ing
to r e infor ce
your h e r ita ge (tur it)
a nd to
a ugme nt your le ga cy (mir a _)
to
futur e
ge ne r a tions."
T h is voice wa s not r a ise d
dur ing
th e
pa st
ce ntur ie s. [.. .]
For a ll th e se r e a sons, th e r e concilia tionb e twe e nth e two a ncie nt
('a r fq)
lite r -
a tur e s is incumb e nt
upon
us.
[.. .]
He r e we
a ppr oa ch
th e
gr e a t que stion:
h ow
ca nth is r e concilia tionb e a ch ie ve d? Is it sufficie nt to b e , with ca r e a nd conce r n,
de vote d to Gr e e kdr a ma tic lite r a tur e , tr a nsmitting
a ll of it to our A r a b ic la n-
gua ge ?
T h is is
ob viously ne ce ssa r y,
a nd most of th a t h a s b e e n
a ccomplish e d.
Inde e d, Oe dipus
th e
Kingb y Soph ocle s
wa s
pe r for me d
for a ll to se e onth e A r a b
sta ge
mor e th a na th ir d of a
ce ntur y a go.
But th e me r e tr a nsmissionof Gr e e kdr a ma tic lite r a tur e to th e A r a b ic la n-
gua ge
doe s not a ch ie ve for us th e e sta b lish me nt of a dr a ma tic lite r a tur e inA r a -
b ic.
Simila r ly,
th e me r e tr a nsmissionof Gr e e k
ph ilosoph y
did not cr e a te a nA r a b
or Isla mic
ph ilosoph y.
T r a nsla tionis
only
a tool wh ich must
ca r r y
us to a fur th e r
goa l.
T h is
goa l
is to dr a wwa te r fr om th e
spr ing,
th e nto swa llow it, dige st it,
a nd a ssimila te it, so th a t we ca n
b r ing
it for th to th e
pe ople
once
a ga in dye d
with th e colour of our
th ough t
a nd
impr inte d
with th e
sta mp
of our b e lie fs. T h is
wa s th e
wa y
th e A r a b
ph ilosoph e r s pr oce e de d
wh e n
th e y
tookon th e wor ks of
Pla to a nd A r istotle . We must
pr oce e d
inth a t sa me
wa y
with Gr e e k
tr a ge dy.
We
must de dica te our se lve s to its
study
with
pa tie nce
a nd e ndur a nce a nd th e nlook
a t it a fte r wa r ds with A r a b
e ye s.
[..
.]
T h a t is th e
wa y
to th e r e concilia tion, inde e d th e
ma r r ia ge ,
b e twe e nth e two
spir its [r a h ]
a nd th e two lite r a tur e s. T h e r e must occur a
ma r r ia ge
b e twe e nGr e e k
lite r a tur e a nd A r a b ic lite r a tur e with
r e spe ct
to
tr a ge dy compa r a b le
to th e ma r -
r ia ge s
th a t took
pla ce
b e twe e n Gr e e k
ph ilosoph y
a nd A r a b
th ough t
a nd b e -
twe e nFr e nch lite r a tur e a nd Gr e e klite r a tur e .
T a ufiq a l-.Ha kim cle a r ly
sta te s th a t h e conside r s a r e tur nto Gr e e ksour ce s
ne ce ssa r y
in
or de r to b r e a th ne wlife into A r a b ic lite r a tur e , a nd a llowit to
ga ine qua lity
with Fr e nch
lite r a tur e . Such
a spir a tions sh ould, of cour se , b e se e n in th e conte xt of inte nse
politica l
de b a te a nd
str uggle
to
ga ininde pe nde nce
in
Egypt,
wh ich succe e de d in1952.
A ccor ding
to a l-Ha kim, th is
lite r a r y
ma numissionca nnot b e a ch ie ve d
me r e ly b y tr a nsla ting
Gr e e k
te xts; r a th e r , one a lso ne e ds to
e nga ge
with th e m
cr itica lly
a nd
cr e a tive ly,
inor de r to in-
cor por a te
th e m into th e A r a b ic tr a dition. In th e ca se of
Oe dipus
th e
King,
h e doe s th is
e xtr e me ly succe ssfully,
a s we sh a ll se e
sh or tly
It is use ful, h owe ve r , to me ntion
just
two
pe r for ma nce s
of
Oe dipus
th e
King
b e for e
T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim's
pla y.
T h e fir st, to wh ich h e a l-
lude s in th e e xtr a ct
quote d a b ove , isth e
sta ging
of
Soph ocle s' ma ste r pie ce
in 1912. T h e
pla y
wa s tr a nsla te d
b y
Fa r a h l
A n~n
(1874-1922),
a nd th e most fa mous
Egyptia n
a ctor of
th e
pe r iod, Ge or ge A b ya d,
h a d h is a r tistic
b r e a kth r ough
with th is
pe r for ma nce .5s
Wh e n
English
tr a nsla tion(with sligh t a lte r a tions) b y Hutch ins, Pla ys, Pr e fa ce s
&
Postscr ipts of
T a wfiq
a l-Ha kim (a s inn. 41), i. 274-5; 280-1. T h e a ctua l
pla y
is tr a nsla te d oni. 81-129; th e r e is a lso a
Fr e nch ve r sion(with out th e
pr e fa ce )
inA .
Kh e dr y,
N. Costa ndi(tr s.), T e wfik
e l Ha kim: T h a tr e
a r a b e (Pa r is: Nouve lle s e ditions La tine s, 1950),
153-216.
51. Cf.
a l-Ha gg~gi,
A l-us
itr a (Myth )
(a s inn. 43), 114.
Por ma nn 15
in1926
A b ya d
tookh is
tr oupe
ona tour a nd
put Oe dipus
th e
King
on
sta ge
inth e two
Ir a qi
citie s of Ba sr a a nd
Ba gh da d,
one of th e
pla ye r s,
Ha qqi
a -Sib lI, wa s so ove r wh e lme d
b y
th e
e xpe r ie nce
th a t h e a fte r wa r ds founde d th e fir st
Ir a qi
th e a tr ica l
compa ny, consisting
of
b oth
Egyptia n
a nd
Ir a qi
a ctor s. He h imse lf la te r b e ca me a fa mous a ctor a nd th e a tr e
coa ch , a nd se t
up
a dr a ma
de pa r tme nt
with inth e
Ir a qiA ca de my
of A r ts in1939.52
In
ke e ping
with h is ownb e lie fs, T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim dr e wonth e Gr e e ksour ce s of th e
myth , nota b ly Soph ocle s' pla y,
b ut tr a nsfor me d th e
plot
so a s to ma ke it mor e r e le va nt
to h is a udie nce a nd to
b r ing
it in
h a r mony
with h is own
ph ilosoph y.
One of th e ma in
ide a s in
Soph ocle s' pla y
is th e
immuta b ility
of fa te :
Oe dipus
is conde mne d to kill h is
fa th e r a nd
sub se que ntly ma r r y
h is moth e r .
De spite
a ll e ffor ts to a void th is outcome , for
insta nce
b y
h is
pa r e nts a b a ndoning
th e ne w-b or n
Oe dipus,
fa te
ine xtr ica b ly
ta ke s its
cour se , wh a te ve r th e inte ntions of th e h uma na ctor s inth e
pla y ma y
b e . In
a l-Ha kim's
plot, h owe ve r , T ir e sia s, wh o is mor e of a na mb itious
politicia n
th a na
cla ir voya nt se e r ,
is th e
or igin
of th e
tr a ge dy:
h e se ts th e wh e e ls in motion
b y pe r sua ding
La ius th a t h is
sonwould kill h im, a nd
b y sh owingOe dipus
h owto solve th e r iddle , wh ich le a ds to h is
b e comingking
of T h e b e s a nd
ma r r ying
h is moth e r Joca sta . T h us h uma na ction, not a n
or a cle
for e te lling
th e ine vita b le futur e , tr igge r s
th e e ve nts wh ich will le a d to th e
tr a gic
outcome . A s a l-Ra 'i
put it5":
A l-Ha kim would not h a ve th e
gods
wor k
a ga inst ma n, a nd h a s to
put
th e b la me
for th e downfa ll of
Oe dipus
onT ir e sia s, inth e fir st
pla ce ,
a nd on
Oe dipus's
in-
siste nt se a r ch for th e tr uth . A s a nOr ie nta l, h e [sc. a l-Ha kim] sa ys,
h e ca nnot se e
ma na s th e
only powe r
inth e unive r se , a s h is own
god.
T h e
gods
a r e
just: th e y
give
us wh a t we de se r ve .
A l-Ha kim a lso
dispe nse s
with some of th e mor e
pa ga na spe cts
of th e
myth -for insta nce ,
h e
r e pla ce s
th e
sph inx
with a fie r ce lion-since , a s h e h imse lf
sa ys4:
'I h a d to
str ip
th e
stor y
of some of th e
supe r stitious
b e lie fs
(mu'ta qa da t h ur ifr ya )
th a t th e A r a b or Isla mic
me nta lity
would
scor n.'
T h e r e a r e th r e e oth e r
pla ys
in wh ich
T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim dr a ws
spe cifica lly
on Gr e e k
sour ce s: Pr a xa
I
(1939); Pygma lion(1942) a nd Isis (1955). Inth e la st, h e use s Pluta r ch 's On
Isis a nd Osir is a s h is
pr incipa l
sour ce of
inspir a tion.55
Pr a xa I is a
pla y
a b out wome nta k-
ing
th e ir
wa r -monge r ing
h usb a nds to ta sk, inspir e d b y
th e fir st h a lf of
A r istoph a ne s'
Lysistr a ta .6
A l-H.a kim de dica te s h is wor k'to
A r istoph a ne s,
ma ste r (r a b b ) of Gr e e kcom-
e dy',
a nd inh is
pr e fa ce ,
h e
ur ge s
h is a udie nce to r e fe r to th e
or igina l
b e for e
a ppr oa ch ing
h is own
wor k.57
In 1954, a fte r th e r e volutiona nd th e
de position
of th e mona r ch , a l-
Ha kim
pub lish e d
a se cond
pa r t (Pr a xa II) wh ich de a ls with mor e
conte mpor a r y
issue s.
T h e la st of th e th r e e wor ks
just me ntione d, Pygma lion,
is th e most
inte r e sting
in
ma ny
r e -
spe cts
a nd th e r e for e de se r ve s a mor e
th or ough
discussion.
52. Cf. a l-Ra 'i, 'A r a b ic Dr a ma since th e T h ir tie s' (a s inn. 45), 394.
53. ib id. 375.
54.
A l-Ha kim,
A l-Ma lik
Udr b (Oe dipus
th e
King)
(a s inn. 41), p. 53; tr . Hutch ins (a s inn. 41), p.
288.
55. Cf.
a l-.Ha a igi,
A l-us
tr a (Myth ) (a s inn. 43), 35-55.
56. Cf. a l-Ra 'i, 'A r a b ic Dr a ma since th e T h ir tie s' (a s inn. 45), 372-3.
57.
T a ufiq a l-Ha kim,
Pr a xa a u mulkila t a l-h ukm (Pr a xa or th e Pr ob le m of Gove r nme nt) (Ma kta b a t
a l-'A r a b : Ca ir o, 1960); on
p. 5, th e de dica tionr e a ds: 'T o
A r istoph a ne s,
th e ma ste r of Gr e e kcom-
e dy,
Ioffe r
my
misde e d a nd a sk
for give ne ss (Il~
A r ista fa in /,
r a b b i
l-ka mT dr ya l-igr T qfya
/ uqa ddimu
da nb r / zoa -a tlub u l-cufr a n)'; pr e fa ce
on
pp.
8-9.
16
For th is
pla y,
a l-Ha kim dr a ws on two
myth s
na r r a te d in Ovid's
Me ta mor ph ose s,
na me ly
th a t of
Pygma lion(Ov. Me t. 10. 243-97) a nd of Na r cissus (Ov. Me t. 3. 316-510).
T h e
plot
in
a l-HIa kim's
pla y
is th e
following.5s
In
Pygma lion's h ouse , Na r cissus, h is
fr ie nd, wa tch e s ove r th e sta tue of Ga la te a , th e most b e a utiful a nd
pe r fe ct
cr e a tionof th e
for me r . It is th e fe stiva l of Ve nus, a nd
Pygma lion
h a s
gone
to th e
te mple
to
b r ing
offe r -
ings
to th e
godde ss.
T h e r e is a ch or us of nine
youngwome n, visib le
th r ough
a window,
wh o da nce a nd te a se Na r cissus. Isme ne , a
young
woma ninlove with Na r cissus, a r r ive s
a nd tr ie s to
pe r sua de
h im to come with h e r to th e
te mple .
A fte r some r e sista nce , Na r cis-
sus is
pe r sua de d
a nd le a ve s with
Isme ne .
Ente r
A pollo
a nd Ve nus, two r iva l de itie s, wh o,
th r ough out
th e
pla y,
do not ce a se to mocka nd te a se e a ch oth e r .
Pygma liona ppr oa ch e s,
ye a r ning
for h is sta tue to come to life , a wish wh ich Ve nus
gr a nts
h im a fte r some discus-
sionwith
A pollo.
He is
e xtr e me ly joyful,
b ut Ga la te a doe s not
ye t
knowth a t sh e is h is
cr e a tion. A t th e
b e ginning
of A ct T wo, we se e
Pygma lionsitting
in sa dne ss, b e ca use
Ga la te a h a s
e lope d
with Na r cissus. Isme ne come s a nd tr ie s to stir
Pygma lion
into a ction,
a nd th e situa tionis
e ve ntua lly
r e solve d
b y A pollo's giving
Ga la te a
gr e a te r insigh t
into
wh o sh e is, a ll th e wh ile
inspir ing
a
pr ofound
love inh e r for
Pygma lion.
Sh e r e tur ns, b ut
a fte r a time , Pygma lion
finds h e r too
or dina r y:
h e doe s not wa nt h e r to b e mor ta l, to
a ge ,
to de file h e r se lf
b y doing
h ouse wor k. It is
a ga in
th e
gods
wh o fix th e situa tion, b y gr a nt-
ing Pygma lion
h is wish th a t Ga la te a b e a sta tue
a ga in. Upon r e fle ction, h owe ve r , Pyg-
ma lionr e a lise s th a t h e misse s th e
living
Ga la te a . Consume d
b y sor r ow, a nd fr ustr a te d
b y
h is fa te , h e
de str oys
th e sta tue , a nd
sh or tly
a fte r wa r ds die s.
T owa r ds th e e nd of th e
pla y,
a l-Ha kim sh ows h owh e inte nds to
b r ing
th e two
myth s
toge th e r .
Wh e nNa r cissus wa nts to
pr ote ct
a nd comfor t h is fr ie nd
Pygma lion,
wh o is
a lr e a dy ph ysica lly
ill fr om h is sor r ows, th e la tte r sh outs a t
h im59:
O
you scoundr e l, you
scoundr e l! Howca nI
ge t
r id of
you?
It is
a lwa ys you
I se e
a ppe a r ing
b e for e
my
fa ce . Wh e nI b e nd ove r th e
sta gna nt pool
inth e ca ve r ns of
my
soul inor de r to se e a n
ima ge
of
myse lf,
I
only
se e
your ima ge . Ye s, Ise e
you,
in
your
futile
b e a uty, pr ide , stupidity,
a nd b lindne ss. You a r e th e b e a utiful, ye t
ste r ile
pa r t
of
my
soul. You a r e th e sinth e b ur de nof wh ich e a ch a r tist
(fa nndin),
a s is
pr e -
or da ine d, h a s to
ca r r y:
to b e infa tua te d
(iftittin)
with one se lf, with one 's
ide ntity.
InOvid's
Me ta mor ph ose s,
b oth Na r cissus a nd
Pygma lion
a r e uninte r e ste d in r e a l me m-
b e r s of th e oth e r se x. T h e for me r is consume d
b y se lf-love , a nd th e la tte r
b y
th e love for
h is cr e a tion. T h e
point
wh ich a l-HI.a kim ma ke s h e r e is th a t love for one 's cr e a tionis b a si-
ca lly
a nd
funda me nta lly just
love for one se lf ina
sligh tly
diffe r e nt
for m.60
He
migh t
h a ve
b e e n
inspir e d
to linkth e two
myth s b y
th e Roma nde la Rose , wh e r e
Pygma liona ppe a r s,
b e nt ove r th e founta in, a dmir ing
h is
ima ge .61Inde pe nde ntly, Ga inpie r o
Rosa tih a s stud-
ie d th e two Ovidia nta le s of Na r cissus a nd
Pygma lion
inth e ir inte r te xtua l conte xt.62
58.
T a ufiq a l-Ha kim, Pi,ma lyfn (Pygma lion),
Ma kta b a t
T a ufiq a l-.Ha kim a S-Ma 'b lya (T a ufiq
a l-
IHa kim's Popula r Lib r a r y)
16 (Be ir ut: Da r a l-Kita b a l-Lub na ni,
n.d.); tr .
Kh e dr y,
Costa ndi(tr s.),
T h a tr e a r a b e (a s inn. 50), 294-359.
59. ib id., 141(te xt); 351(tr .).
60.
A l-Ha gga gi, A l-usftiT r a (Myth ) (a s in n. 43), 93-111, h a s
pr ovide d
a de ta ile d a nd a dmir a b le
a na lysis
of th e
r e la tionsh ip
b e twe e nth e two a ccounts
b y
Ovid a nd a l-I.a kim's ve r sion.
61. He r ma nBr a e t, 'Na r cisse e t
Pygma lion: myth e
e t inte r te xte da ns le "Roma nde la
r ose "'
in: id.
e t a l. (e ds.), Me dia e va l
A ntiquity (Louva in: Le uve n
Unive r sity Pr e ss, 1994), 203-221.
62.
Gia npie r o Rosa ti, Na r ciso e
Pigma lione :
illusione e
spe tta colo
ne lle
Me ta mor fosi
di
Ovidio (Flor e nce :
Sa nsoni, ca . 1983).
Por ma nn 17
A t th e e nd of th is se ction, le t us
b r ie fly
tur nto th e sixth title inth e list, th e
Oe dipus b y
A h ma d Ba ka tir . Ba ka tir
wr ote two
pla ys,
T h e
T r a ge dy of Oe dipus (1949) a nd Osir is (1955),
sh or tly
a fte r
T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim h a d
pub lish e d
h is
pla ys
onth e sa me
sub je cts.
A l-Ha gga gi
h a s sh own th a t, for th e most
pa r t,
th e
Ba ka tir
use d a l-Ha kim a s h is ma insour ce of
inspi-
r a tion.63
Eve n if
Ba ka tir 's
contr ib utionis not a s
or igina l
a s th a t of a l-Ha kim, h e still
h e lpe d
to
give
th e
myth
of
Oe dipus
a nd th a t of Isis a nd Osir is
gr e a te r cir cula tion, a nd
th e r e b y e xpose d
e ve nmor e
pe ople
to th e cla ssica l
tr a dition.64
It is not
possib le
h e r e to
a na lyse
a l-Ha kim's
Oe dipus,
its r e la tionto th e sour ce s a nd its
impa ct
onth e
sub se que nt
A r a b ic dr a ma tic tr a ditionin
gr e a t
de ta il or
de pth .
Nor ca nwe
do
justice
to th e oth e r
pla ys
me ntione d or
b r ie fly
a llude d to, h e r e , le t a lone b r oa ch th e
que stion
of h ow th e se
pla ys, inspir e d b y
Gr e e k
myth
a nd cla ssica l sour ce s, we r e
pe r -
for me d or r e ce ive d
b y
th e
a udie nce s.65
T h e
impor ta nt point
for
my a r gume nt, h owe ve r ,
sh ould nowb e
e vide ntly
cle a r : not
only
did A r a b ic inte lle ctua ls e nde a vour to tr a nsla te
Gr e e k
poe tr y
into th e ir
la ngua ge dur ing
th e na h da , b ut Gr e e ka nd Roma nwr ite r s a lso
se r ve d a s sour ce s of
inspir a tion
for some of th e
gr e a te st
dr a ma tists in th e A r a b wor ld
such a s A h ma d
Sa uqi, T a ufiq a l-Ha kim, a nd
'A ll
A h ma d
Ba ka tir .
Inth e la st se ctionof th is
pa pe r ,
we sh a ll
b r ie fly
looka t h ow th e futur e ministe r of
e duca tion
T a h a Husa infough t
for th e intr oductionof Gr e e ka nd La tininto th e sch ool a nd
unive r sity
cur r iculum.
3.
T e a ch ing
Gr e e ka nd La tininSch ool a nd
Unive r sity
in
Egypt:
T a -h iilusa in
a ga inst th e Ph ilistine s
A s a me mb e r of th e
fa culty
of A r ts a t th e
Unive r sity
of Ca ir o, wh e r e h e h e ld th e ch a ir of
A r a b ic lite r a tur e ,
T a h a HIusa in
wa s
e xtr e me ly
a nxious th a t Gr e e ka nd La tinb e
ta ugh t
th e r e . Inh is fa mous a nd influe ntia l wor kT h e Futur e
of
Cultur e in
Egypt,
fir st
pub lish e d
in
1938, a nd la te r
incor por a te d
into h is
la r ge r
wor kT h e Scie nce
of Educa tion, h e
give s
a
live ly
a ccount of th e de b a te s a nd difficultie s h e fa ce d in
pe r sua ding
not
only
h is
Egyptia n,
b ut
a lso h is
Eur ope a ncolle a gue s
to te a ch La tina nd
Gr e e k.66
For insta nce , some
le ft-le a ning
Fr e nch sch ola r s in Ca ir o we r e
vigor ously oppose d
to th e
De pa r tme nt
of Cla ssics a t th e
Unive r sity,
a nd a
Live r pool pr ofe ssor
of Me die va l
h istor y ob je cte d
to it, b e ca use h e
th ough t
th a t
Egypt
wa s not
ye t r e a dy
for
studying
La tina nd
Gr e e k.67De spite
a ll th e se
63.
A l-Ha gg~a i,
A l-ustior a
(Myth ) (a s inn. 43), pp. 35,115; h e
sa ys
on
p.
115:
'Ba ka ti-r
wa s influe nce d
b y
it [sc.
a l-Ha kim's
Oe dipus]
to a
gr e a t
e xte nt. His
pla y
is
ve r y
close to th a t of a l-Ha kim
[..
.]'.
64. A some wh a t diffe r e nt
a spe ct
of th e cla ssica l tr a ditionis
r e pr e se nte d b y
th e wor ks Ha nnib a l
b y
A h lma d T a ufT q a l-Ma da ni
a nd
Jugur th a b y
'A b d
a r -Ra h ma n
a l-Ma da wi, two
A lge r ia npla y-
wr igh ts
a ctive inth e 1950s a nd 1960s.
T h e y
b oth
e xplor e ,
indiffe r e nt
wa ys, conte mpor a r y
is-
sue s
b y linking
th e m to a cla ssica l
pa st:
th e r e sista nce of th e
gr e a t
Nor th -A fr ica ncomma nde r s
Ha nnib a l a nd
Jugur th a a ga inst
Rome is a simile of th e ir own
str uggle a ga inst
th e ir
Eur ope a n
ove r lor ds. Cf. A b da lla h El Ruka ib i, 'A lge r ia ',
in: T h e Wor ld
Encyclope dia of Conte mpor a r y
T h e -
a tr e : Volume 4: T h e A r a b Wor ld, e d. DonRub in(Londona nd Ne wYor k:
Routle dge , 1999), p.
50.
65. Cf. Ne vill Ba r b our , 'T h e A r a b ic T h e a tr e in
Egypt',
Bulle tin
of
th e Sch ool
of
Or ie nta l Studie s, Uni-
ve r sity of London, 8 (1935), 173-87.
66. Husa in, 'Ilm a t-ta r b tya (T h e Scie nce
of Educa tion) (a s inn. 29), vol. 9; th e r e is a n
English
tr a nsla -
tionof Musta qb a l a t-ta qA fa ft
Misr (T h e Futur e of Cultur e in
Egypt) b y Sidne y Gla ze r , T h e Futur e
of
Cultur e in
Egypt (Wa sh ington,
D.C.: A me r ica nCouncil of Le a r ne d Socie tie s, 1954). T h e r e le -
va nt
ch a pte r s
a r e 34 a nd 35.
67. ib id. 264-5 (te xt); 74-5 (tr .).
18 Inte r na tiona l Jour na l of th e Cla ssica l T r a dition / Summe r 2006
ob sta cle s,
T a h a HIusa infough t va lia ntly
to
ke e p
th e
De pa r tme nt
of Cla ssics a s we ll a s some
La tina nd Gr e e k
la ngua ge
cour se s
ope n
to a ll A r ts stude nts. Inor de r to illustr a te h owim-
por ta nt
th e
study
of La tinis not
only
for cla ssicists, b ut a lso for
ma ny
oth e r stude nts, h e
ta ke s th e
e xa mple
of th e
Fa culty
of La w, wh ose stude nts,
T a h a
Husa inis convince d, ough t
to knowLa tin. T h e
r e quir e me nt
to do so, h owe ve r , wa s
a lr e a dy dr oppe d
in 1908
(only
a
ye a r
a fte r th e
fa culty
wa s se t
up),
a nd h e
qua lifie s
th e outcome inth e
following
te r ms68:
One of th e sur e r e sults is th a t
Egypt
h a s b e come a
la ugh ing-stock
inth e
e ye s
of
for e igne r s
b e ca use it is
quite possib le
to find in th e
Egyptia nUnive r sity
La w
Sch ool, th e most a dva nce d a nd mode r nin th e Ea st, pr ofe ssor s
of Roma nLa w,
civil la w, a nd
le ga l h istor y
una b le to r e a d e ve na
simple
te xt inLa tin.
He conte nds th a t Gr e e ka nd La tina r e
a b solute ly ne ce ssa r y
for
Egyptia ns
to
study
th e ir
own
h istor y,
a nd summa r ise s th e conclusions ina n
une quivoca l wa y69:
T h e
pr a ctica l
conclusions to b e dr a wnfr om
my
r e ma r ks a r e a s follow: (1) th e
Fa culty
of A r ts must h a ve a
str ong De pa r tme nt
of Gr e e ka nd La tinStudie s
(dir a sa t
Ya na nr ya
wa -La tr ntya )
offe r ing
th e B.A ., M.A ., a nd Ph .D.
de gr e e s,
sta ffe d
with
compe te nt
te a ch e r s. Stude nts must b e
pr e pa r e d
for th is in
ge ne r a l sch ools;
(2) La tin, a nd insome ca se s Gr e e k, sh ould b e
pr e r e quisite
for would-b e
ma jor s
in th e h uma nitie s; a ga in,
stude nts must b e
pr e pa r e d
for th is in th e
ge ne r a l
sch ools; (3) our na tiona l
pr ide
a nd inte r e st de ma nds th a t we tr a in
Egyptia ns
to ta ke ove r ce r ta inof our b a sic institutions th a t h a ve b e e n dir e cte d
b y
non-
Egyptia ns
since th e
b e ginning
of our mode r nr e na issa nce
(na h da ), e .g.
th e
Egyp-
tia nse r vice of
a ntiquitie s,
wh ich will doub tle ss h a ve to r e ma inunde r th e ir
pr e -
se nt
ma na ge me nt
until th e r e a r e
Egyptia ns
wh o know La tina nd Gr e e k
ve r y
we ll b e for e
sta r ting
to
spe cia lize
in th e fie ld. [.
.
.] Egyptia nh istor y, e xce pt
for
th e
mode m ph a se ,
h a s b e e n
la r ge ly
wr itte n
b y for e igne r s
with out
a ny
fr uitful
pa r ticipa tionb y Egyptia ns.
We a r e still
b e ginne r s
inour a ncie nt, Gr e co-Roma n,
a nd Isla mic
pe r iods.
T h ose wh o ca ll for
Egyptia n
h istor ica l studie s, if
th e y
a r e
se r ious, sh ould a t th e sa me time a dvoca te th e use of such
logica l
a nd
indispe ns-
a b le tools a s La tina nd Gr e e k. It is sh a me ful to h a ve to
r e pe a t
ove r a nd ove r
a ga in
th e
e le me nta r y
fa cts th a t th e r e la tionb e twe e n
Egypt
a nd Gr e e ce is
ve r y
old, th a t th e Gr e e ks fa sh ione d th is r e la tion
th r ough
th e ir
wr itings
a nd oth e r cr e -
a tive wor ks, th a t
Egypt
wa s
sub je ct
to Gr e co-Roma n
a uth or ity
a nd institutions
for te nce ntur ie s, a n inde lib le
pa r t
of our na tiona l
h istor y (th e sour ce ma te r ia l
for wh ich is inGr e e ka nd La tin), a nd th a t
Egypt
wa s linke d
dur ing
th e Isla mic
pe r iod
b oth to
Byza ntium
a nd we ste r n
Eur ope (th e sour ce ma te r ia l for wh ich is
a lso in La tina nd Gr e e k). T h e
ob je ctor s
to La tina nd Gr e e ksh ould r e -e xa mine
th e ir
position;
for
th e y
a r e
vir tua lly conde mning
us to
ignor a nce
of our
h istor y
e xce pt
for wh a t we ca nle a r nfr om
for e igne r s.
Ica nnot conce ive of
a ny pr opone nt
of
Egyptia n
na tiona lism
b e ingh a ppy
a b out th is
pa te ntly disgr a ce ful
situa tion.
T a h a
Husa inth us is a da ma nt th a t Gr e e ka nd La tinne e d to b e studie d insch ool a nd uni-
ve r sity.
He doe s, h owe ve r , r e cognise
th e fa ct th a t one
ough t
to
ligh te n
th e b ur de nonstu-
68. ib id. 264 (te xt)/73-4 (tr .).
69. ib id. 279-80(te xt)/80-1 (tr .).
Por ma nn 19
de nts in
le a r ning
th e two cla ssica l
la ngua ge s
wh e n
th e y a lr e a dy
fa ce a cr owde d cur r icu-
lum. T h is is b e st a ch ie ve d in h is own
opinionb y intr oducing
La tina nd Gr e e kin se c-
onda r y sch ools; not ina ll of th e m, to b e sur e , b ut ina se le ct numb e r of
spe cia list
one s so
th a t th e futur e
unive r sity
stude nts ca n
fully
b e ne fit fr om th e ir
te r tia r y
e duca tion.
It would b e
wr ong
to
ima gine
th a t
T a h A
H.usa in
r e pr e se nte d
th e vie wof th e
ma jor ity
of
Egypt's
inte lle ctua ls.
Ma ny,
if not most, with inth e
r uling
e lite fa vour e d scie nce s a nd
'use ful skills' such a s
flue ncy
inmode r n
la ngua ge s,
a nd h a d little or no
r e ga r d
for wh a t
th e y
conside r e d to b e de a d
la ngua ge s. Conse que ntly,
e ve n if
T ih a
Husa insucce e de d in
pe r sua ding
h is
colle a gue s
not to a b olish th e
De pa r tme nt
of Cla ssics a nd to h a ve some
Gr e e ka nd La tin
la ngua ge cour se s, h is vision of
Egyptia ns h a ving
a cce ss to fr e e sta te
sch ools wh e r e Gr e e ka nd La tin, a s we ll a s
English , Fr e nch , Ge r ma na nd Ita lia nwe r e
ta ugh t,
h a s not come tr ue .
De spite th is, h e wa s succe ssful in
intr oducing
fr e e b a sic
sch ooling
in1950, wh e nh e b e ca me Ministe r of Educa tion. His vision, h owe ve r , r e ma ins
a
pote nt te stimony
to th e va lue wh ich h e a tta ch e d to a cla ssica l e duca tionin
pa r ticula r ,
a nd Gr e e ka nd Roma ncultur e in
ge ne r a l.
Wh a t is mor e , th e voice of
a r gua b ly
th e most
r e nowne d A r a b inte lle ctua l of th e fir st h a lf of th e twe ntie th
ce ntur y, ur ging
h is
countr y-
me nto
e nga ge
with th e cla ssica l tr a dition, wa s h e a r d
th r ough out
th e A r a b wor ld, b e it in
coffe e -h ouse s or
colle ge s,
wh e r e h is ide a s we r e
h otly
de b a te d.
Conclusions
Some of th e most influe ntia l A r a b inte lle ctua ls such a s
T a ufiq a l-HIIa kim
a nd
T ~a h
Husa in
fa vour e d a r e tur nto th e Gr e e ksour ce s-wh e th e r inth e
or igina l
or
th r ough tr a nsla tion-,
a nd to th e
poe tr y
wh ich h a d not b e e nr e nde r e d into A r a b ic
ye t. T h e y
b oth cla ime d Gr e e k
cultur e a s th e ir s, a s
pa r t
of th e A r a b ic
h e r ita ge .
T a h a
Husa ina ch ie ve d th is
b y pointing
to
th e fa ct th a t Gr e e k
th ough t
in
ge ne r a l
wa s
h e a vily
influe nce d
b y Egyptia nide a s, sa ying:
'T h e
pe ople
wh o we r e fir st most influe nce d
b y
th e
Egyptia nmind, a nd th e nmost influ-
e nce d it, we r e th e
Gr e e ks.'70
Like T h a
H.usa in,
Muslim a uth or s in th e Middle
A ge s
e nde a vour e d to e sta b lish a linkb e twe e nGr e e kcultur e a nd th e ir own. T h e
'A b b a sids
did
th is
b y h a ving
r e cour se to a
myth ica l a ccount, cla iming
th a t A le xa nde r th e Gr e a t h a d r a n-
sa cke d Pe r sia nlib r a r ie s, h a d th e wisdom of th e Sa sa nia ns-a s wh ose succe ssor s
th e y
sa w th e mse lve s-tr a nsla te d into Gr e e ka nd th e n
de str oye d
th e
or igina ls. T h e r e for e ,
Gr e e kcultur e is, ine sse nce , Sa sa nia n, a nd
b y sponsor ing
th e tr a nsla tionmove me nt, th e
70. Se e a b ove
p.
10a nd n. 28. Eve r since th e
pub lica tion
of M. Be r na l's influe ntia l Bla ckA th e na : T h e
A fr oa sia tic
Roots
of
Cla ssica l Civiliza tion, 2 vols. (Ne w Br unswick:
Rutge r s Unive r sity Pr e ss/
London: Fr e e A ssocia te d Books, 1987-1991), th e r e h a s b e e ninte nse de b a te a b out th e A fr ica n
a nd A sia ne le me nts inGr e e kcultur e a nd lite r a tur e ; cf. M. R. Le fkowitz, G. Ma cle a n
Roge r s
(e ds), Bla ckA th e na Re visite d
(Ch a pe l Hill, London:
Unive r sity
of Nor th Ca r olina Pr e ss, 1996)
a nd M. Be r na l, Bla ckA th e na Wr ite s Ba ck: Ma r tinBe r na l
Re sponds
to His Cr itics, e d. D. Ch ioni
Moor e (Dur h a m, London: Duke
Unive r sity Pr e ss, 2001) [r e vie we d in th is
jour na l b y Ma r y
R.
Le fkowitz, "Bla ckA th e na : th e
Se que l (Pa r t 1)," IJCT
9 (2002-2003), pp.
598-603- W.H.]. W.
Bur ke r t, T h e
Or ie nta lizing
Re volution: Ne a r Ea ste r n
Influe nce onGr e e kCultur e inth e
Ea r ly
A r ch a ic
A ge , tr . M. E. Pinde r a nd W. Bur ke r t
(Ca mb r idge ,
MA a nd London: Ha r va r d
Unive r sity Pr e ss,
1992), a nd M. We st, T h e Ea ste r nFa ce
of
He licon: We st A sia tic Ele me nts in
Ea r ly Poe tr y
a nd
Myth
(Oxfor d: Cla r e ndonPr e ss, 1997), a lso h a ve discusse d 'Ea ste r n' influe nce s on Gr e e klite r a tur e
a nd a r t.
20 Inte r na tiona l
Jour na l of
th e Cla ssica l T r a dition/ Summe r 2006
'A b b a sids
e ffe ct a r e tur nto th e ir own
h e r ita ge .7'
A noth e r A r a b a uth or of a la te r
a ge ,
Ib n
Ha lde n(1332-1406),
th e socia l h istor ia na nd
ph ilosoph e r ,
constr ucte d a conne ctionb e -
twe e nth e Gr e e ka nd Isla mic cultur e s in
ge ogr a ph ica l
te r ms: b e ca use th e two (a s we ll a s
oth e r civilisa tions such a s th e India na nd th e Ch ine se )
live d in
a dja ce nt
Ptole ma ic clime s
wh e r e th e conditions a r e
optima l,
th e a r ts a nd scie nce s we r e a b le to flour ish .72 T h e r e for e ,
b oth me die va l a nd mode r nA r a b ic th inke r s ma de th e Gr e e ks th e ir s wh e n
str iving
to
incor por a te
th e cla ssica l
h e r ita ge
into th e ir own tr a dition.
For
T ~h a IHIusa in
a nd
T a ufiq
a l-Ha kim, it wa s not
e nough simply
to ma ke a va ila b le
Gr e e kdr a ma a nd
poe tr y
intr a nsla tion.
T h e y
wa nte d mor e : a l-Ha kim tr a nsfor me d Gr e e k
myth
into a ve r sion
a cce pta b le
a nd r e le va nt to h is own
mostly
Isla mic a udie nce .
T a h i
Husa in, onth e oth e r h a nd, wa s convince d th a t A r a b ic cultur a l lib e r a tiona nd
e ma ncipa -
tionh a d to
e me r ge
via th e a ctive
ma ste r y
of th e cla ssica l
la ngua ge s. For , a s h e
a r gue s,
only
wh e n
Egyptia ns
th e mse lve s h a ve a cce ss to th e Gr e e ka nd La tinsour ce s, will
th e y
b e
a b le to wr ite th e ir own
h istor y, th e r e b y th r owing
off th e
yoke
of colonisa tion. It is ir onic
th a t
a mong
th ose wh o
h e lpe d
th wa r t
Husa in's a tte mpts
to
e sca pe
th e inte lle ctua l tute -
la ge
of th e colonia l ove r lor d, we find
se lf-pr ofe sse d
le ftist inte lle ctua ls.
T h e mode r n
Ir a qipoe t
a nd cr itic Ka dh im Jih a d de cla r e s th a t e ve n
nowa da ys
it is still
ne ce ssa r y
to r e tur nto Home r ic
poe tr y, or , a s h e
puts
it 'to a na ncie nt a nd unive r sa l wor k('
une a ncie nne
or uvr e
unive r se lle )'."73
For h im, Home r doe s not
b e longjust
to
Eur ope a n
cul-
tur e , b ut r a th e r to a much wide r , a unive r sa l, a wor ld
h e r ita ge . T h e r e for e , wh e nwe
study
th e cla ssics, we sh ould not
for ge t
th a t
th e y b e long
not
e xclusive ly
to 'th e We st'. T h e cla ssi-
ca l tr a ditionb lossoms a nd th r ive s not
only
in countr ie s a nd cultur e s wh e r e
English ,
Fr e nch , Ge r ma n, Ita lia n, or
Spa nish
a r e
spoke n,
b ut r e a ch e s fa r
b e yond
th e confine s of Eu-
r ope a nb or de r s, wh e r e ve r one wa nts to dr a wth e m. Wh e n
de fe nding
th e
conce pt
of a cla s-
sica l e duca tion, wh ich foste r s th e
e nga ge me nt
with th e cla ssica l tr a dition, one
ough t
to r e -
sor t to a much
str onge r a r gume nt
th a nth e one e voke d a t th e
b e ginning
of th is a r ticle : th e
cla ssica l tr a ditionis
pa r t
of wor ld
h e r ita ge
a nd influe nce d
ma ny
diffe r e nt cultur e s, not
le a st th ose of th e A r a b s a nd Isla m, th r ough out
th e
a ge s,
fr om
a ntiquity
until
toda y.
P.S.
Dur ing
a r e ce nt visit to Pa r is, Ica me a cr oss two ne wb ooks conta iningtr a nsla tions of th e Ilia d. T h e fir st wa s
a
r e pr int
with ne wpr e fa ce
of
Busta ni's
ve r siondiscusse d a b ove
[A l-Iliya da
(T h e Ilia d), a l-Ma Sr f' a l-qa umili-t-
ta r ga ma (T h e Na tiona l T r a nsla tion
Pr oje ct) 712--Mir A t
a t-ta r ga ma (T r a nsla tionHe r ita ge ) 1(Ca ir o: a l-Ma glis a l-
A 'la li-t-ta qA fa , 2004)].
T h e se cond, h owe ve r , conta ine d a ne wtr a nsla tion, pr e pa r e d
unde r th e
ge ne r a l e ditor -
sh ip of A h ma d
'Utmin
[A l-Iliy-_a
(T h e Ilia d), a l-Ma Sr O' a l-qa umili-t-ta r ga ma (T h e Na tiona l T r a nsla tionPr oje ct)
750(Ca ir o: a l-Ma glis a l-A 'la li-t-ta qA fa , 2004)]. 'Utma n
h a s a lso
just pub lish e d
th e
pr oce e dings-wh ich
I h a ve
not
ye t
se e n--of
th e confe r e nce
or ga nise d b y
th e
Egyptia nSupr e me
Council of Cultur e (a l-Ma glis a l-A 'l5
li-t-
ta qa fa )
in 2004 [T h e Ilia d
th r ough
th e
A ge s
(A l-lliyda
'a b r
a l-'us1r )
(Ca ir o: a l-Ma glis
a l-A 'la li-t-ta qa fa ,
2006)].
Mor e ove r , Ka dh im Jih a d, th e
Ir a qipoe t, cr itic, a nd a ca de mic quote d
in th is a r ticle , told me th a t h e h a d a de -
ta ile d
study
onth e
impor ta nce of tr a nsla tionfor A r a b ic lite r a tur e
for th coming
ne xt ye a r . T h us th e inte r e st in
cla ssica l lite r a tur e continue s una b a te d inth e A r a b wor ld.
71. Cf. Guta s, Gr e e k
T h ough t (a s inn. 7), pp.
36-40.
72.
F.
Rose nth a l (tr .), T h e
Muqa ddima h :
A nIntr oductionto
Histor y,
3 vols (London: Routle dge
a nd
Ke ga nPa ul, 1958), i. 61.
73. Se e a b ove
p. 8, n. 24.

The Arab 'Cultural Awakening (Nahda) '

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The Arab 'Cultural Awakening (Nahda) '

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The Arab 'Cultural Awakening (Naha)', 1870-1950, and the Classical Tradition

Author(s): Peter E. Pormann

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