Co n t r o l of Di s t o r t i o n i n T o o l St eel s

Revised by Bruce A. Becherer, Teledyne Vasco; and Larry Ryan, Lindberg Heat Treating Company
DI ME NS I ONAL CHANGE S in t ool
st eel caus ed by heat t r eat ment ar e par t i cu-
l ar l y i mpor t ant t o t he manuf act ur e, pr oper
desi gn, and use of t ool i ng. Al t hough no
si mpl e sol ut i on t o t he pr obl e m of di st or t i on
exi st s, an under s t andi ng of t he compl ex
f act or s i nvol ved will l ead t o pr oc e dur e s f or
mi ni mi zi ng t he amount of change in di men-
si ons. Thi s ar t i cl e deal s pr i mar i l y wi t h i rre-
ver si bl e changes t hat af f ect t he act ual net
di mensi onal change or di s t or t i on of a par t .
The r ever s i bl e ef f ect s of t her mal expans i on
and c o n t r a c t i o n - - wh e n a par t is heat ed
f r om r oom t e mpe r a t ur e t o aust eni t i zi ng
t emper at ur e and cool ed t o r oom
t e mp e r a t u r e - - t e n d t o cancel each ot her out .
Rever s i bl e changes cause st r essi ng in t he
el ast i c r ange. Unde r such condi t i ons , t he
i ni t i al di mens i onal val ues can be r es t or ed
by a r et ur n t o t he ori gi nal st at e of st r ess or
t emper at ur e.
The upper l i mi t of r ever s i bl e di mens i onal
change in a t ool st eel is det er mi ned by t he
st r ess r equi r ed t o i ni t i at e def or mat i on ( t hat
i s, t he el ast i c l i mi t cor r es pondi ng t o a pr e-
sel ect ed val ue of pl ast i c st r ai n) , t he el ast i c
def or mat i on pe r uni t st r ess ( modul us of
el ast i ci t y) , t he ef f ect of t e mpe r a t ur e on
t hese pr oper t i es , t he coef f i ci ent of t her mal
expans i on, and t he t emper at ur e- t i me com-
bi nat i ons at whi ch st r ess r el i ef and phase
changes occur .
Fo r pr act i cal pur pos es , t he modul us of
el ast i ci t y of all t ool st eel s, r egar dl es s of
compos i t i on or heat t r eat ment , is 210 GPa
(30 106 psi ) at r oom t emper at ur e. Ther e-
f or e, i f a t ool st eel par t def or ms exces s i vel y
under s er vi ce l oadi ng but r et ur ns t o i t s
ori gi nal di mens i ons when t he l oad is re-
moved, a change in gr ade or t ype of t ool
st eel or in heat t r eat ment will not be useful .
To count er act exces s i ve el ast i c di s t or t i on it
is neces s ar y t o r educe t he appl i ed st r ess by
i ncr easi ng t he s ect i on si ze, or t o use a t ool
mat er i al wi t h a hi gher modul us of el ast i ci t y
(such as c e me nt e d t ungst en car bi de) .
I r r ever s i bl e changes in si ze or shape of
t ool st eel par t s ar e t hose caus ed by s t r es s es
t hat exceed t he el ast i c l i mi t or by changes in
met al l ur gi cal s t r uct ur e ( most not abl y, phase
changes) . Such i r r ever s i bl e changes some-
t i mes can be c or r e c t e d by t her mal pr o-
cessi ng ( anneal i ng, t emper i ng, or col d t r eat -
ing) or by mechani cal pr ocessi ng t o r emove
exces s mat er i al or t o r edi s t r i but e r esi dual
st r esses.
Nat ur e and Causes of Di st or t i on
Di st or t i on is a gener al t er m encompas s i ng
all i r r ever si bl e di mensi onal changes. Ther e
ar e t wo mai n t ypes : si ze di st or t i on, whi ch
i nvol ves expans i on or cont r act i on in vol -
ume or l i near di mensi ons wi t hout changes
in geomet r i cal f or m; and shape di st or t i on,
whi ch ent ai l s changes in cur vat ur e or angu-
l ar r el at i ons, as in t wi st i ng, bendi ng, and/ or
nons ymmet r i cal changes in di mensi ons.
Fr equent l y, bot h si ze and shape di st or t i on
( shown in Fi g 1) occur dur i ng a heat - t r eat i ng
oper at i on.
Si ze di st or t i on is t he r esul t of a change in
vol ume pr oduced by a change in met al l ur -
gi cal st r uct ur e dur i ng heat t r eat ment . Shape
di st or t i on r esul t s f r om ei t her r esi dual or
appl i ed st r esses. Resi dual s t r es s es devel -
oped dur i ng heat t r eat ment ar e caus ed by
t her mal gr adi ent s wi t hi n t he met al ( pr oduc-
ing di fferi ng amount s of expans i on or con-
t r act i on) , by nonuni f or m changes in met al -
l urgi cal st r uct ur e, and by nonuni f or mi t y in
t he compos i t i on of t he met al i t sel f, such as
t hat caus ed by segr egat i on.
c h a n g e s in met al l ur gi cal st r uct ur e dur i ng
heat t r eat ment of t ool st eel s ar e pr oduced
by t he t hr ee st eps des cr i bed bel ow.
The fi rst st ep i nvol ves heat i ng an an-
neal ed st r uct ur e ( usual l y consi st i ng of fer-
ri t e and spher oi dal car bi des , commonl y
cal l ed spher oi di t e) t o about 800 C (1450 F)
or hi gher t o change t he f er r i t e t o aust eni t e
and t o di s s ol ve all or mos t of t he s pher oi dal
car bi des t o t he aust eni t e. Fo r pl ai n car bon
or l ow- al l oy t ool st eel s, aust eni t i zi ng r esul t s
in a cont r act i on in vol ume. The ext ent of
vol umet r i c cont r act i on de c r e a s e s wi t h in-
cr eas i ng amount s of car bon pr es ent in t he
compos i t i on. Thi s can be a ppr oxi ma t e d as
f ol l ows:
VSA = --4. 64 + 2.21 ( %C) (Eq 1)
wher e VSA is t he vol ume change in pe r c e nt
t hat occur s when s pher oi di t e t r ans f or ms t o
aus t eni t e. By use of t hi s equat i on, it can be
es t i mat ed t hat , i f heat ed t o a t e mpe r a t ur e
hi gh enough t o di s s ol ve all of t he car bon in
t he aus t eni t e, a 0. 50% car bon t ool st eel
woul d exhi bi t a vol ume change of - 3 . 5 3 %,
a c ommon t ype cont ai ni ng 1% car bon
woul d exhi bi t a change of - 2 . 4 3 %, and a
ver y hi gh- car bon t ype cont ai ni ng 1.5% car -
bon woul d exhi bi t a change of - 1 . 3 3 %.
Ho we v e r , t ool st eel s havi ng car bon con-
t ent s hi gher t han t hat of t he eut ect oi d com-
pos i t i on ar e nor mal l y aus t eni t i zed at t em-
per at ur es onl y hi gh enough t o di s s ol ve t he
eut ect oi d amount of car bon. Unde r t hes e
c i r c ums t a nc e s , 1% car bon and 1.5% car bon
t ool st eel s woul d exhi bi t changes in vol ume
of - 2 . 7 7 and - 2 . 5 3 %, r es pect i vel y, af t er
aust eni t i zi ng. Thes e per cent ages ar e l ess
t han t hat cal cul at ed di r ect l y f r om Eq 1
be c a us e an al l owance mus t be made f or t he
vol ume oc c upi e d by undi s s ol ve d car bi des ,
whi ch is a bout 3. 5% f or t he 1.0% car bon
st eel and a bout 12% f or t he 1.5% car bon
st eel .
The s econd st ep i nvol ves cool i ng qui ckl y
enough t o c a us e t he aus t eni t e t o t r ans f or m
t o mar t ens i t e. The st eel e xpa nds on t r a n s -
( Size distortion -~ (
Before Heated Quenched
hardening to austenitize to martensite
Fi g I Size and shape di storti on in hardening
Shape distortion
j -
Before
hardening
.... -13
After
hardening
ASM Handbook, Volume 4: Heat Treating
ASM Handbook Committee, p 761-766
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0001200
Copyright 1991 ASM International
All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org
762 / Heat Treati ng of Tool Steels
Table 1 Microconstituents in various tool steels after hardening
As-quenched Martensite,
Steel Hardening treatment hardness, HRC vol%
Retained
austenite, Undissolved
vol% carbides, vol%
Wl 7 90 C (1450 F), 3 0 mi n ; WQ 67. 0
L3 845 C (1550 F), 3 0 mi n ; OQ 66. 5
M2 1225 C( 2235 F), 6 mi n ; OQ 64
D2 1040 C (1900 F), 3 0 mi n ; AC 62
Note: WQ, water quench; OQ, oil quench; AC, air cool
88. 5 9 2.5
90 7 3. 0
71. 5 20 8.5
45 40 15
t emper at ur e of 540 t o 595 C (1000 t o 1100
F) t o f or m al l oy car bi des , whi ch i nduces an
addi t i onal expans i on in vol ume. The forma-
t i on of al l oy c a r bi de s dur i ng t emper i ng is
char act er i s t i c of t ool st eel s cont ai ni ng l arge
amount s of car bi de- f or mi ng el ement s such
as chr omi um, mol ybde num, and t ungst en,
whi ch ar e f ound in hi gh- speed t ool st eel s.
f or mat i on, t he amount of expans i on bei ng in
i nver se pr opor t i on t o t he amount of car bon
in sol ut i on in t he aust eni t e:
VAM = 4 . 6 4 -- 0 . 5 3 ( %C ) ( E q 2 )
wher e VAr~ is t he per cent vol ume change
t hat occur s when aus t eni t e t r ans f or ms t o
mar t ens i t e. By use of Eq 2, it can be est i -
mat ed t hat a 0. 5% car bon t ool st eel woul d
exhi bi t a vol ume i ncr eas e f or t hi s t r ansf or -
mat i on of 4. 37%, and t hat 1.0 and 1.5%
car bon st eel s woul d exhi bi t i ncr eas es of
4. 07% and 3. 71%, r es pect i vel y, i f aust en-
i t i zed at t he nor mal aust eni t i zi ng t emper a-
t ur e ( onl y 0. 8% car bon, t he eut ect oi d
amount , in sol ut i on, and agai n al l owi ng for
t he vol ume oc c upi e d by undi s s ol ved car -
bi des) .
Equat i ons 1 and 2 can be used t o cal cu-
l at e t he net change in di mens i ons in a t ool
st eel when it is heat t r eat ed t o t r ans f or m it
f r om an anneal ed t o a ful l y har dened (mar-
t ensi t i c) st at e. Fo r t he e xa mpl e s r ef er r ed t o
above, nor mal heat t r eat ment woul d pr o-
duce net vol ume i ncr eas es of - 3 . 5 3 + 4.37
= 0. 84% in t he 0. 5% car bon t ool st eel ,
- 2 . 7 7 + 4.07 = 1.30% in t he 1.0% car bon
st eel , and - 2 . 5 3 + 3.71 = 1.18% in t he 1.5%
car bon st eel . Ne t changes in l i near di men-
si ons woul d be a bout one- t hi r d of t he cor-
r es pondi ng net changes in vol ume.
The t hi r d s t ep i nvol ves r eheat i ng t he
f r eshl y f or med mar t ens i t e t o r el at i vel y l ow
t e mpe r a t ur e s ( t emper i ng) t o i ncr eas e t ough-
ness and r educe l at t i ce st r ess. Temper i ng
pr oduces var i ous changes in met al l ur gi cal
s t r uct ur e, dependi ng on t emper at ur e and
t i me at t emper at ur e.
Af t er ver y l ong t i mes at r oom t emper a-
t ur e or s hor t er t i mes at t emper at ur es up t o
200 C (400 F), t he hi gh- car bon mar t ensi t e
in pl ai n car bon and l ow- al l oy t ool st eel s
de c ompos e s i nt o l ow- car bon mar t ensi t e
( about 0. 25% car bon) pl us epsi l on car bi de,
wi t h an accompanyi ng cont r act i on in vol -
ume. At hi gher t emper i ng t emper at ur es , 200
t o 430 C (400 t o 800 F), t he mar t ensi t e
de c ompos e s i nt o f er r i t e pl us cement i t e.
Tr ans f or mat i on of t he maxi mum amount
of aust eni t e t o mar t ensi t e on quenchi ng
usual l y r equi r es cont i nuous cool i ng t o be-
l ow t he mar t ensi t e- f i ni sh t emper at ur e (Mr),
whi ch f or a eut ect oi d t ool st eel is about - 5 0
C ( - 6 0 F). To pr event cr acki ng of ver y
l arge or ver y i nt r i cat e pi eces, it is common
pr act i ce t o r emove t he t ool f r om t he
quenchi ng medi um and t o begi n t emper i ng
it whi l e it is still sl i ght l y t oo war m to hol d
comf or t abl y in t he bar e hands ( about 60 C,
or 140 F). Under t hese condi t i ons, a sub-
st ant i al pr opor t i on of t he st r uct ur e (10% or
mor e) may still be aust eni t e. Most al l oyi ng
el ement s l ower t he Mf t emper at ur e. Conse-
quent l y, mor e aust eni t e is r et ai ned at r oom
t emper at ur e in t he mor e hi ghl y al l oyed t ool
st eel s. On t emper i ng at i ncr easi ng t emper a-
t ur es in t he range of 120 t o 260 C (250 t o
500 F), i ncr easi ng amount s of t hi s r et ai ned
aus t eni t e t r ansf or m t o bai ni t e for some t ool
st eel compos i t i ons , wi t h an accompanyi ng
expans i on in vol ume.
Dependi ng on t he al l oy cont ent of t he t ool
st eel , al l , some, or none of t he r et ai ned
aust eni t e will t r ansf or m dur i ng t emper i ng.
In some hi ghl y al l oyed t ool st eel composi -
t i ons, cement i t e r edi s s ol ves at t emper i ng
Si z e D i s t o r t i o n i n T o o l St e e l s
Typi cal vol ume per cent ages of mar t ens-
i t e, r et ai ned aus t eni t e, and undi s s ol ved car-
bi des ar e gi ven in Tabl e 1 f or f our di fferent
t ool st eel s quenched f r om t hei r r ecommend-
ed aust eni t i zi ng t emper at ur es .
Typi cal changes in l i near di mensi ons for
sever al t ool st eel s ar e gi ven in Tabl e 2. As
shown in t hi s t abl e, some t ool st eel s such as
Al 0 show ve r y l i t t l e si ze change when hard-
ened and t e mpe r e d over t he ent i r e range
f r om 150 t o 600 C (300 t o 1100 F).
Ot her t ypes , such as t he M2 and M41
hi gh- speed s t eel s , expand about 0. 2% (2
mm/ m, or 0.002 in. fin. ) when har dened and
t emper ed in t he t e mpe r a t ur e r ange of 540 t o
595 C (1000 t o 1100 F) t o devel op full
s econdar y har dnes s . Al t hough t he i nforma-
t i on in Tabl e 2 is usef ul in compar i ng size
di st or t i on in s ever al t ool st eel s, t he f act or of
shape di s t or t i on makes it i mpossi bl e t o use
t hese dat a al one t o pr edi ct di mensi onal
changes of a par t i cul ar t ool made f r om any
of t hese st eel s. Densi t i es and t her mal ex-
pansi on char act er i s t i cs f or sever al cl asses
of t ool st eel s ar e pr es ent ed in Tabl e 3.
S h a p e D i s t o r t i o n i n T o o l St eel s
The st r engt h of any t ool st eel decr eas es
r api dl y a bove about 600 C (1100 F). At t he
aust eni t i zi ng t emper at ur e, t he yi el d
st r engt h is so l ow t hat pl ast i c def or mat i on
oft en occur s si mpl y f r om t he st r esses in-
duced in t he par t by gravi t y Ther ef or e,
l ong par t s, l ar ge par t s , and par t s of compl ex
shape must be pr ope r l y s uppor t ed at cri t i cal
Table 2 Typical dimensional changes in hardening and tempering
Hardening treatment
Temperature Total change in linear
Tool Quenching dimensions, % after C 150 205
steel C OF medium quenching F 300 400
Total change in linear dimensions, %, after tempering at
260 315 370
500 600 700
425 480 510 540 565 595
800 900 950 1000 1050 II00
Ol 815 1500 Oi l 0. 22 0. 17 0. 16 0. 18
Ol 790 1450 Oi l 0. 18 0. 09 0. 12 0. 13
0 6 790 1450 Oi l 0. 12 0. 07 0A0 0. 14
A2 955 1750 Ai r 0. 09 0. 06 0. 06 0. 08
A10 790 1450 Ai r 0. 04 0. 00 0. 00 0. 08
D2 1010 1850 Ai r 0. 06 0. 03 0. 03 0. 02
D3 955 1750 Oi l 0. 07 0. 04 0. 02 0.01
D4 1040 1900 Ai r 0. 07 0. 03 0.01 - 0 . 0 1
D5 1010 1850 Ai r 0. 07 0. 03 0. 02 0.01
Hl l 1010 1850 Ai r 0.11 0. 06 0. 07 0. 08
H13 1010 1850 Ai r - 0 . 0 1 . . . . . . . . .
M2 1210 2210 Oi l - 0 . 0 2 . . . . . . . . .
M41 1210 2210 Oi l - 0 . 1 6 . . . . . . . . .
0. 10
0. 07
0. 08
0. 00
- 0 . 0 2
- 0 . 0 3
0. 00
0. 08
0. 00 - 0 . 0 5 - 0 . 0 6
0. 05 0. 04
0.01 0.01 0. 02
. . . . 0.01 - 0 . 0 2
- 0 . 4 - 0 . 0 3
0.3 0. 03
0.3 0.01
. . . . . 0. 00
' - 0 . 0 7
. . 0. 06
0.01
0. 06
' 0. 05
' 0. 05
0. 12
- 0. 06
- 0 . 0 6 0. 10
- 0 . 1 7 0. 08
' 0. 02
0. 14 0. 16
0.21 0.23
Table 3 Densi t y and thermal expansion of selected tool steels
Cont r ol of Di st or t i on in Tool Steels / 763
Ther mal expansion
Density I t m/ m K from 20 *C to pi n. f i n. *F from 68 *F to
Type Mg/ m 3 Ib/in. 3 100 *C 205 *C 425 *C 540 *C 650 *C 200 *F 400 *F 800 *F 1000 OF 1200 *F
Wl 7.84 0.283
W2 7.85 0.283
SI 7.88 0.255
$2 7.79 0.281
$5 7.76 0.280
$6 7.75 0.280
$7 7.76 0.280
Ol 7.85 0.283
02 7.66 0.277
07 7.8 0.283
A2 7.86 0.284
A6 7.84 0.283
A7 7.66 0.277
A8 7.87 0.284
A9 7.78 0.281
D2 7.70 0.278
D3 7.70 0.278
D4 7.70 0.278
D5 . . . . . .
H10 7.81 0.281
Hl l 7.75 0.280
HI3 7.76 0.280
H14 7.89 0.285
H19 7.98 0.288
H21 8.28 0.299
H22 8.36 0.302
H26 8.67 0.313
H42 8.15 0.295
T1 8.67 0.313
T2 8.67 0.313
T4 8.68 0.313
T5 8.75 0.316
T6 8.89 0.321
T8 8.43 0.305
TI5 8.19 0.296
MI 7.89 0.285
M2 8.16 0.295
M3, class 1 8.15 0.295
M3, class 2 8.16 0.295
M4 7.97 0.288
M7 7.95 0.287
M10 7.88 0.255
M30 8.01 0.289
M33 8.03 0.290
M36 8.18 0.296
M41 8.17 0.295
M42 7.98 0.288
M46 7.83 0.283
M47 7.96 0.288
L2 7.86 0.284
L6 7.86 0.284
P2 7.86 0.284
P5 7.80 0.282
P6 7.85 0.283
P20 7.85 0.283
10.4 11.0
12.4 12.6
10.9 11.9
12.6
1 0 . 6 ( c )
11.2 12.6
10.7 10.6(c)
11.5 12.4
10.4 10.3
12.0 1l7
11.9 12.4
10.4 11.5
1 1 . 0
11.0 11.0
12.4 12.6
11.0 "
"- 9.7
11.2 "
' ' 9.9
1 0 . 6 ( c )
10.1 9.4(c)
9.5(c)
9.5(c)
9.7
10.6 11.0
11.3 12.6
(a) From 20 to 500 C (68 to 930 F). (b) From 20 to 600 C (68 to
13.1 13.8(a) 14.2(b)
14.4 14.8 14.9
13.5 13.9 14.2
13.5 14.0 14.2
12.6 13.3 13.7
12.6 13.3
13.3 13.7(a) 13.3
12.8 14.0(d) 14.4(d)
13.9 14.6 15.1
12.9 14.0 14.2
13.5 13.9 14.2
12.4 12.9 13.5
12.0 12.4 12.6
12.0 12.4 12.6
11.9 12.2 12.2
12.9 13.1 13.5
1 2 . 4 . . . . . .
1 2 . 0
12.2 13.3 13.7
12.8 12.9 13.3
12.2 12.4 13.1
12.0 12.4 12.9
12.9 13.5 13.9
11.5 12.0 12.4
1 2 . 4
1 1 . 9
11.2 11.7 11.9
1 1 . 9 -
1 1 . 5
11.0 11.5 .
11.3 12.0 12.4
11.2 11.9 12.2
11.5 12.0 12.2
11.5 12.0 12.8
11.2 12.0 12.2
11.5 12.2 12.4
1 1 . 0 1 1 9 12.4
11.2 11.7 12.2
1 1 0 1 1 . 7 12.0
10.4 11.2
11.9 12.6
14.4 14.6 14.8
12.6 13.5 13.7
1 3 . 7 . . . . . .
12.8 13.7 14.2
5.76
6.9
60
6.2
5.96
6.4
5.8
6.7
6.6
5.8
6.1
6.1
6.9
6.1
6.2
5.6
5.9
6.3
1110 F). (c) From 20 to 260 C (68 to 500 OF). (d) From 38 C (100 *F)
6.13
7.0
6.6
7.0
5.9(c)
7.0
5.91(c)
6.9
5.7
6.5
6.9
6.4
6A
7.0
5.4
5.5(c)
5.9(c)
5.2(c)
53(c)
53(c)
54
6.1
7.0
7.28 7.64(a)
8.0 8.2
7.5 7.7
7.5 7.8
7.0 7.4
7.0 7.4
7.4 7.6(a)
7.1 7.8(d)
7.7 8.1
7.2 7.8
7.5 7.7
6.9 7.2
6.7 6.9
6.7 6.9
6.6 6.8
7.2 7.3
6.9 - - .
. . 67
6.8 7.4
7.1 7.2
6.8 6.9
6.7 6.9
7.2 7.5
6.4 6.7
. " 6.9
- . ' 6.6
6.2 6.5
. " 6.6
. " 6.4
6.1 6.4
63 6.7
6.2 6.6
6.4 6.7
6.4 6.7
6.2 6.7
6.4 6.8
6.1 6.6
6.2 6.5
6.1 6.5
5.8 6.2
6.6 ""
8.0 8.1
7.0 7.5
7.6 "- -
7.1 7.6
7.90(b)
8.3
7.9
7.9
7.6
7.4
8.0(d)
8.4
7.9
7.9
7.5
7.0
7.0
6.8
7.5
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.7
6.9
6.6
6.9
6.8
6.8
7.1
6.8
6.9
6.9
6.8
6.7
. .
7.0
8.2
7.6
7.9
l o c a t i o n s t o p r e v e n t s a g g i n g a t t h e h a r d e n -
i ng t e mp e r a t u r e
Ra p i d h e a t i n g i n c r e a s e s s h a p e d i s t o r t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n l a r g e t o o l s a n d i n c o mp l e x
t o o l s c o n t a i n i n g b o t h l i ght a n d h e a v y s e c -
t i o n s . I f t h e r a t e o f h e a t i n g i s h i g h , l i ght
s e c t i o n s wi l l i n c r e a s e i n t e mp e r a t u r e mu c h
f a s t e r t h a n h e a v y s e c t i o n s L i k e wi s e , t h e
o u t e r s u r f a c e s i n h e a v y s e c t i o n s wi l l i n-
c r e a s e i n t e mp e r a t u r e mu c h f a s t e r t h a n t h e
i n t e r i o r . Di f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r ma l e x p a n s i o n
d u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e mp e r a t u r e b e -
t we e n l i ght a n d h e a v y s e c t i o n s o r b e t we e n
s u r f a c e a n d i n t e r i o r i n h e a v y s e c t i o n s wi l l
b e e n o u g h t o s e t u p l a r g e s t r e s s e s i n t h e
ma t e r i a l . Un d e r t h e s e s t r e s s e s , t h e h o t t e r
r e g i o n s wi l l d e f o r m p l a s t i c a l l y t o r e l i e v e t h e
t h e r ma l l y i n d u c e d s t r e s s
E v e n t u a l l y , t h e h o t t e r p o r t i o n s wi l l
r e a c h t h e f u r n a c e t e mp e r a t u r e , wh e r e a s
t h e c o o l e r p o r t i o n s wi l l c o n t i n u e t o i n-
c r e a s e i n t e mp e r a t u r e . At t h i s p o i n t , a
d e c r e a s e i n t h e r ma l d i f f e r e n t i a l b e g i n s ,
wh i c h wi l l c a u s e a p a r t i a l r e v e r s a l i n t h e r -
ma l s t r e s s t h a t p r o d u c e d p l a s t i c d e f o r ma -
t i o n wh e n t h e t e mp e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l wa s
h i g h . T h i s ma y c a u s e t h e p a r t t o u n d e r g o
f u r t h e r p l a s t i c d e f o r ma t i o n , b u t t o a l e s s e r
e x t e n t t h a n t h e d e f o r ma t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e
i ni t i al h i g h - t e mp e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l . S u c h
d e f o r ma t i o n wi l l o c c u r i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c -
t i o n .
S l o w h e a t i n g mi n i mi z e s d i s t o r t i o n b y
k e e p i n g t e mp e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l s l o w a n d
t h e r ma l s t r e s s e s wi t h i n t h e e l a s t i c r a n g e o f
t h e ma t e r i a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e h e a t i n g c y c l e .
I d e a l l y , al l h e a t t r e a t me n t o f t o o l s t e e l p a r t s
s h o u l d s t a r t f r o m a c o l d f u r n a c e t o p r o v i d e
t h e g r e a t e s t f r e e d o m f r o m s h a p e d i s t o r t i o n
d u r i n g h e a t i n g . S t a r t i n g f r o m a c o l d f u r n a c e
i s n e i t h e r v e r y p r a c t i c a l n o r e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t
u n l e s s h e a t t r e a t i n g i s b e i n g d o n e i n a v a c -
u u m f u r n a c e . Wh e n h e a t t r e a t i n g i n f u s e d
s a l t o r a n a t mo s p h e r e f u r n a c e , p r e h e a t i n g
t h e p a r t s a t o n e o r mo r e i n t e r me d i a t e t e m-
p e r a t u r e s p r i o r t o h e a t i n g t h e m t o t h e a u s -
t e n i t i z i n g t e mp e r a t u r e p r o v i d e s t h e b e s t
c o mp r o mi s e .
764 / He a t Treati ng of Tool Steels
Dur i ng quenchi ng, l arge t e mpe r a t ur e dif-
f er ences be t we e n sur f ace and i nt er i or , and
bet ween l i ght and he a vy s ect i ons can cause
s ever e shape di s t or t i on, be c a us e of t her mal
st r ess and mechani cal st r ess pr oduc e d by a
mar t ens i t i c t r ans f or mat i on. Thi s pr obl em is
mos t s ever e i f t he har denabi l i t y of t he st eel
is so l ow t hat a f ast cool i ng r at e is r equi r ed
t o obt ai n full har dnes s . I n such a si t uat i on,
es peci al l y when maki ng a l ar ge or compl ex
par t , i t may be bes t t o subst i t ut e a hi gh-
har denabi l i t y, ai r - har deni ng t ool st eel ,
whi ch r equi r es onl y a sl ow cool i ng r at e t o
ful l y har den. I t is wor t h not i ng t hat wat er
quenched st eel s wi l l gener al l y show l ar ge
di mens i onal changes af t er quenchi ng. How-
ever , be c a us e pl ai n car bon t ool st eel s such
as Wl and W2 ar e shal l ow har deni ng, t he
amount of move me nt in l arge cr os s sect i ons
may be l ess t han c ompa r a bl e t ool s made
f r om hi gher - har denabi l i t y gr ades .
Howe ve r , i f l ower - har denabi l i t y st eel s re-
qui ri ng l i qui d quenchi ng ar e used, f i xt ur i ng
and pr e s s ur e di e quenchi ng can hel p mi ni -
mi ze di s t or t i on. Long s ymmet r i cal par t s
shoul d be f i xt ur ed and shoul d be quenched
in t he ver t i cal pos i t i on wi t h ver t i cal agi t a-
t i on of t he quench medi ums .
S p e c i a l T e c h n i q u e s f o r
C o n t r o l l i n g S h a p e D i s t o r t i o n
Speci al quenchi ng pr oc e dur e s such as
mar t emper i ng and aus t emper i ng may al so
be usef ul f or cont r ol l i ng di s t or t i on in par t s
t hat have an a ppr opr i a t e conf i gur at i on and
have been made of mat er i al of appr opr i at e
har denabi l i t y. In mar t emper i ng, par t s ar e
quenched in hot mol t en sal t f ast enough t o
avoi d t r ans f or mat i on t o hi gh- t emper at ur e
t r ans f or mat i on pr oduc t s such as f er r i t e or
pear l i t e. The par t s ar e hel d at a bat h t em-
per at ur e in t he r ange f r om sl i ght l y a bove t o
sl i ght l y bel ow t he M s j us t l ong enough t o
equal i ze t he i nt er i or and sur f ace t emper a-
t ur es. The par t s ar e t hen r emoved f r om t he
bat h and al l owed t o ai r cool t o r oom t em-
per at ur e. Sl ow cool i ng t hr ough t he mar t en-
si t i c t r ans f or mat i on r ange r educes di st or -
t i on as c ompa r e d wi t h r api d quenchi ng.
Ma r t e mpe r e d t ool s mus t be gi ven t he usual
t emper i ng t r eat ment .
Aus t e mpe r i ng can be used t o r educe di s-
t or t i on i f a har dnes s no hi gher t han 57 HRC
is a c c e pt a bl e for t he appl i cat i on. In aus t em-
per i ng, par t s ar e al so quenched in hot mol -
t en sal t but by t e mpe r a t ur e sel ect i on ar e
f or ced t o t r ans f or m i nt o bai ni t e r at her t han
mar t ens i t e. Bai ni t e f or ms at t e mpe r a t ur e s
a bove t hose at whi ch mar t ens i t e f or ms. The
par t s mus t be hel d l ong enough at a t emper -
at ur e a bove M S ( usual l y about 230 C, or 450
F) t o per mi t t he aus t eni t e t o t r ans f or m t o
l ower bai ni t e. Whe n ai r cool ed t o r oom
t emper at ur e, a us t e mpe r e d t ool s exhi bi t l ess
shape di s t or t i on and gener al l y r equi r e no
s ubs equent t emper i ng.
Besi des bei ng r educed t hr ough cont r ol of
r at es of heat i ng and cool i ng, shape di st or -
t i on can be r educed by empl oyi ng a l ocal -
i zed met hod of heat i ng and quenchi ng such
as f l ame har deni ng, i nduct i on har deni ng,
el ect r on be a m or l aser har deni ng t o t r eat
onl y t hat por t i on of t he t ool t hat must be
har dened.
Controlling out-of-roundness i s i mp o r t a n t
f or cer t ai n pr eci si on appl i cat i ons, such as
cl ass C and D cut t i ng hobs made of high-
s peed st eel s. Cl ass C and D hobs must be
hel d cl ose t o si ze l i mi t s becaus e t hey ar e not
gr ound t o si ze af t er heat t r eat ment , but
r at her ar e used in t he ungr ound condi t i on.
Nor mal si ze di st or t i on in har deni ng and
t emper i ng can be a c c ommoda t e d by maki ng
t he t ool sl i ght l y over s i ze or sl i ght l y under -
si ze, as r equi r ed, bef or e heat t r eat i ng. Hi gh-
speed st eel bar s, however , have been ob-
ser ved t o go out - of - r ound as much as 0.05
mm (0.002 in. ) dur i ng heat t r eat ment . The
pat t er n of si ze di st or t i on shown in Fi g 2(a)
can occur . I t appear s t o be r el at ed t o t he
initial shape of t he cast i ngot and t o t he
speci fi c pr i mar y- mi l l pr ocessi ng used t o re-
duce t he i ngot i nt o bar s. By changi ng st eel -
maki ng, f or gi ngs, and rol l i ng pr ocedur es ,
out - of - r oundnes s has been r educed t o t he
smal l er di f f er ent i al pat t er n shown in Fi g
2(b), wher e t he di f f er ence bet ween high and
l ow poi nt s is onl y 0.005 mm (0.0002 i n. ).
Hi gh- s peed st eel bar s made t hi s way ar e
mar ket ed by a few t ool st eel pr oducer s as
"c l o s e t ol er ance hob s t o c k . " An even bet -
t er met hod of combat i ng out - of - r oundness
is t o use hi gh- speed t ool st eel bar s made
f r om hot i sost at i cal l y pr es s ed powder s ,
whi ch mai nt ai n t he best possi bl e s ymme t r y
dur i ng convent i onal heat t r eat ment ( see t he
di scussi on of powder met al l ur gy st eel s l at er
in t hi s art i cl e).
St abi l i z at i on i nvol ves r educi ng t he
amount of r et ai ned aust eni t e in heat - t r eat ed
mat er i al . Ret ai ned aust eni t e can sl owl y
t r ansf or m and pr oduce di st or t i on i f t he ma-
t er i al is l at er heat ed or subj ect ed to st r ess.
St abi l i zat i on al so r educes i nt er nal (resi dual )
st r ess, maki ng di st or t i on in ser vi ce l ess
l i kel y t o occur . St abi l i zat i on is most i mpor -
t ant f or t ool s t hat must r et ai n t hei r exact
si ze and shape over l ong per i ods (t hat is,
gages and bl ocks) .
I f t he t ool st eel chosen pr ovi des t he re-
qui r ed har dness af t er t emper i ng at a rel a-
t i vel y high t emper at ur e, it is possi bl e t o
r educe t he amount of r et ai ned aust eni t e and
t he i nt er nal st r ess by mul t i pl e t emper i ng.
Ini t i al t emper i ng r educes i nt er nal st r ess and
condi t i ons t he r et ai ned aust eni t e so t hat it
can t r ans f or m t o mar t ensi t e on cool i ng f r om
t he t emper i ng t emper at ur e. A second or
t hi r d r et emper i ng is usual l y neces s ar y t o
r educe t he i nt er nal st r ess set up by t he
t r ans f or mat i on of r et ai ned aust eni t e.
Si ngl e or r epeat ed col d t r eat ment t o a
t emper at ur e bel ow Mf will cause most of
t he r et ai ned aust eni t e t o t r ansf or m t o mar-
( a) C o ~ o n s l pr ocms
0.11Q5 me
(b) , ~ i s l process
Typi cal d i a me t e r changes d u r i n g heat treat-
Fig 2 mer i t f o r hi gh- s peed st eel bars. Dr awi ngs pr o-
d u c e d by c al c ul at i on f r o m pr ec i s i on measur ement s o f
di amet er . Char t s ar e pl ot s o n p o l a r c oor di nat es de-
pi c t i ng var i at i ons i n d i a me t e r after heat treatment for
a bar that was r o u n d wi t h i n -+1.25 p,m (-+0.00005 i n. )
before heat t r eat ment .
t ensi t e in pl ai n car bon or l ow- al l oy t ool
st eel s t hat must be t e mpe r e d at l ow t emper -
at ur es t o achi eve t he har dness r equi r ed.
Col d t r eat ment may be appl i ed ei t her bef or e
or af t er t he fi rst t emper . If, however , t he
t ool s t end t o c r a c k becaus e of t he addi t i onal
st r ess i nduced by di mens i onal expans i on
dur i ng col d t r eat ment , it is gener al l y pr u-
dent t o appl y col d t r eat ment af t er fi rst t em-
per i ng of t he t ool s. When col d t r eat ment is
appl i ed af t er t he fi rst t emper , t he amount of
r et ai ned aus t eni t e t hat t r ansf or ms dur i ng
t he col d t r eat ment ma y be cons i der abl y l ess
t han des i r ed be c a us e s ome of t he aust eni t e
may have been st abi l i zed by t emper i ng pri -
or t o col d t r eat i ng. Col d t r eat ment is usual l y
done in a commer ci al r ef r i ger at i on uni t ca-
pabl e of at t ai ni ng - 7 0 t o - 95 C ( - 100 t o
- 1 4 0 F). Tool s must be r et emper ed
pr ompt l y af t er r et ur n t o r oom t emper at ur e
f ol l owi ng col d t r e a t me nt t o r educe i nt er nal
st r ess and t o i ncr eas e t he t oughness of t he
newl y f or med mar t ens i t e.
Fo r some t ool s , a smal l per cent age of
r et ai ned aus t eni t e is des i r abl e f or i mpr ovi ng
t oughnes s and pr ovi di ng a f avor abl e i nt er -
nal st r ess pat t er n t hat wi l l hel p t he t ool t o
wi t hst and s er vi ce s t r es s es . Fo r t hese t ool s,
a full st abi l i zi ng t r eat ment may act ual l y
Cont r ol of Di st ort i on in Tool Steels / 765
result in tools that are unfit to perform their
required functions.
Temper Straightening of Martempered
Tool Steels. Temper straightening is used for
correcting distortion caused by heat treat-
ment. The workpiece first is tempered to a
hardness somewhat higher than required,
and then clamped in a straightening fixture
and tempered to the required hardness. The
greater the hardness difference between the
first and the corrective tempering opera-
tions, the more accurate the dimensions will
be. Temper straightening is most successful
at hardness levels of 55 HRC and lower.
Deep-hardening alloy and tool steels that
are being martempered to minimize distor-
tion should be held straight during the cool-
ing period after austenitizing and until the
completion of martempering. If straightness
is not maintained throughout martempering,
the workpiece will warp as martensite con-
tinues to form. Straightening should be
done below 480 C (900 F). Cold bars or
chills contacting the high side will more
rapidly extract the heat from the workpiece
and aid in straightening.
Ot her Consi derat i ons. One of the most
common instances of dimensional change in
steel articles is the warpage that occurs
during the heating operation and that is
often mistaken for a dimensional change
occurring in the quench. It will be noted
that on heating, a relatively large expansion
takes place, and that at the transformation
temperature, a slight contraction occurs.
Because this contraction occurs when the
steel is hot and very plastic, it is not likely
to lead to cracking. However, the continu-
ous expansion on heating will cause heavy
obj ects or long slim obj ects to warp if not
properly supported, if the rate of heating is
too great or if nonuniform heating occurs. It
is necessary to emphasize the importance of
proper support for any article to be heated
to a high temperature, because at this tem-
perature the lack of strength will often allow
the steel to bend under its own weight.
Warpage and dimensional changes can also
arise on heating from machining stresses
and from unbalanced design. Slow rates of
heating offer less danger of either occurring
than fast rates of heating because at any one
time the temperature gradients throughout
the steels are less.
Excessively high austenitizing tempera-
tures in tool steels will lead to excessive
grain growth and a more stabilized austen-
ite. This overheated condition along with
the larger thermal gradients experienced
during heating and quenching will result in
irregular dimensional changes.
Another factor that will influence shape
distortion is surface chemistry variation.
For example, when lower or higher carbon
concentrations exist, as in decarburization
or carburization, the surface transformation
temperature will be changed. The difference
between the surface and the subsurface
transformation will set up compressive or
tensile stresses that can cause distortion
and/or cracking. Elimination of surface mill
decarburization or carburization by machin-
ing or grinding prior to heat treatment are
recommended to eliminate such effects.
Shape change caused by mechanical
thermal stresses prior to heat treatment
can be addressed by stress relieving, Me-
chanical sources such as forming, grind-
ing, or machining can set up nonuniform
residual stresses. Brazing, welding, and
torch heating can cause thermal residual
stresses. These residual stresses remain in
the component until thermally relieved. As
the component is heated, the steel will
yield plastically at the point where the hot
yield strength and residual stress level
coincide. The creep deformation occurs
simultaneously with any stress relaxation.
Localized mechanical stresses such as
stamped identification marks, machining
marks, sharp corners, and changes in sec-
tion size will have a significant influence
on the degree and location of the shape
distortion. A separate stress-relieving cy-
cle by heating to approximately 650 C
(1200 F) and air cooling allows the control
of mechanically or thermally induced re-
sidual stress.
Upon cooling from the stress relief, the
part may be distorted, but can be easily
corrected in the annealed condition with
an additional operation of straightening,
machining, or grinding. In many situations
where extensive machining is required, a
good practice is to rough machine, stress
relieve, and then finish machine or grind
using light passes. Annealing in place of
stress relieving is acceptable and preferred
if considerable welding has been per-
formed.
Preheating as the initial phase of harden-
ing will provide a stress-relieving effect.
However, distortion will manifest itself and
if allowed to exist through the hardening
operation, the effect of stress relieving will
be lost because straightening of a hardened
part is very difficult to accomplish.
Fundamentals such as the technique of
placing the tools in a high heat furnace as
well as racking and handling methods must
be considered as potential causes of shape
distortion. Uniform support of parts in a
furnace is important to prevent sagging,
particularly at high heat temperatures for
long, slender sections. Large parts must be
raised off the hearth plate to ensure satis-
factory heat circulation and more even heat-
ing and cooling. Because tool steel is auste-
nitic when it is removed from the high heat
furnace, care must be exercised in transfer-
ring the load. Preferably, the parts should
be placed on trays that can be grasped to
remove the load. If the individual part must
be handled with tongs, avoid holding it at
the thinner sections, which will lose heat
rapidly and might bend more easily.
P o w d e r M e t a l l u r g y S t e e l s
In recent years, tool steels with improved
properties have been produced by the pow-
der metallurgy (P/M) process.
The basic production routes now in com-
mercial use for P/M tool steels are summa-
rized in Fig 3. All these processes use gas-
or water-atomized powders and either hot
isostatic pressing (HIP), mechanical com-
paction (extrusion, forging, and so on), or
vacuum sintering for densification. The ba-
sic difference among these processes is that
the use of gas atomization will yield spher-
ical particles, while water atomization will
produce angular particles of significantly
higher oxygen content. The angular parti-
cles can be cold pressed to provide a com-
pact that has sufficient mechanical strength
to be handled and processed directly, while
the spherical gas-atomized powder must be
encapsulated prior to densification. The
most widely used of the aforementioned
production practices utilize gas atomization
and HIP.
P/M tool steels have two maj or advantag-
es: complete freedom from macrosegrega-
tion and porosity, and uniform distribution
of extremely fine carbides. These character-
istics provide deeper hardening and faster
response to hardening conditions (see Fig
4). The latter is important, particularly for
molybdenum high-speed steels, which tend
to decarburize rapidly at austenitizing tem-
peratures. P/M products also show less out-
of-roundness distortion in large-diameter
bars (see Table 4).
When sulfur is added to P/M tool steels,
they exhibit a very fine homogeneous dis-
tribution of sulfides. This uniform sulfide
distribution promotes better machinability.
After heat treating, the refined, hardened,
and tempered P/M tool steels exhibit better
grindability and greater toughness than con-
ventionally processed (cast and wrought)
tool steels. As of 1990, more than 30 differ-
ent P/M tool steel compositions were com-
mercially available. Many of these corre-
spond directly to AISI wrought
counterparts. More detailed information on
processing and properties of P/M tool steels
can be found on pages 780 to 792 of Volume
1 of the 10th Edition of Metals Handbook.
M a r a g i n g S t e e l s
A group of alloys known as 18% Ni
maraging steels are commonly used for tool-
ing. These maraging steels are chosen for a
variety of reasons, not the least of which is
their freedom from distortion associated
with the austenite to martensite transforma-
tion. Maraging steels are supplied by pro-
ducers in a soft martensitic condition, ap-
proximately 28 to 35 HRC, referred to as
the solution treated or solution annealed
condition. In this solution treated condition,
the alloy can be formed, machined, and
7 6 6 / H e a t T r e a t i n g o f T o o l S t e e l s
I
I Water atomize
I
I Angular powder ]
I
I
Vacuum sinter
I
I
I
I
I
I
Powder ]
sintering
process
m
Hot forge
I
I
I
Powder forging
process
i
I
i i H o t e x t r u 0 e
I
I
I
I Po wd e r
extrusion
Fig 3 Current manufacturing processes f or P/M t ool
convent i onal l y fabri cat ed. The full hardness
of t he alloy is achi eved by a simple aging
t reat ment , usual l y 3 t o 6 h at appr oxi mat el y
480 C (900 F) fol l owed by air cool i ng. This
aging or preci pi t at i on hardeni ng t r eat ment
is not accompani ed by an aust eni t e/ mar-
tensite phase change and t herefore is not
pr one t o t he di st ort i on pr omi nent with ot her
t ool steels. A uni form predi ct abl e shri nkage
does occur in t he amount of appr oxi mat el y
0.025 mm/25 mm (0.001 in./in.). Because t he
devel opment of har dness is essent i al l y inde-
pendent of t he cool i ng rat e f r om t he aging
t emperat ure, full t hr ough har dness can be
achi eved even in massi ve sect i ons with onl y
T a b l e 4 O u t - o f - r o u n d n e s s d i s t o r t i o n i n
l a r g e - d i a m e t e r b a r s o f M 2 S t o o l s t e e l
Typical
Bar di ameter out-of-roundness(a)
Production
mm in. method mm in.
75 3 P/ M 0.008 0.0003
Convent i onal 0.020 0.0008
125 5 P/ M 0.013 0.0005
Convent i onal 0.033 0.0013
190 7.5 P/ M 0.015 0.0006
Convent i onal 0.051 0.0020
(a) Maximum diameter minus minimum diameter after normal
hardening treatment
68
~ 6 7 P/M bar, 125 mm diam
Gas atomize ~ t i o n a l
I I ' Conventional "
bar, 19 mm diam
I spherical pwder I bar" 125 7m diam
I
I
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time at austenitizing temperature, min
Comparison of response t o hardening for P/M
Fig 4 and conventionally produced bars of M25
(HC) t ool steel. Hardness at midradius was evaluated
f or bars oi l quenched from 1200 C (2200 F) and
tempered 2 + 2 + 2 h at 550 C (1025 F).
I I " t r ' ' I
Modified
HIP
process
Direct I
HIP
process
steels. Source: Metals Handbook, Volume 1, 10th Edition
minimal shrinkage and essentially no distor-
tion.
Decarburi zat i on, anot her cause of stress
and distortion in convent i onal t ool steels, is
not a f act or with 18Ni maraging steels be-
cause t hey cont ai n onl y low residual car bon
levels (less t han 0.025%).
Several maragi ng steels are available and
provi de a wide vari et y of hardness or
strength levels (Table 5). The 18Ni marag-
ing steels are al l oyed t o obtain a specific
hardness level and are given a st andard
T a b l e 5 T y p i c a l h a r d e n i n g ( a g i n g )
t r e a t m e n t s a n d r e s u l t a n t h a r d n e s s e s f o r
m a r a g i n g s t e e l s
Aging Nominal
treatment(a) hardness,
Grade *C *F I-/RC
18Ni C (200) 480 (900)(b) 44
18Ni T (200) 480 (900)(b) 44
18Ni C (250) 480 (900)(b) 50
18Ni T (250) 480 (900)(b) 50
18Ni C (300) 480 (900)(b) 53
18Ni T (300) 480 (900)(b) 53
18Ni C (350) 480 (900)(b) 58
(a) 3 to 6 h + 1 h per additional in. (25 mm) of cross section.
(b) Aging treatment of 530 C (990 F) is recommended for
aluminum die casting dies which result in hardness values slightly
lower ( - 2 HRC) than indicated.
aging t reat ment . Choi ce of a specific grade
will di ct at e t hat hardness. It is typically not
r ecommended t o under- or overage the al-
l oy because some degradat i on of properties
can occur . The syst em f or identification of
t he vari ous maragi ng grades i ncorporat es a
t hree digit number and a letter (C or T)
desi gnat i ng t he appr oxi mat e tensile strength
(in ksi) and t he principal al l oy st rengt hener
(cobal t or titanium), respect i vel y. For ex-
ampl e, 18Ni C (250) is an 18% Ni maraging
steel al l oyed with cobal t t hat has a tensile
st rengt h of - 2 5 0 ksi ( - 1720 MPa). More
detailed i nformat i on on t hese alloys can be
f ound in the article "He a t Treat i ng of Ma-
raging St eel s" in this Vol ume.
S E L E C T E D R E F E R E N C E S
P. D. Har vey, Ed. , Heat Treatment of
Tool Steels, Metals Engi neeri ng Institute,
Amer i can Soci et y f or Metals, 1981
G. Hoyl e, High Speed Steels, Butter-
wor t hs, 1988
G. Kr auss and H. Nor dber g, Ed. , Tool
Materials f or Molds and Dies, Col orado
School of Mines Press, 1987
B. S. Lement , Distortion in Tool Steels,
Amer i can Soci et y f or Met al s, 1959
Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels,
and High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1,
10th ed. , Metals Handbook, ASM Inter-
nat i onal , 1990
F. R. Pal mer et al., Tool Steel Simplified,
Chi l t on Book Company, 1978
P. Pays on, The Metallurgy of Tool Steels,
John Wi l ey & Sons, 1962
G. A. Rober t s and R. A. Car y, Tool Steels,
Amer i can Soci et y f or Met al s, 1980
M. G. H. Wells and L. W. Lherbi er, Ed. ,
Processing and Properties of High Speed
Tool Steels, TMS- AI ME, 1980
R. Wi l son, Metallurgy and Heat-Treat-
ment of Tool Steels, McGraw-Hi l l , 1975