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Chemistry:
Chemical Monitoring &
Management
1 Monitoring and Managing Reaction Conditions
1.1 Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying the
branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining the chemical principle that the
chemist uses:
Robert Evans:
Robert Evans is an environmental chemist.
He is employed by Orica Ltd, and works at Botany Industrial Park, Sydney.
Role:
The management of disposal of contaminated wastes (such as neutralising strongly acidic or
basic wastes, or incinerating toxic wastes)
Investigating reports of contamination in soil or groundwater, determining the source of
contamination, and then correcting the damage.
Chemistry:
Chemical principles needed for this role include:
o Understanding acid/base reactions (neutralising wastes)
o Knowing valid chemical sampling techniques
o Various techniques of chemical analysis of samples, including gravimetric and
volumetric analysis, as well as AAS (atomic absorption spectroscopy)

1.2 Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data:
Chemists tend to specialise within a particular branch
In real-life situations, many chemical problems require expertise and in depth knowledge
from a wide range of chemical branches
Hence, collaboration between chemists is essential for solving chemical issues, as the
chemists provide input and expertise from their own particular field, for a common goal

1.3 Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form
different products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring:
Combustion:
o Chemical reactions can form different products under different conditions.
o Take, for example, the combustion of a simple hydrocarbon, propane.
o In an environment with adequate amounts of oxygen, propane combusts completely,
forming only carbon dioxide and water:
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propane + oxygen

carbon dioxide + water
C
3
H
8 (g)
+ 5O
2 (g)
3CO
2 (g)
+ 4H
2
O
(g)

o In an environment with insufficient oxygen, propane combusts incompletely, and can
form a range of different products, such as carbon (soot), carbon monoxide, and
water.
propane + oxygen carbon + carbon monoxide + water
C
3
H
8 (g)
+ 3O
2 (g)
C
(s)
+ 2CO
(g)
+ 4H
2
O
(g)

Monitoring:
o Hence, under different conditions, chemical reactions can proceed in different ways,
as seen by the combustion reaction above.
o However, in certain situations (such as in car engines), only one reaction is desired.
Thus, the reaction conditions must be monitored to ensure that only (or mostly) the
wanted reaction occurs.
o Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas and can affect human health negatively. Carbon
(soot) is carcinogenic (causes cancer) to humans and can be irritating to the lungs.
Both of these alternative products can also signal a decrease in fuel efficiency and
result in a reduced energy yield from the fuel.

1.4 Gather, process, and present information from secondary sources about the work of
practising scientists identifying; the variety of chemical occupations & a specific chemical
occupation for more detailed study:
The Variety of Chemical Occupations:
The large range of jobs available in the chemical industry includes:
o Analytical chemistry, Bio-molecular chemistry, Colloid and surface science chemistry,
Environmental chemistry, Industrial chemistry, Inorganic chemistry,
Electrochemistry, Organic chemistry, Physical chemistry, Polymer chemistry.
A Specific Chemical Occupation:
A summary of the job of an environmental chemist:
o Job includes reviewing operation of effluent water treatment systems and ensuring
compliance with government environmental regulations.
o Assessing levels of potential contamination in wastes (e.g. soil) intended for landfill
disposal and classifying them in accordance with government guidelines.
o Managing disposal of contaminated wastes.
o Investigating reports of contamination in soil or groundwater to determine source
and then arranging to correct it.


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2 Monitoring and Management to Maximise Production
2.1 Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia:
Ammonia (NH
3
) is industrial used as solid and liquid fertilisers, household cleaners,
explosives and some pharmaceuticals.
Fertilisers: through a reaction with sulfuric acid or nitric acid to form ammonium sulfate
fertiliser or ammonium nitrate fertiliser.
Household cleaners: ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide) kills bacteria

2.2 Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen and
hydrogen:
The synthesis of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen (the Haber process):
o N
2(g)
+ 3H
2(g)
2NH
3(g)


2.3 Describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach
equilibrium:
The synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction; i.e. ammonia is formed from
nitrogen and hydrogen (the forward reaction) and once some ammonia is produced, some
nitrogen and hydrogen are formed from the ammonia (the reverse reaction).
When nitrogen and hydrogen are initially added to a reaction vessel, the reaction is slow.
Equilibrium is reached when the rate of the forward reaction is the same as the rate of the
reverse reaction.

2.4 Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic:
N
2 (g)
+ 3H
2 (g)
2NH
3 (g)
H = 92 kJ
From the equation we can see that H is negative; hence, the reaction is exothermic.

2.5 Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures:
As temperature is increased, energy is delivered into the reaction as thermal energy. This
thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy, and particles begin to move faster. This
causes more collisions between particles, and hence more reactions occur.
Also, if the temperature is higher, there is more chance that colliding particles will have the
necessary activation energy for the reaction to take place.

2.6 Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher temperatures
using Le Chateliers principle:
The forward reaction in which ammonia is formed is exothermic (heat produced)
Le Chatelier's principle states that if a system in equilibrium is disturbed, the system will
adjust itself to minimise the disturbance.
In this case, Le Chatelier's principle indicates that with high temperature providing more
heat, the reverse reaction is favoured and the decomposition of ammonia occurs, thus
decreasing the yield of ammonia.


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2.7 Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction
energy, reaction rate and equilibrium:
In order for the Haber process to be economically viable, we need to consider yield of
products, rate of reaction, as well as costs.
Hence, a compromise (balancing act) of all the above must be made:
o Temperature: Higher temperatures will produce ammonia faster, but lower
temperatures will produce more ammonia. Hence a moderate temperature of about
400-500
o
C is used, together with the iron/iron-oxide catalyst.
o Pressure: Increased pressure will produce more ammonia, also faster, but it will be
expensive to build and maintain high-pressure equipment. The benefits of high
pressure outweigh the costs, and so a pressure of 250-350 atmospheres is used.

2.8 Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and identify
the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process:
With the use of catalyst, the activation energy for the reaction is reduced.
A finely ground iron oxide (magnetite; Fe
3
O
4
) catalyst, with large surface area, is used in the
Haber process.
By lowering the activation energy, a catalyst enables a more rapid reaction at lower
temperatures.

2.9 Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process:
N
2 (g)
+ 3H
2 (g)
2NH
3 (g)

According to Le Chateliers principle, increasing the pressure will favour the side that will
reduce the pressure (i.e. has LESS moles of gas):
o In this reaction, there are less moles of gas on the product side (gas ratio is 4:2) and
hence increasing the pressure will favour the production of ammonia.
o In addition, higher pressures also increase the reaction rate because the gas
molecules are closer and at higher concentrations.

2.10 Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial and
discuss the monitoring required:
Monitoring is needed to maintain optimum conditions for optimum yield (around 30%) with
the least possible waste.
The raw materials must be monitored to ensure they are clean.
Monitoring the reaction vessel to ensure that the appropriate temperature and pressure
conditions are maintained.
The quality of the catalyst surface needs to be monitored to ensure good adsorption of the
nitrogen and hydrogen gases.
The system must be kept free of contaminants to ensure maximum surface of the catalyst is
available for adsorption of nitrogen and hydrogen.


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2.11 Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions under
which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its significance at that
time in world history:
The development of the industrial synthesis of ammonia:
o Fritz Haber:
Haber succeeded in making small amounts of ammonia from hydrogen and
atmospheric nitrogen in the laboratory.
He discovered a catalyst for the reaction and worked out the conditions of
temperature and pressure that allowed a reasonable yield.
o Carl Bosch:
Bosch developed the process to an industrial scale, including inventing the
necessary high pressure technology that would enable the process to be
carried out on a large scale.
The conditions used by Haber and Bosch to allow the production of commercial quantities of
ammonia:
o Nitrogen and hydrogen used in ratio of 1:3
o 250-350 atmospheres pressure
o about 450
o
C temperature
o catalyst of finely divided iron or iron oxide
o ammonia liquefied and removed as it is produced
The significance of the industrial synthesis of ammonia:
o Before the invention of the industrial Haber process in 1913, the global source of
nitrates (for fertilisers and explosives) came from saltpetre (bird poo/guano) from
Chile.
o During WWI, Germanys supplies of nitrogen compounds were cut off by the British;
this threatened to cause widespread starvation, as well as cause Germany to rapidly
lose the war (they relied on saltpetre to make explosives).
o Historians believe that Germany would have run out of nitrates by 1916 if it had not
developed the Haber process. On the other hand, the Allies had to rely on Chilean
nitrates, which became more expensive as the war progressed.
o However, with the invention of the Haber process, Germany (and later the rest of the
world) had a cheap source of nitrates from elemental nitrogen and hydrogen.
o Thus, the Haber-Bosch process had a significant impact on the course of history
during the early 20
th
century as it allowed Germany to continue the war for much
longer than otherwise would have been possible.


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3 Analysing Manufactured Products
3.1 Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests:
We use precipitation reactions to identify ions in solution:
Cation identification:


Anion identification:


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3.2 Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), in detecting concentrations of
metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the effects of trace
elements:


Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a method of quantitatively determining the
concentrations of metal ions in solutions; it is extremely sensitive, usually measures in ppm.
How it works:
The flame containing the vapourised sample absorbs light at the particular wavelengths
characteristic of the element in the flame and re-emits it in all directions.
A detector records the intensity of light emerging from the flame.
The intensity of light detected drops sharply at the wavelengths of light absorbed by the
elements in the flame, thus producing an absorption spectrum.
The relative intensity and pattern of changes of intensity within each of the bands in the
absorption spectrum indicate the concentration of the element in the test sample
Impact on scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements:
Trace elements are elements that are needed in minute amounts by living things - for the
proper growth, development, and physiology of organisms.
The presence of these elements were often unnoticed, and the causes of diseases relating to
trace-element deficiency (such as goitre; iodine deficiency) were unknown.
AAS enabled the measurement of the concentrations of many elements in organisms,
showing that not only that there were trace amounts of elements in all organisms, but that
these were also essential for their well-being.
Hence, AAS had a great impact on the understanding of trace elements.


Cathod
e
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3.3 Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the need to
monitor levels of specific ions in substances used in society:
Summary of information gathered
Identify the ion chosen Lead
Why the ion needs to
be monitored
Lead is a toxic, heavy metal and a neurotoxin
Can cause damage to all organisms in the body, especially the brain,
kidneys and reproductive system. It disrupts enzyme systems and
causes anaemia as it inhibits the formation of red blood cells.
Causes brain damage and retards intellectual development in young
children.
Lead bioaccumulates and is difficult to eliminate
Bioaccumulation occurs along the food chain so levels can build up in
animals at the end of chains, i.e. humans
How the ion is
monitored
Lead is readily detected and its concentration is measured by AAS
Substances monitored
for this ion
atmosphere
waters
food
human tissues
soil
Sources of the ion in
these substances
Mining and refining of ores containing lead (i.e. copper smelters)
Paints containing lead released as it deteriorates or is sanded or
burnt
Lead glazing of pottery
Corrosion of plumbing materials containing lead
Car batteries
Burning of rubbish
Incidents involving this
metal
Higher concentrations of lead in the atmosphere along major roads, when
lead was allowed in petrol, and around mining towns and copper
smelting, caused lead poisoning. Children with higher than normal lead
concentrations in blood after eating flaking paint in their homes.


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4 Human Activity and the Atmosphere
4.1 Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere:
The atmosphere is predominantly composed of nitrogen (78% by volume), oxygen (21%),
and argon (0.93%), with the other gases in very small concentrations.


4.2 Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources:
Pollutant Main Sources
Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion in stoves, cars, fires and cigarettes
Nitrogen oxides Combustion at high temperatures in vehicles and power stations
Volatile organic compounds;
such as hydrocarbons
Unburnt fuel, solvents and paints
Sulfur dioxide Some metal extraction processes and the burning of fossil fuels
Lead Leaded fuels, metal extraction, renovating old houses containing
leaded paints
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) Combustion of fossil fuels in motor vehicles and electricity production
Particulates (soot, asbestos,
etc.)
Incomplete combustion, earthmoving dust storms and some
agricultural and industrial practices

4.3 Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield
and a lower atmosphere pollutant:
The ozone molecules in the stratosphere (upper atmosphere) form a very thin layer that
protects us from harmful UV radiation.
In contrast, the ozone in the troposphere (lower atmosphere) is a pollutant, even at the very
low concentrations compared with the other gases. Ozone is a very reactive molecule
capable of oxidising many substances.


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4.4 Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond:
Non-metallic compounds contain covalent bonds. A covalent bond is a shared pair of
electrons that keeps two atoms together.
A coordinate covalent bond forms when one atom in a species (a molecule or ion containing
non-metallic atoms) provides both electrons in the covalent bond.

4.5 Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot
structures:
Ions, such as the hydronium H
3
O
+
and the ammonium NH
4
+
, contain a coordinate covalent
bond.
In the formation of the hydronium ion, one of the non-bonding electron pairs on the oxygen
atom is used to form a covalent bond between the hydrogen ion H
+
(which has no electrons)
and the oxygen atom.
Formation of a coordinate covalent bond in the hydronium ion:

Formation of a coordinate covalent bond in the ammonium ion:



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4.6 Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O
2
and O
3
and account for them on the
basis of molecular structure and bonding:
An allotrope is a different physical form of the same element; e.g. O
2
and O
3
are allotropes
of oxygen.

Property O
2
(oxygen gas) O
3
(ozone) Explanation
State and
colour
Colourless gas Pale blue gas -
Odour Odourless Sharp, pungent odour -
Boiling point 183
o
C 110
o
C The boiling point of diatomic oxygen is
lower than that of the ozone as diatomic
oxygen has a lower molecular mass
requiring less energy in the boiling process.
Reactivity Moderately reactive.
Decomposed by high
energy UV light.
Highly reactive.
Decomposed by
medium energy UV
light.
To decompose oxygen, its double bond has
to be broken; this requires considerable
amounts of energy. However, the single
bond (coordinate covalent bond) in ozone
requires much less energy to be broken, and
hence ozone is much less stable (readily
decomposes to O
2
).

Oxidation
ability
Moderately strong
oxidising agent
Very strong oxidising
agent.
The oxidising strength of ozone comes from
the weakness of the single bond; it easily
releases an oxygen atom which can then
oxidise a compound.
Solubility in
water
Slightly soluble 15 times more soluble
than oxygen
Non-polar O
2
does not form strong
intermolecular forces in the polar water.
Ozone has a bent structure, which provides
for some polarity of the molecule in its
interaction with water.
Structure
and bonding
Diatomic molecule;
two oxygen atoms
held together with a
covalent double
bond.
Three oxygen atoms
held together with 1
double covalent bond
and 1 single
coordinate covalent
bond
-
Shape Molecule is linear
shape. Thus, non-
polar.
Molecular shape is
bent polar molecule
-


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4.7 Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical:
A free radical is a reactive particle that contains one or more unpaired electrons in its outer
shell.
E.g: The oxygen free radical:
o O
2


2O
o The oxygen free radical has two pairs of electrons, as well as two unpaired electrons
(see diagrams); these unpaired electrons are highly reactive.



O
2
, O
3
and the oxygen free radical (O) are all forms of the element oxygen, but the free
radical is much more reactive and the most toxic.
In order of reactivity, the diatomic oxygen molecule is less reactive than the ozone molecule,
which is less reactive than the oxygen free radical.

4.8 Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere:
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) are halogenated alkanes with all hydrogens substituted with
chlorine and fluorine atoms
o CFCs were very widely used as:
Refrigerants/coolants in fridges and air-conditioners
Propellants in aerosol spray cans
Foaming agents in the manufacture of foam plastics like polystyrene
Cleaning agents in electronic circuitry
Solvents in dry cleaning
o These many uses released CFCs directly into the lower atmosphere.
Halons are halogenated alkanes with hydrogens substituted with bromine in addition to
chlorine and fluorine atoms
o They are dense, non-flammable liquids that were widely used as effective fire-
extinguishersbecause of their excellent fire retardant properties.
o As they were used onto fires, the halons were released directly into the atmosphere
Because both halons and CFCs are so inert, they remain in the atmosphere unchanged for
many years

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4.9 Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of haloalkanes
up to eight carbon atoms:
A haloalkane is an alkane with one or more halogen (elements in group 7) atoms replacing
hydrogen atoms.
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
(arrangements of atoms).
The longer the carbon chain, the more possible isomers there will be.



4.10 Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of steps
taken to alleviate these problems:
The biggest problem associated with the use of CFCs is the depletion of the ozone layer and
enhancing the greenhouse effect
Depletion of the ozone layer:
CFCs are very inert, and are not washed out by rain.
CFCs remain in the troposphere for many years, because they are very stable, and eventually
diffuse into the stratosphere.
o CFCs are broken down by the presence of UV radiation in the atmosphere (photo
dissociation), releasing halogen free radicals.
o These free radicals can then react with ozone, destroying it.
This increases the UV radiation penetrating the Earth, leading to:
o increases in sunburn and skin cancer
o damage to plants and decreases in crop productivity
o the breaking down of chemical bonds, in particular in biological polymers like DNA
and proteins, causing considerable damage to living systems
The greenhouse effect:
The greenhouse effect is the heating of the Earth as a consequence of some gases in the
atmosphere which absorb and emit infrared radiation. Without these gases, heat would
escape and Earths average temperature would be much colder.
Gases that warm the Earth (such as CFCs) are greenhouse gases.
There are worries that all of the extra greenhouse gases being generated because of human
activities might increase the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming.

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Dealing with the CFC problem:
The only way to stop ozone depletion is to STOP releasing CFCs of any form.
International agreements based on the common goal of phasing out CFCs are being used.
o The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) - ceasing
the manufacture and banning the use of CFCs
CFC Replacements - Finding alternative compounds to fulfil the roles of CFCs is a major step
forward in preventing ozone depletion.
o Alternatives include; replacing CFC aerosols propellants with hydrocarbons and the
use of normal pressure packs
Effectiveness of These Solutions:
The Montreal Protocol is only effective if member nations adhere to its regulations; so far,
the Montreal Protocol has been a huge success in international agreement and
environmental health.
Certain CFC replacements are not as effective as the CFCs themselves; future technological
advancement hopes to find better replacements.
There are still, however, significant levels of CFCs in the atmosphere, and current technology
has no way of removing them.

4.11 Analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone
concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this information was obtained:
How Are Ozone Levels Measured?
o Stratospheric ozone levels are measured by spectrophotometers in ground-based
instruments, instruments in satellites and instruments in weather-balloons.
o The measurements made indicate that changes in ozone levels have occurred.
The Changes Observed:
o Measurements of the total amount of ozone in a column of atmosphere have been
recorded since 1957.
o The main depletion of ozone has occurred over the Antarctic.
o Scientists identified that a dramatic decline in springtime ozone occurred from the
late 1970s over the entire Antarctic. The decline reached approximately 30% by
1985. In some places, the ozone layer had been completely destroyed.
o The ozone decline over Antarctica during springtime is now not so dramatic, but
often exceeds 50%.


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4.12 Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show the reactions
involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from the atmosphere:
CFCs can undergo photodissociation (reactions using the energy of light to break bonds) to form
reactive chlorine atom radicals (Cl). The chlorine atom radical then rapidly reacts with an ozone
molecule to produce the chlorine oxide molecule, ClO. The chlorine oxide molecule can react with a
free oxygen atom (which could have formed O
3
by reaction with O
2
) regenerating a Cl atom.
Formation of chlorine radical:
o CCl
2
F
2 (g)
+ UV radiation Cl
(g)
+ CClF
2 (g)

Reaction of ozone:
o Cl
(g)
+ O
3 (g)
ClO
(g)
+ O
2 (g)

Regeneration of chlorine:
o ClO
(g)
+ O
(g)
Cl
(g)
+ O
2 (g)


4.13 Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to
replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement for CFCs:
Ammonia:
o Large scale (industrial) refrigeration has reverted back to using ammonia as a
refrigerant, as was done prior to the discovery of CFCs.
o Effectiveness:
Ammonia is an environmentally friendlier alternative to CFCs, but great care
must be exercised, as ammonia is dangerous and toxic.
HCFCs:
o Hydro chlorofluorocarbons are CFCs that contain hydrogen.
o HCFCs replaced CFCs in domestic refrigeration, as propellants in spray cans, as an
industrial solvent and as a foaming agent.
o Effectiveness:
Smaller amounts of HCFCs do reach the stratosphere, and hence they are also
ozone-depleting (10% the ozone-depleting potential of CFCs).
They are seen as only a temporary solution.
HCFCs also contribute massively to the greenhouse effect, and so their use is
being phased out.
HFCs:
o Hydro fluorocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen and fluorine
(no chlorine or bromine).
o HFCs are very widely used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
o Effectiveness:
As they have zero ozone-depleting potential, HFCs are a good alternative to
using CFCs in terms of atmospheric health.
However, they are not as effective refrigerants as CFCs, and are slightly more
expensive.
They are also strong greenhouse gases, and so further research is required.

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5 Monitoring and Management in Water
5.1 Identify that water quality can be determined by considering; concentrations of common
ions, total dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity, acidity, dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen
demand:
Water quality can be determined by considering the following factors:
Concentrations of common ions:
Some ions are essential to aquatic life, and can greatly affect the water quality
Total dissolved solids (TDS):
High concentrations are usually uninhabitable for many species
Hardness:
Hard water can help prevent metals leaching from old pipes into the water supply, but can
also block the flow of water from build up of scum
Turbidity:
High turbidity reduces the penetration of sunlight, reducing the effectiveness of aquatic
plants photosynthesis
Acidity:
Drinking water should have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5
Dissolved oxygen:
Low oxygen levels in water can lead to the death of aquatic organisms
Biochemical oxygen demand:
High BODs indicate significant levels of organic pollution

5.2 Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural
bodies of water such as rivers and oceans:
Factors include:
the frequency of rainfall (floods and droughts)
water temperature
evaporation rates
soil type
pollution sources, such as the presence of animal faeces and fertiliser usage
land use


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5.3 Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass water
supplies:
Monitoring Catchment:
o The first step to ensure water used for human use is clean is to ensure that the area
the water flows over (the catchment area) is kept clean.
o This involves banning any land-clearing, swimming, boating, industry and agriculture
in the entire catchment area, to prevent sediment, animal waste or bacteria to build
up in water supplies.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
This is a very cheap and effective way of ensuring the purity of water for
human use; by removing the sources of contamination, purity is ensured.
Filtration:
o Filtrating the water through sand and gravel beds.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Relatively cheap, although does not remove many small particles

Flocculation:
o Some suspended particles (called colloidal particles) cause water to become turbid,
but are too small to be removed by conventional filtration.
o During flocculation, chemicals, such as iron (III) chloride and aluminium hydroxide
and a cationic polymer, are added to coagulate the fine particles together, forming
larger particles, which can then be removed by filtration.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Flocculation removes most of the suspended particles, as well as bacteria,
which are caught up in the particle aggregates. It is very cost-effective, and
relatively fast.
Chlorination:
o Because of their oxidising ability, chlorine and hypochlorites are used extensively in
sterilising swimming pool water and the treatment of waste water.
o EFFECTIVENESS:
Chlorination is an effective way of killing most micro-organisms
Chlorine may impart an unpleasant odour on the water

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5.4 Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how
they purify contaminated water:
Microscopic membrane filters have microscopic pores and the use of appropriate sized
filters can avoid the need to chemically treat the water. The filters can be classified as
microfiltration, ultrafiltration or nanofiltration, depending on the size of the pore.
The membrane is made from synthetic polymers dissolved in a mixture of solvents. Water-
soluble powders of a particular size are added. The mixture is spread out over a plate and
left for the solvent to dry. The polymer membrane formed, containing particles of water-
soluble powder, is then placed in water. Remaining solvent and the powder particles
dissolve, leaving a very thin polymer sheet with definite sized microscopic pores where the
water-soluble particles were located.
Water is made to flow across the membrane not through it; reducing the blockage factor.
The size of the pore determines which sized particle or organism may pass through the
membrane. The finer the pore size the smaller the particles trapped and the more expensive
the membrane.

5.5 Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used to;
identify heavy metal pollution of water & monitor possible eutrophication of waterways:
Heavy metal pollution of water:
Heavy metals refer to metals with large atomic masses
o The heavy metals that are of the most concern due to their extremely detrimental
effects on health are mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic.
Methods to test for heavy metals:
o Quantitative:
AAS: very sensitive, quick and accurate samples need to be sent to a lab
Chemistry: absorbance of the atomised water sample is measured at
specific wavelengths. Each wavelength is selected to measure one
element in the mixture. The absorbance is related to concentration
using a calibration curve.
o Qualitative:
Precipitation tests can be used in the field, when an immediate indication is
required, not as sensitive as AAS
Chemistry: precipitation tests utilise the varying solubility of ionic
compounds
o i.e. add KI to form a yellow precipitate of PbI
2
, indicating lead
contamination
Flame tests
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Eutrophication:
Eutrophication involves an increase in the nutrients in water, leading to excessive algal
growth, followed by the decay of the organisms and depletion of oxygen in the water.
Methods to test for eutrophication:
o Measuring the nitrogen and phosphorous content of the water by colorimetric tests
Chemistry: the nitrates or phosphates are converted to coloured compounds
using standard reagents. The depth of the colour is measured and converted
to concentration units with a calibration curve.
o Measure turbidity turbidity increases as algae grow
Chemistry: turbidity is measured by the light that can penetrate a solution.
Attach a faint black cross to the base of a long colourless cylinder. Look down
the tube. Slowly pour in the water until the cross disappears.
o Measure D.O. (dissolved oxygen) and B.O.D. (biochemical oxygen demand) D.O. will
decrease and B.O.D. will increase as the algae die
Chemistry: D.O. and B.O.D. are measured by data loggers and an oxygen
probe. The probe sets up an electrochemical cell with the oxygen and a
voltage is generated that is proportional to the oxygen content.

5.6 Gather, process and present information on the features of the local town water supply in
terms of; catchment area, possible sources of contamination in this catchment, chemical tests
available to determine levels and types of contaminants, physical and chemical processes used to
purify water, chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives:
For the local Sydney area, the water is supplied by Warragamba Dam.
Catchment area:
Warragamba Dam is Sydney's main water storage dam, and one of the largest domestic
water supply dams in the world.
Catchment areas are areas of land from which rain water drains toward a common water-
body - the Warragamba catchment has an area of about 9000 km
2

Sources of contamination:
Land Clearing:
o Within the catchment area, there are various logging and land-clearing activities
occurring to make way for more agricultural land leading to higher turbidity
Agriculture:
o There are various patches of land within the catchment area that are used for
agricultural purposes such as growing crops or raising cattle this contamination leads
to the growth of bacteria, as well as a high B.O.D.
Mining:
o Within the catchment area are abandoned mines which water can flow into out of;
leaching out with certain ions such as Zn
2+
, Cu
2+
and sulfides from the metal ores, which
make the water acidic.
Natural Soil:
o The natural soil and rock around the catchment area have high levels of iron and
manganese in them; rain water can leach out these minerals, in the form of Fe
3+
and
Mn
2+
ions leads to water with a coloured tinge and a metallic taste.

Page | 20

Animals:
o Certain feral and native animals may contaminate the water with their faeces directly, or
by dying and decaying within the water can lead to serious contamination of the water.
Testing for contaminants:
Most chemical tests are used to detect the levels common ions, and ensure that they remain
below safe thresholds.
[See above for types of chemical tests, including; AAS, colorimetric tests, etc.]
Water purification:
Water is first screened to remove large debris; flocculation then occurs using Fe
3+
or Al
3+

electrolytes, followed by shaking to encourage precipitate formation; this is then left in a
sedimentation tank to settle; sludge is scooped out and the clean water is led onto a sand-
bed filter; this filter consists of layers of sand and gravel and the water comes out clean.
Chemical additives:
The 2 main chemical additives in Sydney water are chlorine and fluoride.
Chlorine (Cl
2
) is added to the water supply as a disinfecting agent; chlorine gas is bubbled
through the water just before it exits the plant. Hypochlorite ions are formed, and these kill
bacteria and some viruses, sanitizing the water.
Fluoride (F
-
) is added to the water because it is believed to strengthen tooth enamel in
growing children. Fluoride ions are added in the form of sodium fluoride at a controlled
concentration of 1 ppm.

Page | 21

Practicals to cover:

(3.) Perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests, to
identify the following ions; phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, chloride, barium, calcium, lead, copper
and iron.

(3.) Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to measure the
sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved.

(3.) Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and to
propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure.

(4.) Gather, process and present information from secondary sources including simulations,
molecular model kits or pictorial representations to model isomers of haloalkanes.

(5.) Perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to analyse and
compare the quality of water samples.