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= Fi F (1.1)
At steady state, the time derivative vanishes, and if the inflow and outflow have respective
steady-state values of Fis and Fs, then Eq. (1.1) becomes:
0 = Fis Fs (1.2)
CHAP 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CONTROL 23
Subtracting Eq. (1.2) from Eq. (1.1) now gives:
(1.3)
For reasons that will become clearer later, we now find it convenient to define the following
deviation variables:
so that Eq. (1.3) becomes, in these new variables:
(1.4)
3 . Pr oc es s Beha vi or
Let us consider how this system will respond to the situation in which the inflowrate Fi suddenly
increases from its steady-state value of Fis to (Fis + ). Keep in mind that with this configuration,
the variable Fi is now a disturbance.
The simplest feedback control law, and perhaps the most intuitive, is that which requires the
automatic level controller to change the outflow proportionately to the observed deviation of h
from hs. Mathematically, this translates to:
or, in terms of the deviation variables introduced above:
(1.5)
This is known as proportional control for obvious reasons and the parameter K is known as
the proportional controller gain. (Other types of control laws will be encountered later on.)
24 INTRODUCTION
Let us note here that with the above control law, an increase in the value of h over its
steady-state value hs provokes an increase in outflow F, an action that brings down the liquid
level. Observe, therefore, that this controller appears to make sensible control decisions.
We shall now investigate the actual overall system response to the disturbance d = for
various values of the controller parameter K, by substituting Eq. (1.5) for u in Eq. (1.4), and
solving the resulting equation:
(1.6)
This is a linear, first-order, ordinary differential equation whose solution for constant is easily
written down (see Appendix B) as:
(1.7)
A sketch of this response for various values of the parameter K is shown in Figure 1.18.
CHAP 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CONTROL 25
The important points to note here are:
1. Without control action, (i.e., u = 0 in Eq. (1.4), or, equivalently, K = 0 in Eq. (1.6)), the
system response is obtained by solving the equation:
(1.8)
In other words, the system response is given by:
( 1. 9)
implying a perpetual increase in the liquid level. (Of course, there is a physical limit
imposed by the finite capacity of the tank.) A little reflection upon the physics of this
process confirms that this should indeed be the case.
2. With proportional feedback control, as indicated in Figure 1.18, there is substantial
improvement in the system response; the otherwise indefinite increase in liquid level
when no controller is employed is now contained, for all finite values of K. The system
now settles to a new steady-state height, even though different from the desired value.
Recall that the desired situation is for h to remain at hs, o r , equivalently, y = 0; observe
that this is not achievable for any finite values of K. For y = 0 in Eq. (1.7), we require K =
.
3. When a process output settles down to a steady-state value different from the specified
set-point, there is said to be an offset. Note that the offset is reduced as K increases and is
actually eliminated as K .
Configuration 2
Next, consider the configuration shown in Figure 1.19, where, as in Configuration 1, the outflow
is still the control variable used to regulate the liquid level, but the feedforward strategy is now
employed. The input, output, and disturbance variables for this configuration remain exactly as
in Configuration 1; only the control strategy is different.
With this new configuration, any change observed in the inlet flowrate is communicated
directly to the feedforward controller which adjusts the outflow accordingly.
How do we determine a control law for this feedforward controller? It turns out that we may
easily take advantage of our knowledge of the characteristics of this simple process and employ
the following purely commonsensical arguments in arriving at such a control law:
1. Because of the nature of this process, if inflow equals outflow, then whatever quantity of
liquid comes in also leaves, so that whatever material was initially accumulated within
the system is neither
26 INTRODUCTION
increased nor depleted. Under these circumstances, the liquid level must remain
constant.
2. The required control law is therefore the one that requires outflow F to be set equal to
the inflow Fi at all times.
Mathematically, this translates to:
(1.10)
Substituting this into the mathematical model for the process, Eq. (1.1) gives the interesting
result:
(1.11)
which requires that:
h = constant (1.12)
The implication of this result is that, so long as the inflow can be measured with sufficient
accuracy, and the outflow can be regulated also with sufficient accuracy, this strategy will keep
the liquid level constant at all times; i.e., we have perfect regulatory control. However, this
particular scheme is incapable of changing the setpoint for liquid level (i.e., of servo control).
Practical issues such as how accurately inflow can be measured and outflow regulated constitute
important limitations here and would probably make this scheme unsuitable.
Configuration 3
A third possibility for configuring this system is shown in Figure 1.20, where the liquid is
allowed to flow out by gravity, at a rate determined jointly by the hydrostatic pressure and the
valve resistance. The outlet valve stem position is fixed and does not vary with time. The inflow
not the outflow this time is used to regulate the level, employing a feedback strategy.
Observe now that where Configuration 2 is a mere variation on the theme of Configuration
1, this new configuration is totally different in philosophy. Let us confirm this by examining its
main features, and comparing with those of Configuration 1.
1. Process Variables
Input variable: Fi (now the control variable and the only input)
Output variable: h (the liquid level measurement)
The only other variable, F, the outflow, which played a major role in Configuration 1 (and its
variation, Configuration 2), is now solely dependent on the hydrostatic pressure and the valve
resistance; it has lost its status as a manipulated variable.
CHAP 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CONTROL 27
Note also that we now no longer have a disturbance variable to contend with. By virtue of
the installation of a controller to manipulate F- for the purpose of regulating the liquid level, this
variable has given up its status as a disturbance variable to become a control variable, one whose
value we can determine at will.
2. Mathematical Model
If we assume, for now, that the outflow from the tank is directly proportional to the liquid level
(strictly speaking, this is not always true), and that the constant of proportionality is the valve
resistance c, then one can easily show, once more, that a material balance around the system
yields the following mathematical model:
(1.13)
or, in terms of the deviation variables:
Eq. (1.13) becomes
(1.14)
A comparison of this equation with Eq. (1.4) shows that we are now dealing with an entirely
different system configuration.
Some Concluding Remarks
In order not to encourage an unduly false, and simplistic, view of chemical process control
problems on the basis of the above illustrative example, the following is just a sample of some
typical complications one would normally expect to encounter in practice.
28 INTRODUCTION
1. Nonlinearities
The process model equations we have dealt with have been linear, and thus easy to analyze. This
is not always the case. A case in point is the model in Eq. (1.13) for the system in Figure 1.20. In
reality, outflow is often proportional to the square root of liquid level, implying that a more
realistic model will be:
(1.15)
which is not nearly as easy to analyze.
2. Modeling Errors
With the exception of the most trivial process, it is impossible for a mathematical model to
represent exactly all aspects of process behavior. This fact notwithstanding, however, the
usefulness of the mathematical model should not be underestimated; we just need to keep its
limitations in proper perspective. The effectiveness of any control system designed on the basis
of a process model will, of course, depend on the integrity of such a model in representing the
process.
3. Other Implementation Problems
The illustrative example is strictly a flow process involving a reasonably incompressible fluid.
This fact frees us from worrying about problems created by fluid transportation through
connecting pipes.
Observe that were we dealing with a thermal system, in which liquid streams at different
temperatures are moved around in the pipes, or if our system were to involve mixing streams of
different liquid compositions, then the situation would be different. To effect temperature, or
composition, changes by moving such liquids around, we must now consider the fact that the
time it takes to flow from one point to the other within a pipe can quite often be so significant as
to introduce a delay in the system's response to the effect of control action. As we will see later,
the influence of such delays can become a most serious consideration in the design of a control
system.
Even when a control system is impeccably designed, perfect implementation may be limited
by, among other things, such factors as imperfect measurements, inaccurate transmission, or
control valve inertia (leading to inaccurate valve actuation), factors that by and large are
unavoidable in practice.
4. Complicated Process Structure
It is the rare chemical process that is as simple as the example just dealt with; the variables
involved are usually more numerous, and their interrelationships more complicated. It is in fact
not unusual to have to deal with an integration of several such processes. Nevertheless, the
knowledge gained from investigating such simple processes can be gainfully applied to the more
complicated versions, sometimes with only minimal, quite often obvious, additional
considerations, and sometimes with considerable modifications that may not be immediately
obvious.
CHAP 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CONTROL 29
To put this important point in proper perspective, consider the situation in which our previous
example process, as configured in Figure 1.20, now has an additional problem: the temperature
of the liquid leaving the tank is now to be regulated because of the introduction of a new
disturbance stream bringing in liquid at an erratically varying temperature Td, at a flowrate Fd.
To facilitate this dual level and temperature control task, a hot liquid line is provided, from
which liquid at temperature TH and flowrate FH is made available. The original inlet stream, the
only one available in Configuration 3 (Figure 1.20), is now treated as the cold stream. The new
situation arising from these additions is shown in Figure 1.21.
The transformation from the system of Figure 1.20 to the one in Figure 1.21, to be sure, is not
trivial. We have tacitly assumed that the cold inlet stream will retain its assignment as the
control variable for liquid level regulation, leaving the task of temperature control to the hot
stream, by default.
The first additional consideration raised here, therefore, is this:
How are we sure that the hot stream will not be more effective as a control variable for
regulating the level?
Or, put more fundamentally:
Which control variable should be used in regulating which output variable to achieve
maximum effectiveness?
Even after we have resolved the nontrivial issue of which control variable to pair with which
output variable, we are faced with a second important consideration:
Assuming the input/output pairing implied in the configuration of Figure 1.21, can the cold
stream regulate the liquid level without upsetting the hot stream's task of regulating the
liquid temperature?
The answer, of course, is in the negative; the level controller will always interfere with the
liquid temperature, and hence with the temperature controller. The converse is also true; the
temperature controller will affect the liquid level and hence interfere with the level controller.
This situation of
30 INTRODUCTION
mutual interference from otherwise independent controllers is known as interaction and is a key
element in the analysis of the behavior of processes having multiple input and multiple output
variables.
To transfer the knowledge gained from investigating the system in Figure 1.20 to the one in
Figure 1.21 requires due consideration of, at least, the two issues raised above.
This last example should motivate our study of the more advanced control strategies
discussed in Part IVB and Part IVC.
1.6 SUMMARY
The objective in this introductory chapter has been to provide no more than a panoramic
overview of the basic concepts and philosophies of automatic control as they apply in the
chemical process industry.
We have attempted to define that usually abstract entity known as the chemical process,
and, in identifying the main objectives of process operations, i.e., meeting safety, production
rate, and product quality specifications, it has become clear that these objectives cannot be
realized without the aid of a control system. This is because of the fundamentally dynamic
character of these processes.
Some of the most frequently used process control concepts and terminologies were first
introduced, in their natural settings, via a discussion arising between a plant engineer and a
control engineer in their search for a solution to a typical industrial control problem involving a
preheater furnace. This motivated the somewhat more formal definitions of these terms which
followed.
The role of the control system, i.e., that of process monitoring, decision making about how
best to maintain control, and control action implementation, have been highlighted; the
hardware elements that make it possible for this role to be carried out (sensors, transmitters,
controllers, final control elements) have been identified.
We have seen that a typical control system can be configured in several different ways,
depending on what process system information it uses to make control decisions, and how these
decisions are actually implemented. A few of the most important control system configurations,
namely, the ubiquitous feedback, the industrially indispensable feedforward and cascade, and
the (infrequently used) open loop-configurations, were introduced and illustrated before the
central issue of what control systems design entails was reviewed.
The illustrative example introduced in the last section was for the purpose of providing a
quantitative illustration of the most vital ideas which, up until then, had only been discussed at a
qualitative level. The simplicity of the example was for pedagogic convenience only; to avoid the
pitfall of erroneously thinking that all process control problems have the same facile bearings,
the additional complications that usually accompany more realistic systems were quickly noted
before rounding up the discussion.
Before proceeding to a detailed study of Process Dynamics, Modeling, and Process Control,
one more task remains: that of providing a more detailed introduction to the principles and
practice of data acquisition and control action implementation. The next chapter is devoted to
this.
CHAP 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CONTROL 31
FURTHER READING
A historical perspective of what the theory and practice of Process Dynamics and Control used
to be in the past may be found in several classic texts. A few of these are:
1. Eckman, D. P., Principles of Industrial Process Control, J.Wiley, New York (1948)
2. Truxal, J. G., Automatic Feedback Control System Synthesis, McGraw-Hill, New York (1955)
3. Ceaglske, N. H., Automatic Process Control for Chemical Engineers, J. Wiley, New York
(1956)
4. Eckman, D. P., Automatic Process Control, J. Wiley, New York (1958)
5. Del Toro, V. and S.R. Parker, Principles of Control Systems Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York (1960)
6. Williams, T. J., Systems Engineering for the Process Industries, McGraw-Hill, New York
(1961)
The industrial perspective of process control is presented in greater detail, complete with
practical considerations based on actual experience in the following references:
7. Buckley, P. S., Techniques of Process Control, J. Wiley, New York (1964)
8. Shinskey, F. G, Process Control Systems (2nd ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York (1979)
9. Lee, W. and V. W. Weekman, Jr., "Advanced Control Practice in the Chemical Process
Industry: A View from Industry," AIChE }, 22, 27 (1976)
The more theoretical foundations of modern control techniques may be found in several
textbooks and research monographs. Two of the more easily accessible ones are:
10. Brogan, W. L., Modern Control Theory, Quantum Publishers, New York (1974)
11. Ray, W. H., Advanced Process Control, Butterworths, Boston (1989) (paperback reprint of
original 1981 book)
In each first chapter of the following books, one will find introductory examples that may be of
interest in the way they are used to provide a preview of the design, analysis, and
implementation of control systems. Reference 14, in particular, contains an interesting catalog of
examples of control systems that occur in nature.
12. Coughanowr, D. R. and L. B. Koppel, Process Systems Analysis and Control, McGraw-Hill,
New York (1965) (2nd ed., D. R. Coughanowr, McGraw-Hill, New York (1991))
13. Luyben, W. L., Process Modeling, Simidation, and Control for Chemical Engineers (2nd ed.),
McGraw-Hill, New York (1991)
14. Weber, T. W., An Introduction to Process Dynamics and Control, Wiley-Interscience, New
York (1973)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the three broad objectives on which the basic guiding principles of process
operation are based?
2. Based on the guiding principles in operating a chemical process (Section 1.1), can you guess
why pneumatic controllers, actuators, and transmitters can be found in many plants?
3. What are the main concerns of Process Dynamics and Control as a subject matter within the
chemical engineering discipline?
32 INTRODUCTION
4. What is the difference between the input and the output variables of a chemical process?
5. What is a state variable? How are they related to output variables?
6. How can you distinguish a manipulated (control) variable from a disturbance variable?
7. What are the three main responsibilities of the control system? Assign to each of these
responsibilities the hardware elements required for carrying out the indicated tasks.
8. Differentiate between a manual and an automatic control system.
9. What makes an automatic control system a computer control system?
10. What are transducers used for?
11. What differentiates a feedback control system configuration from the feedforward
configuration?
12. What is unique about the open-loop control system configuration?
13. Differentiate between a servo control problem and a regulatory control problem. Can you
guess which will be more common in a plant in which the processes operate predominantly
in the neighborhood of steady-state conditions for long periods of time?
PROBLEMS
1.1 The process shown in Figure Pl.l is a distillation column used to separate a binary mixture of
methanol and water. It is desired to regulate the composition of methanol in both overhead
and bottoms product streams: xD and xB respectively. Let us assume that the reflux flowrate
L can be varied, but both overhead and bottoms product flowrates, respectively, D and B,
are determined by the steady-state
CHAP 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CONTROL 33
material balance F = D + B. The feedrate to the column F, as well as the feed temperature T,
are known to vary. The steam supply pressure to the reboiler P is also known to vary; Q is
the steam flowrate through the thermal siphon reboiler.
(a) Identify the output, manipulated (i.e., control), and disturbance variables of this
process.
(b) Assume that feed temperature measurements are available, and that this information is
used to adjust the steam flow into the reboiler in order to control the bottoms product
composition. What type of control system configuration is this? Will this be an effective
way of regulating the value of xB? Explain what control problems one might expect this
control system configuration to suffer from.
(c) If the steam supply pressure variations become too frequent, what control system
configuration would you suggest to minimize the effect which such variations will have on
the regulation of xB? Sketch this configuration.
1.2 Consider the crude oil preheater furnace introduced in Section 1.2. The following simplified
mathematical model for the process may be obtained by applying a steady-state energy
balance which requires that:
Heat input through fuel = Heat required to heat feed from Ti to T, i.e.:
P(1.1)
Here, Cp is the specific heat capacity of the crude oil feed.
(a) Use this information to derive a control law that, given measurements of the
disturbance variable Ti, and assuming that the physical properties of the fuel and the
crude oil are available, prescribes how to adjust QF so that T attains the desired value T*.
(b) Identify the potential problems a controller based on such a control law is likely to
suffer from.
1.3 A liquid receiver of the type used in the example of Section 1.5 has a cross-sectional area
of 1.5 m
2
. Under steady state conditions, the inlet and outlet flows are steady at 0.05 m
3
/s
with accumulated liquid at a level of 3 m.
Under proportional-only feedback control with K = 0.05, derive the system response to a
sudden increase in inlet flowrate from 0.05 to 0.075 m
3
/s and draw this response as a
function of time.
To what new level does the liquid in the tank settle down after steady state is achieved?
What is the offset?
1.4 For the Problem 1.3 situation, consider now that a new feedback control law:
P(1.2)
is to be applied. Rederive the new system response and establish that, in this case, there
will be no offset.
1.5 To illustrate the effect of inaccurate measurements on feedforward control systems,
consider the situation where, for the system of Configuration 2 in Section 1.5, there is a
consistent error 6 in the measurement of the inflow Fi, so that the feedforward control law
employed is no longer as in Eq. (1.10) but as shown below:
F = F i + P( 1 . 3 )
Show that in this case the liquid level in the tank does not remain constant but in fact
decreases linearly with time for > 0.