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A N a r r a t i v e A p p r o a c h t o S u p p o r t i n g

S t u d e n t s D i a g n o s e d W i t h
L e a r n i n g D i s a b i l i t i e s
Glenn W. Lambie and Amy Milsom
Students diagnosed with learning disabilities experience many chaiienges that school counselors may address through
narrative therapy. Narrative therapy is a postmodern, social constructionist approach based on the theoretical construct
that individuals create their notions of truth and meaning of life through interpretive stories. This article Identifies potential
chalienges students diagnosed with learning disabilities encounter, provides an orientation to narrative therapy, and
offers a case example illustrating the application of narrative therapy with this client population.
The prevalence of school-age students receiving exceptional
education and related services increased significantly over
the past 20 years (McEachem, 2003). According to the U. S.
Department of Education (2006), approximately 12% of stu-
dents between the ages of 6 and 17 years are served under the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA] of 2004.
Moreover, the percentage of students receiving exceptional
education and related services for specific learning disabilities
was 6%. Although these numbers represent students diagnosed
with disabilities who are eligible for services under IDEA,
they do not include students with disabilities who were not
eligible for exceptional education services.
The potential for poor academic, career, and social-emotional
development increases with the diagnosis of a learning disabil-
ity (LD; Rock & Leff, 2007 ). Putnam (2007 ) suggested that
students diagnosed with LDs are at greater risk for social
maladjustment and involvement in risk-taking behaviors (e. g. ,
suicide, substance abuse, sexual activity) than are their peers
without a disability. Furthermore, Vemon (2004) noted that
students diagnosed with an LD often have poorly defined self-
concepts; low self-esteem; and an increased propensity to be
involved in gangs, legal infi-actions, and substance abuse.
Much existing research examines students with disabilities
in general, and therefore results specific to students diagnosed
with LDs are not always distinguished. That is, research
results related to the broad category of students with dis-
abilities might include students diagnosed with an LD and
students who have physical disabilities, behavioral disorders,
or more severe cognitive disabilities. Nevertheless, because
approximately half of all students served under IDEA have
LDs (U. S. Department of Education, 2006), research results
addressing students with disabilities in general are relevant.
McGarvey and W aite (2000) found that more than 40% of
incarcerated juveniles were eligible for exceptional educa-
tion services as compared to 10% of juveniles in the general
population. Furthermore, they found that approximately 50%
of the incarcerated juveniles scored at least 6 years below
their chronological age on language achievement, a result
suggesting that they might have an LD. According to a study
by the U. S. Department of Education, approximately one
third of students diagnosed with disabilities will be arrested
within 3 to 5 years of graduating fi-om high school (as cited in
Block, 2000). In addition, students diagnosed with a disability
fail to complete high school more fi^equently than students
without disabilities (22% compared with 9%), and, as adults,
they are more likely to live with their parents/guardians, to
be unemployed, and to be socially isolated (Kochhar-Bryant,
Shaw, & Izzo, 2007 ). Furthermore, W olter, DiLollo, and Apel
(2006) noted that students diagnosed with language-literacy
deficits tend to develop "defeatist and hopeless dominant
narratives" (p. 17 0).
Legally, as stipulated in IDEA (2004), students diagnosed
with LDs need to be provided by their educational institution
with individually tailored services to support their develop-
ment. IDEA (formerly the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act of 197 5) requires all schools receiving federal
fiinding to provide children (ages 3 to 21 years) who qualify
for special education services with a free appropriate pub-
lic education that is made available in the least restrictive
environment. More specifically, the purpose of IDEA is "to
ensure that all children with disabilities have available to
them a free appropriate public education that emphasizes
special education and related services designed to meet their
unique needs and prepare them for fiirther education, employ-
ment, and independent living" (Sec. 601. d. i. A). As noted in
IDEA, "related services" include counseling services (Sec.
665. b. 2. C). According to Cambron-McCabe, McCarthy, and
Thomas (2004), counseling services should be included in a
student's individualized education program (IEP) when he
or she requires such services to support his or her learning
and should be provided by a qualified helping professional
(i. e. , professional school counselor, licensed psychologist.
196
Gl e n n W . L a mb i e , Counselor Education Program, Department of Child, Family, and Community Sciences, University of Central
Florida; A my Mi l s o m, Department of Counseling and Educational Development, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro.
Amy Milsom is now at Department of Leadership, Counselor Education, Human and Organizational Development, Clemson University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Glenn W. Lambie, Counselor Education Program, Department of
Child, Family and Community Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-1250 (e-mail: glambie@mail.ucf.edu).
2010 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
Journal of Counseling & Development Spring 2010 Volume 88
A Narrative Approach to Supporting Students Diagnosed With Learning Disabilities
licensed clinical social worker). For additional elaboration of
mandated LD-related services and legal statutes, a reading of
Graham, Harris, and Swanson (2006) and Kochhar-Bryant et
al. (2007) is suggested.
The American School Counselor Association (ASCA,
2005) advocates that professional school counselors work to
support the academic, vocational/career, and personal/social
development of all students. Additionally, ASCA (2004)
stated that school counselors should advocate for students
diagnosed with LDs and provide comprehensive school
counseling services, including individual and group counsel-
ing, to these students. Dudley-Marling (2004) suggested that
educational and counseling approaches traditionally used to
support students diagnosed with LDs have been problem- or
deficit-focused (i.e., the disability is the problem that needs
to be fixed). These authors contended that a postmodern
and social constructionist counseling approach should also
be used to support these students' social-emotional needs.
Narrative therapy (NT) is a social constructionist counsel-
ing approach founded on the theoretical premise that people
construct their own meaning of events and objects; thus,
reality and truth are subjective to one's perspective and bound
to context and history. From an NT perspective, LDs are a
social construct dependent "on the complex interaction of
people, places, and activities" (Dudley-Marling, 2004, p.
48 5). Thus, LDs are conceptualized as subjective and con-
textual, not necessarily real or what is true. In this article,
the phrase student diagnosed with an LD is used, rather
than student with a disability, because the former infers the
potential subjectivity of the diagnosis.
Students diagnosed with LDs require individualized edu-
cational services to support their academic, career, and per-
sonal/social development (ASCA, 2004,2005; IDEA, 2004).
The purpose of this article is to provide an orientation to NT
and its application with students diagnosed with LDs, specifi-
cally to support their psychosocial development by means of
the reconstruction of their personal narratives. The following
three topics are addressed: (a) challenges confronting students
diagnosed with LDs, (b) the theoretical constructs and tenets
of NT, and (c) a case example illustrating the application of
NT with a student diagnosed with an LD.
P o t e n t i a l Challenges for Students
Diagnosed With LDs
In many ways, individuals diagnosed with disabilities are no
different from their peers without disabilities, and all may
experience a variety of problems throughout life. Nevertheless,
numerous researchers have identified personal and social con-
cerns with which students diagnosed with LDs often struggle.
In fact, Tarver-Behring, Spagna, and Sullivan (1998) stated
that students diagnosed with disabilities often experience more
problems and may require assistance from school counselors
to a greater degree than students without disabilities.
IDEA (2004) stated the following:
the term "specific learning disahility" means a disorder in
1 or more of the hasic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which
disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calcula-
tions. (Sec. 602.30.A)
Because LDs manifest themselves differently, each individual
will have his or her own unique needs. For example, some
individuals diagnosed with LDs might struggle to organize
their thoughts or comprehend what they read, while others
might not commimicate verbally in an effective manner. Many
school-age students diagnosed with LDs need little educa-
tional assistance, but others benefit from a variety of academic
accommodations, such as being given extra time to complete
tests or having someone read test questions aloud.
Some students complete many years of schooling be-
fore their LDs are identified. Rodis, Garrod, and Boscardin
(2001) offered personal stories of a number of students who
were labeled as discipline problems or simply thought to be
unmotivated until their LDs were formally recognized. In the
meantime, many of those students experienced disciplinary
problems, and some were questioned or called liars by teachers
and parents/caregivers. Moreover, Rodis et al. indicated that
students diagnosed with LDs often go through school never
having a clear understanding of their disability. A number of
the students' stories refiected feelings of frustration related
to not knowing how to handle or take control of their lives,
while other accounts revealed students' poor coping methods
(e.g., drug abuse).
Witherell and Rodis (2001) reported that students diag-
nosed with LDs often feel different or isolated ft'om their
peers, often as a result of having a disability label. McGrady,
Lemer, and Boscardin (2001) summarized various negative
feelings and experiences associated with students diagnosed
with LDs, including shame, anger, low self-esteem, depres-
sion, and teasing from peers. Furthermore, students diagnosed
with disabilities often have poor self-concepts (Bowen &
Glenn, 1998; McGrady et al., 2001) and have difficulty so-
cializing appropriately with others (Bowen & Glenn, 1998;
Ciechalski & Schmidt, 1995; Lambie et al., 2010; McGrady
et al., 2001; Tarver-Behring et al., 1998).
Additional concerns that students diagnosed with LDs
often experience result from the negative attitudes of peers,
teachers, and other adults toward these students. Research
suggests that school-age students diagnosed with disabilities
are often rejected by their peers (Heinrichs, 2003). Heinrichs
indicated that students diagnosed with disabilities are often the
victims of bullying and suggested that their differences (i.e.,
cognitive, behavioral, physical) make them "easy targets" (p.
196). These students reported feeling misunderstood by both
peers and teachers (Rodis et al., 2001), and some reported
Journal ofCounseling& Development Spring 2010 Volume 8 8 197
Lambie & Milsom
feeling disrespected by their teachers as well as anxious and
isolated in class (Medina & Luna, 2004). Furthermore, school
personnel tend to focus more on the weaknesses of students
diagnosed with LDs than on their strengths (Delpit, 2001;
Witherell & Rodis, 2001), and many of the students' stories
presented by Rodis et al. reflected a desire for someone to
acknowledge things they did well.
The negative attitudes and actions of others may have
a detrimental effect on the behavior, social relationships,
education, employment, and health of individuals diagnosed
with disabilities (McGrady et al., 2001) because their self-
perceptions are significantly influenced by the attitudes
and expectations of others (Oermann & Lindgren, 1995).
For example, Janiga and Costenbader (2002) reported that
students diagnosed with disabilities are encouraged, most
often, to pursue vocational education. If a student perceives
that a school counselor, teacher, or parent/caregiver believes
he or she is not capable of a more rigorous course of study,
that student might put little effort into his or her studies in
school. Students who experience frequent teasing or who
are called "dumb" by their peers might start to believe that
they are "dumb." Thus, the self-concept and future goals
of students diagnosed with LDs can be either negatively or
positively influenced by others. Understanding the experiences
and beliefs of students diagnosed with disabilities (i.e., their
personal narrative) seems an important component of school
counseling interventions with these students.
Regarding the use of directive educational interventions
by school personnel, Rodis et al. (2001) indicated that stu-
dents diagnosed with LDs are rarely encouraged to express
themselves. The fact that LDs are in part socially constructed
leads counselors to consider the importance of empowering
students diagnosed with LDs by giving them a voice. Rodis
(2001) suggested that
If one of the chief dangers of having a LD is that it can result
in one's person being labeled, defined and interpreted by
othersall of which have silencing effectsthen one of the
primary objectives of therapy must be to support clients in
restating life in a living tongue of their own. (p. 230)
INT
Primarily developed as a form of family therapy by White and
Epston ( 1990) at the Dulwich Therapy Center in Australia, NT
is a postmodern approach grounded in the social construction-
ist worldview that truth and reality are socially constructed
or shared perspectives bound by history and context. NT
"operates from the premise that all knowledge, including
'scientific knowledge,' is perspectival, rather than assuming
that professionals have access to 'objective truth' and that
clients improve only when they concede to this knowledge"
(Smith, 1997, p. 7). Furthermore, language provides the means
by which individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are
shaped, and language is formed by their history and culture;
hence, reality is not an invariable truth, but rather dependent
on an interpretive framework (Freedman & Combs, 1996;
Gergen, 1985; Monk & Gehart, 2003; White & Epston, 1990).
The four theoretical tenets of the social constructionist world-
view in which NT is grounded are (a) realities and knowledge
are constructed through social process; (b) language creates
a person's reality and knowledge and is bound by history and
culture; (c) knowledge and realities are shaped, organized, and
maintained through language; and (d) reality and knowledge
evolve, thus no single truth exists (Besley, 2002; Freedman
& Combs, 1996; White, 1995; White & Epston, 1990). Con-
sequently, the social constructionist epistemology is in direct
disagreement with the modernist paradigm (i.e., there is a
single, universal, quantifiable and objective truth) in which
traditional psychopathology is grounded. In other words,
social constructionists view psychopathology (i.e., learning
disabilities) and clients' problems as being created by their
interactions with people and social institutions, which thus
form their realities and personal story.
NT offers new ways of thinking about counseling, about
people, and about people's distress. NT conceptualizes clients
and their problems in a way that is different from traditional
counseling approaches. In traditional and systemic counseling
models, the counselors and clients do not have equal power.
Rather, counselors are viewed as experts having greater
knowledge than their clients and serve as catalysts for change
whereby they offer interpretations, diagnoses, and treatment
to support client change and development (Monk, Winslade,
Crocket, & Epston, 1997; Semmler & Williams, 2000). Fur-
thermore, with conventional counseling approaches, counsel-
ors identify clients by their problematic symptoms, and then
general intervention strategies are implemented based on the
client's assigned diagnostic classification (Smith, 1997). For
example, traditionally, when a student is diagnosed with an
LD, a tailored, behaviorally based IEP is designed, as derived
from his or her diagnosis, and then the IEP is implemented by
school personnel. Schools are limited in that they must use this
type of approach to adhere to the mandates of IDEA. However,
counselors may incorporate an NT approach in their ongoing
work with these students whereby student-clients are viewed
as the expert in their own regard, possessing the resources and
strengths to support their own development and functionality;
thus, the counselor assumes the role of a curious, respectful,
and optimistic participant. Therefore, it is the student-clients'
perspectives of their LDs that guide the counseling, and not
the counselor's or the team's goals.
Regarding the counseling relationship, NT takes a human-
istic and phenomenological approach. Thus, the counseling
relationship is paramount, and counselors need strong
active-listening skills. The counselor takes a tentative posi-
tion, whereby he or she listens to the clients as the experts
and asks facilitating questions to hear the clients' stories.
Within this relationship, the counselor works to avoid label-
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A Narrative Approach to Supporting Students Diagnosed With Learning Disabilities
ing or defining clients by their problem; rather, the counselor
affirms and values the clients' stories (Freedman & Combs,
1996; Winslade & Monk, 2007).
From an NT perspective, counseling is "a cultural arena that
people who are experiencing difficulties or tensions in their
lives can use to construct or reconstruct a sense of agency,
personal identity, and belonging" (McLeod, 2004, p. 352).
According to White and Epston (1990), individuals coming
to counseling tend to be experiencing an inability to change
their lives and see alternative possibilities; they are stuck in
their problem-saturated personal narrative. Thus, NT counsel-
ors support clients in the effort "to come to more expansive
and inclusive interpretations of themselves and situations"
(Polkinghome, 2004, p. 55), thus helping clients reauthor their
lives and relationships. According to Freedman and Combs
(1996), NT "is about retelling and reliving of stories" (p. 33).
In addition, Polkinghome contended that NT integrates central
existential theoretical constructs, such as emphasis on client
strengths, personal responsibility of choice, empowerment,
and the client-counselor partnership.
NT offers foundational theoretical assumptions and thera-
peutic strategies for counseling children and adolescents. The
following section reviews and delineates these tenets and
counseling approaches. For additional elaboration on NT, we
recommend reading Angus and McLeod (2004), Freedman
and Combs ( 1996), Monk et al. ( 1997), White (2007), White
and Epston (1990), and Winslade and Monk (2007).
Personai Narratives
As previously noted, NT is based on the idea the people create
their personal narrative or dominant stories to understand and
give meaning to their lives and to themselves. Personal narra-
tives are based on an individual's interpretations, which were
shaped by his or her early childhood experiences at school,
with his or her family, and in his or her community (Winslade
& Monk, 2007). Furthermore, "our language tells us how to
see the world and what to see in it" (Freedman & Combs,
1996, pp. 28-29). Thus, persons' language, which is shaped
by their culture and interactions with others (e.g., peers, par-
ents/caregivers, educators) influences the construction of their
dominant story. "The success of this storying of experience
provides persons with a sense of continuity and meaning in
their lives, and this is relied upon for the ordering of daily
lives and for the interpretation of further experiences" (White
& Epston, 1990, p. 10). As Winslade and Monk (2007) stated,
"We live our lives according to the stories we tell ourselves
and the stories that others tell about us" (p. 2).
It is important to note that not all experiences are integrated
into a person's dominant story. Thus, clients with painful
stories may change their personal narrative by highlighting
"previously un-storied events" (i.e., life events not integrated
into an individual's life narrative; Freedman & Combs, 1996,
p. 32) or by reframing their stories, thus creating new alterna-
tive personal narratives (Freedman & Combs, 1996). However,
their culture tends to speak to people, and especially children,
as if they are the problem (Smith, 1997). Furthermore, school
environments tend to offer descriptors of students, such as
gifted and bright, or underachieving and disabled. The descrip-
tive terms contain an evaluation of the student indicating that
he or she is different from the norm (Winslade & Monk, 2007).
Moreover, people tend to emphasize their negative perceptions
of an experience, thus allowing these to dominate their stories
(Petersen, Bull, Propst, Dettinger, & Detwiler, 2005). Based
on these consistently reinforced experiences from multiple
influential figures, the child's dominant story becomes one
of being "different" (e.g., being disabled and unusual). As
Wolter et al. (2006) suggested, a student "who has long lived
with a disability may be reluctant to view life differently as a
person with increased abilities" (p. 168).
Mapping the Influence of the Problem
Guterman and Rudes (2005, p. 4) noted that what they refer to
as mapping the influence of the problem is the process whereby
the counselor asks questions that assist clients in understand-
ing how their particular problem contributed to their life and
relationships. These questions support the identification of
the effects of the problem throughout the client's relationships
(e.g., problem and school, problem and parents). A counselor
might ask, "How has 'learning disability' influenced your
relationship with your friends?" Through this questioning
process, counselors may identify inconsistencies in the client's
problem-saturated stories. It is important to note that coun-
selors' questioning needs to be developmentally appropriate
to the student-clients. Mapping begins the deconstruction of
the dominant story and supports the identification of client
strengths and externalizing conversation.
Externalizing the Problem (Externalizing
Conversation)
NT introduced the notion that "the person is not the problem, but
the problem is the problem" (Freedman & Combs, 1996, p. 47).
Externalizing the problem is a therapeutic approach whereby
the counselor encourages clients to objectify the problem,
separating their personhood from the problem; however, this
does not separate the client from his or her personal respon-
sibilify in perpetuating the problem (White & Epston, 1990).
Externalizing conversation supports clients' self-efficacy for
change, decreases self-blame (Smith, 1997), and supports their
awareness that the problem is founded on social and cultural
assumptions rather than individual deficits (Semmler & Wil-
liams, 2000). In addition, externalizing conversation facilitates a
more comfortable counseling climate as clients discuss painful
experiences. Furthermore, externalizing the problem can al-
leviate feelings of guilt or hopelessness often experienced by
clients who engage in counseling that is based on a deficit model
(Winslade & Monk, 2007). Freedman and Combs suggested
that externalizing conversation is a counseling mind-set, rather
than a counseling technique. From a philosophical perspective.
Journal ofCounseling& Development Spring 2010 Volume 88 199
Lambie & Misom
counselors need t o bot h believe in and underst and t he ext ernal-
izing conversat ion approach for it t o be effective.
Winslade and Monk (2007) offered suggestions for facilitat-
ing externalizing communication. First, they recommended t hat
counselors should not externalize t he first problemat ic issues
t he client brings up, but rat her t hat they should listen t o t he
complet e and detailed description oft he problem. The authors
also advocated t hat it is appropriate for counselors t o explain t he
purpose and process of externalizing conversation t o their clients.
Furt hermore, the counselor and client share t he task of naming
t he problem. The counselor might ask, "We have been t alking
about school and your experiences; can we think of a name for
t his problem st ory?" Examples of questions (dependent on t he
student-client's age and developmental level) useful in facilitating
externalizing conversation would include (a) "What influence is
'L D ' having on you?" (b) "In your experience, how much effect
does 'L D ' have in t he classroom?" and (c) "So, how much has
'L D ' ruled over you at home and in school?"
Client Strengths and Unique Outcomes
The NT counselor at t ends t o t he client 's st rengt hs as resources
t o support change. This change fi-om t he deficit - or weakness-
focused counseling t ends t o be related t o solution-focused t hera-
py (de Shazer, 1985), another post modern counseling approach.
Within NT, t he counselor focuses on t he client 's compet encies
and apt it udes, whereby he or she quest ions about t imes when
t he client 's problems are not occurring (i.e., unique out comes
or "sparkling moment s"). As t he counselor maps and ext ernal-
izes t he problem wit h t he client , he or she is at t ent ive t o hint s
of t he client 's compet encies and unique account s. Whit e and
Epst on (1990) not ed t hat "It is only necessary t hat one unique
out come be identified in order t o facilit at e performance of new
meaning" (p. 55). Client st rengt hs are resources for preferred
alt ernat e stories (Polkinghome, 2004; Winslade & Monk, 2007).
Thus, t he counselor emphasizes t he st udent -client 's st rengt hs
and successes, not his or her problems or failures.
Restorying or Assembling the Alternative Story
Rest orying is designed t o empower t he client in reconst ruct -
ing a more preferable personal narrat ive t hat represent s
his or her act ual life. A new alt ernat e st ory emerges fi-om
t he deconst mct ion of t he dominant narrat ive; however, t he
client must work t o int egrat e t his new st ory int o his or her
exist ing scheme. The reaut hored st ory consequent ly alt ers
t he meaning prescribed t o past , present , and fiit ure event s
(Polkinghome, 2004). The challenge in rest orying is t hat
t he problem-sat urat ed dominant st ory most likely developed
over many years and has significant power and cont inues t o
perpet uat e itself. Accordingly, new reaut hored st ories need
t o be st rong enough t o alt er t he dominant problem st ory. The
rest orying "emerges fi-om t he use of mapping-t he-influence
quest ions, which elicit t he preferred experiences, sparkling
moment s, or unique out comes" (Winslade & Monk, 2007, p.
6 0). To support accomplishing rest orying, t he counselor must
actively support t he process; however, he or she does not become
t he author oft he story. Suggestions for counselors in supporting
a student-client's alternative st orying include (a) linking experi-
ences and event s, (b) highlight ing recent unique out comes, (c)
redirect ing t herapeut ic conversat ion t hat revert s t o t he problem-
sat urat ed story, (d) asking t he st udent if he or she is happy wit h
his or her reaut hored story, (e) inquiring about future st eps t he
st udent may t ake in support oft he alt ernat ive story, (f) querying
about sparkling moment s bet ween counseling sessions, and (g)
helping t he st udent identify ot her audiences t hat support and
appreciat e t he alt ernat ive story. It is import ant t o not e t hat for
a st udent t o int egrat e t he new preferred st ory and effectively
dismiss t he problem-sat urat ed story, he or she needs an audi-
ence (e.g., counselor, parent s, siblings, and friends) t o wit ness
and appreciat e it (Monk et al., 1997).
C a s e E x a m p le I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e
A p p l i c a t i o n of N T
The following case example involves t he first aut hor and his
work wit h an eight h-grade st udent (Adam, a pseudonym) who
was diagnosed wit h an L D . Adam was referred for counseling
by his parent s, who were "worried about him." They explained
t hat t hey had recently met wit h Adam's t eachers, who expressed
concern for him and his academic performance. Adam's parent s
further explained t hat Adam "had a leaming disabilit y and t hus
st mggled in school." This case offers a pract ical demonst rat ion
of NT t hat t ook place over five counseling meet ings wit h an
adolescent diagnosed wit h an L D .
First Counseling Meeting
D uring my first meeting wit h Adam, I simply listened t o his story
in a respectful, caring, accepting, and inquisitive fashion. I tried t o
listen t o him as if I were a blank t ape, hearing what he had t o say
for t he very first t ime. Practically speaking, I was being human-
istic (e.g., caring, empat hie, nonjudgmental, and genuine) and
was using my active listening skills (e.g., paraphrasing, clarifying,
summarizing). It was int erest ing t hat early in our session, Adam
appeared uncomfortable and anxious as indicated by his feet,
which were continuously moving, and his flushed face. However,
once I invited him t o just tell me about himself, he began t alking
and seemed t o become more comfortable.
Adam expressed t hat he had an L D and, as a consequence,
hat ed school and did poorly at it . As I furt her quest ioned him
about his school experience, he t old me a st ory of a child who
could not read and was "different from everyone else." He
said he was fine at home and enjoyed playing sport s wit h his
friends; his problems were just when he was at school. When
I asked Adam what it meant t o him t o be diagnosed wit h an
L D , he said, "It means I am dumb," as he fiirt her expressed
t hat everyone knew he had an L D .
Toward t he conclusion of our first counseling meet ing, I
said t o Adam, "We've been t alking for a while now, what do
you t hink is t he problem?" Adam replied, "I have a leaming
200 Journal ofCounseling& D evelopment Spring 2010 Volume 88
A Narrative Approach to Supporting Students Diagnosed With Learning Disabilities
disability and I'm dumb." I then asked Adam if it would be
okay if we agreed to name his problem "L D " for his diagnosed
learning disability. Adam said, "Okay, I guess." Once our first
meeting ended, I composed and mailed a handwritten letter to
Adam stating that it had been a pleasure to meet him and to
listen to his story. White and Epston (1990) suggested the use
of letters as an effective narrative therapeutic strategy.
Second Counseling Meeting
At the beginning of our second meeting, I asked Adam how he
was doing, and I noticed he had a piece of paper in his hand.
When I inquired as to what was in his hand, Adam replied,
"Oh ya, it is the letter you sent me." He said that he really liked
"getting mail" and appreciated the letter. Adam then asked if
it would be okay if he wrote me a letter. I replied, "Sure, if
you would like." As we continued, I began using externalizing
conversation. For example, I asked Adam, "How long has LD
been around you?" "What influence does L D have on you at
school"? "D oes L D affect you only at school?" and "How
much pain has L D caused you?"
Through this questioning process, Adam began to see L D
as separate from himself. For example, he stated, "L D is a
problem at school, but does not seem to bother me too much
at home and with my friends." To support this externalizing
conversation, I had Adam write and color LD on a piece of
paper, which we put on the seat next to us. This visual aid
seemed to help Adam externalize the problem (i.e., L D ) and
increased his feelings of self-efficacy. Once again, I sent Adam
a short handwritten letter expressing my appreciation for his
willingness to share his story with me.
Third Counseling Meeting
During our third meeting, I focused more on identifying Adam's
sparkling moments when he was doing well. It is noteworthy
that this was not too difficult. Adam seemed to have multiple
areas of competency, although his dominant, problem-saturated
story clouded his perspective of these events. Thus, using a dry
erase board, I began to write down all these strengths that Adam
possessed (e.g., numerous friends, athletic ability, mechanical
aptitude, achievement in some classes, an A on a recent test,
and his strong family connection), using his own words. As I
continued to write the strengths on the board, Adam appeared
to become conftised. He said, "So L D is the problem, and I have
all [these] good things?" I replied, "It appears so." It seemed
that this activity altered Adam's perspective of himself and sup-
ported his belief in his abilities and responsibility to change. I
concluded our meeting by asking Adam to track and write down
all the "good things" he might do between the just-concluded
meeting and our next meeting.
Fourth Counseling Meeting
Our fourth meeting began with Adam sharing his "good
things" list, of which he was very proud. Examples on his
list included (a) holding the door for an older lady, (b) saying
"God bless you" to his sister after she sneezed, (c) completing
and turning in all his homework assignments, (d) participating
in class activities, (e) getting a B on a test, and (f) scoring a
goal in his soccer game. At this point, I began to highlight
inconsistencies between Adam's problem, LD, and these suc-
cesses, focusing primarily on his accomplishments at school.
As we discussed these discrepancies, I asked Adam to tell me
his story for the past week. His story was positive and filled
with successes on how he kept L D from bothering him. I then
asked Adam to draw a lifeline for himself from the current
point in time to the end of next month. As he drew, he whistled
and talked to me about his upcoming soccer game. His story
for the upcoming month was positive and emphasized his
optimism about success. It is interesting that he drew the ab-
breviation L D in the comer of his paper in a box and explained
to me that he was going to keep it there from now on. As our
meeting came to a close, I asked Adam if he would be willing
to share his lifeline for the upcoming month with his parents.
Adam replied, "I guess so." I also asked Adam if it would be
okay for his parents to come visit with us during the last part
of our next meeting. Again he replied, "I guess so."
Fifth Counseling Meeting
During our fifth meeting, Adam appeared excited, holding his
lifeline in his hand. He told me that he had been nervous but
showed his parents his month lifeline. He reported that they
were very proud of him. Adam had explained to his parents that
LD was not going to get him into trouble anymore, and he was
going to work hard to do well now. Toward the final part of our
meeting, I invited Adam's parents into the room with Adam and
me. They both expressed how proud they were of Adam and
how they were going to support him to keep L D under control.
I asked Adam to explain to us how he was going to make his
1-month lifeline a reality. He was poised and explained that he
could do well and was going to do well because that was what
he wanted. At the conclusion of our meeting, I presented Adam
with a certificate, addressing him as the "Commander of LD."
Moreover, the following week, I wrote Adam a letter noting his
achievements throughout our work together and let him know that
he could write to me about all his upcoming successes.
The case example illustrates the application of an NT
approach with a student diagnosed with an LD. Through my
work with Adam, we were able to establish a safe counseling
environment wherein he (a) defined and named L D as the
problem, (b) mapped the influence of L D in his life, (c) exter-
nalized LD, (d) identified successful moments, and (e) used his
strengths in reauthoring his personal story. It is important to
note that Adam did not appear resistant to counseling, which
supported the therapeutic process.
C o n c l u s i o n
Students diagnosed with LDs experience many challenges that
may be addressed by professional school counselors through
Journal ofCounseling & Development Spring 2010 Volume 88 201
Lambie & Milsom
the use of NT. The deficit, pathology model currently used in
counseling does not appear to be working, given that many
students diagnosed with LDs tend to drop out of school,
become incarcerated, and abuse substances. These students
also tend to feel isolated, angry, shamed, and depressed more
than their peers without disabilities (McGarvey & Waite,
2000; McGrady et al., 2001; Putnam, 2007; Rock & Leff,
2007; Rodis et al., 2001). It is our assertion that a social
constructionist and NT approach that focuses on students'
strengths offers school counselors a new conceptualization of
LDs and a counseling approach that matches these students'
needs. It was not our intention to debate the truthfulness of the
pathology of LDs, but rather to offer a different perspective,
wherein students diagnosed with LDs are not the problem,
but rather their disability label and their relationship to it are
the primary problems.
NT as presented in this article is an individual counseling
approach, but it may also be used effectively in group and
family counseling settings. Professional school counselors
planning to facilitate an NT group for students diagnosed with
LDs may integrate the principles presented in this article with
those suggested by Webb and Myrick (2003). Moreover, NT is
conducive to school, mental health, and family counseling, just
as the case illustration with Adam was conducted in a school
setting. However, it is important to note that all counseling
approaches have limitations, and NT may not be appropriate
for all students (e.g., students with limited language mction-
ing and cognitive impairments).
The identity of students diagnosed with LDs often becomes
their disability as educators, caregivers, peers, and social insti-
tutions define them within this evaluative framework. Hence,
these students tend to construct problem-saturated personal
narratives wherein the LD overpowers their lives and belief
system. It is our position that educational approaches focus-
ing only on behavioral accommodations for these students are
insufficient. By using NT, professional school counselors may
address the social-emotional concerns of these students and
assist them in reauthoring their personal stories.
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