Loads OFFSHORE

Offshore Structures Loads
C t t Contents
Gravity Loads
Wind Loads
Wave and Current Loads Small bodies
Wave and Current Loads Large Bodies
26 May 2007 Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
1
Types of Loads Types of Loads
Gravity Loads
Structural Dead Loads
Facility Dead Loads
Fluid Loads Fluid Loads
Live Loads
Environmental Loads
Wi d L d Wind Loads
Wave Loads
Current Loads
Buoyancy Loads
Ice Loads
Mud Loads Mud Loads
Seismic Loads
2
Gravity Loads Gravity Loads
Dead Loads
Dead loads includes the all the fixed items in Dead loads includes the all the fixed items in
the platform deck, jacket, bridge and flare
structures. It includes all primary steel
structural members secondary structural items structural members, secondary structural items
such as boat landing, padeyes, stiffeners,
handrails, deck plating, small access platforms
etc etc.
The primary structural steel members will be
calculated based on the structural information calculated based on the structural information
in the model automatically when a computer
program is used to analyze the structure. But
the weight of secondary structural steel items the weight of secondary structural steel items
shall be calculated applied to the structural
model at appropriate locations.
3
Facility Loads
The structure built either for drilling or The structure built either for drilling or
wellhead type platform or for process
type platform supports various yp p pp
equipment and facilities.
Mechanical equipment
Electrical equipment
Piping connecting each equipment
Electrical Cable trays
Instrumentation items
4
Drilling Loads
Drilling Loads include reaction from Jackup
cantilever type rig or Deck mounted rigs.
Drilling Loads
Dead loads
M bl D ill fl l d
cantilever type rig or Deck mounted rigs.
Movable Drill floor loads
Drill string weight
Depending on the type of drilling rig used, this loads will vary.
For water depth less than 70m, Jackup type rig may be used.
For deeper water depths, operation of Jackup type rigs p p , p p yp g
become uneconomical and deck mounted drilling rigs will be a
suitable option. Weight of such rig will be around 1500 Tonnes
with an additional support module of 1000 Tonnes.
5
Live loads
Live loads are defined as movable loads and will
be temporary in nature.
This load vary in nature from owner to owner but
a general guideline on the magnitude of the loads a general guideline on the magnitude of the loads
is given below.
S.No. Location Load (kN/m
2
)
1 Storage / laydown 10 g / y
2 Walkway 5
3 Access Platform 5
4 Galley 10
6
l d Environmental Loads
Wind Loads
Wave and Current Loads Wave and Current Loads
Seismic Loads
7
d d Wind Loads
Wind profiles and Gusts.
U(t) (turbulence)
( ) V u t +
( ) V meanwind ( )
X Direction
8
8
Quasi-static response
to wind gusting
Dynamic response to
wind gusting
o
n
s
e
o
n
s
e
Due to mean wind
Due to turbulent gusts
R
e
s
p
Due to turbulent gusts
Due to mean wind
R
e
s
p
o
(a) Short period structures
Time
(b) Long period Structures
Time
RESPONSE TO WIND GUSTING
9
9
Wind profiles and Gusts Wind profiles and Gusts.
For strong wind conditions the design wind speed u (z,t) (ft/s) at
height z (ft) above sea level and corresponding to an averaging
time period t(s) [where tt ;t =3600 sec] is given by: time period t(s) [where tt
0
;t
0
=3600 sec] is given by:
0
( , ) ( ) 1 0.41 ( ) n
u
t
u z t U z I z l
t

=

Where the 1 hour mean wind speed U(z) (ft/s) at level z(ft) is
given by:

( )
0
1
2
2
0
( ) 1 ln
32.8
5.73 10 1 0.0457
z
U z U C
C U

= +

= + ( )
0
And the turbulence intensity Iu(z) at level z is given by:
0 22

[ ]
0.22
( ) 0.06 1 0.0131
32.8
u o
z
I z U

= +

Where U
o
(ft/s) is the 1 hour mean wind speed at 32.8 ft.
10
10
Dynamic response Dynamic response
STRUCTURE TYPES
y p
(T<0.5sec)
unimportant
y p
important(T>0.5 sec
Buildings Jacket Buildings Jacket
Most bridges
(eg,concrete road
bridges)
Towers
bridges)
Flare booms
Some bridges (eg. Long g ( g g
suspension bridges)
11
11
Method Data Dynamic Calculates Calculates Accuracy
COMPARISON OF DESIGN METHODS
y
analysis? extreme
life?
fatigue
life?
y
Static Static 3s gust No Yes No Poor
design analysis
g
speed
(2)
Gust Static Mean Approximate Yes No Reasona
factor
design
analysis x
gust factor
wind
speed
pp
(3) ble
Wind
turbulence
analysis
Spectral
analysis
Turbule
nt gust
spectra
Yes Yes Yes Good
12
12
WEATHER SYSTEMS
Caused by Duration Extent Wind speeds
Monsoons
Global
Weeks Large Low
Hurricanes Days Large (upto High (75m/s
circulation
pattern
Hurricanes Days Large (upto
1000km
dia)
High (75m/s
max)
Prevailing Days Large Low to moderate Prevailing
winds(1)
Fully
developed
Days Large Low to moderate
Thunderstorms
(2)
~1hour Small
(~10km
Low to moderate
pressure
systems
dia)
Tornadoes 1-10 minutes very small
(~300m
dia)
Very
high(~100m/s
max ) dia) max.)
Local winds
Local
topography
Varies Varies Varies (may be
high)
topography
Local heating
13
13
WIND LOAD ON SUPER STRUCTURES
1. Individual members - 3 sec. gust
2. Total structure size<50m - 15 sec. gust
size>50m - 15 sec. gust
WIND AND ASSOCIATED WAVE/CURRENT LOADS
3. Total loads -1 minute sustained wind
4 Total loads 1 hour 4. Total loads -1 hour.
14
14
Wind Pressure
The wind pressure can be calculated as
2
2
V
g
f
w
=
2
2 2
6 . 0 N/m V f
w
= f
w
15
The total force on the platform can be The total force on the platform can be
calculated as
C A f F
s x w x
C A f F
C A f F
=
=
s y w y
C A f F =
16
Wind load on oblique directions can be
calculated using following relationship.
) sin( ) cos(
y x
F F F + =
The projected areas can be calculated as
A1 = A
x
cos() and A
2
= A
y
sin ()
)) sin( ) cos( (
) (
2 1

w
A A f F
A A f F
+ =
+ =
) cos( )) sin( ) cos( (
)) sin( ) cos( (

y x w x
y x w
A A f F
A A f F
+ =
+ =
) sin( )) sin( ) cos( (
y x w y
A A f F + =
17
Where F
x
and F
y
are the components of F
e
in x and y directions respectively. Ratio
between F
x
and F
x
can be expressed as
) cos( ) sin( ) cos( (
y x w
x
A f
A A f
F
F
+
=
) ( ) i ( ) / ( ) (
2

x w x
A A
F
A f F
) cos( ) sin( ) / ( ) ( cos
2

x y
x
x
A A
F
F
+ =
18
Similarly, ratio between F
y
and F
y
can be
expressed as p
) sin( ) sin( ) cos( ( A A f F + ) sin( ) sin( ) cos( (
y w
y x w
y
y
A f
A A f
F
F +
=
) cos( ) sin( ) / ( ) ( sin
2

y x
y
A A
F
F
+ =
y
F
19
WAVE FORCES ON SMALL
BODIES
20
Wave and Current Loads Wave and Current Loads
Methodology
In applying design waves load on to the offshore
structures, there are two ways of applying it
Design Wave method Design Wave method
Spectral Method
In design wave method, a discrete set of design waves
(maximum) and associated periods will be selected (maximum) and associated periods will be selected
to generate loads on the structure. These loads will
be used to compute the response of the structure.
In the spectral method, a energy spectrum of the sea-
state for the location will be taken and a transfer
function for the response will be generated. These p g
transfer function will be used to compute the
stresses in the structural members
21
Design Wave Method Design Wave Method
The forces exerted by waves are most dominant in
governing the jacket structures design especially the governing the jacket structures design especially the
foundation piles. The wave loads exerted on the
jacket is applied laterally on all members and it
generates overturning moment on the structure.
Period of wind generated waves in the open sea can be
in the order of 2 to 20 seconds. These waves are
called gravity waves and contain most part of wave
ene g energy.
Maximum wave shall be used for the design of offshore
structures. The relationship between the significant
wave height (H ) and the maximum wave height wave height (H
s
) and the maximum wave height
(H
max
) is
H
max
= 1.86 H
s
Th b ti d t t ti b d The above equation correspond to a computation based
on 1000 waves in a record.
22
The design wave height for various regions is e des g a e e g t o a ous eg o s s
tabulated below
Region 1 year 100 year
Maximum
d i i
Bay of Bengal 8 18
Gulf of Mexico 12 24
South China Sea 11 24
design waves in
various regions
South China Sea 11 24
Arabian Sea 8 18
Gulf of Thailand 6 12
Persian Gulf 5 12
North sea 14 22
API RP2A requires both 1 year and 100 year recurrence wave
shall be used for the design of jacket and piles. Appropriate
combination of loads with these waves shall be used in the combination of loads with these waves shall be used in the
design. A one-third increase in permissible stress is allowed for
100 year storm conditions.
23
Current Profile Current Profile
24
Tidal Current Profile Tidal Current Profile
The wind driven current variation with depth can
be expressed as:
1

7
=
h
y
V V
oT T
Where V
T
is the tidal current at any height from
sea bed V is the tidal current at the surface y

sea bed, V
oT
is the tidal current at the surface, y
is the distance measure in m from seabed and h
is the water depth is the water depth
25
Wind Driven Current Profile Wind Driven Current Profile
The current variation with depth can be expressed as:
y
V V
W W
=
Where V is the wind driven current at any height
h
V V
oW W
Where V
W
is the wind driven current at any height
from sea bed, V
oW
is the wind driven current at the
surface, y is the distance measure in m from , y
seabed and h is the water depth
26
Morison Equation Morison Equation
Flow is assumed to be not disturbed by the
presence of the structure presence of the structure
Force calculation is empirical calibrated by
experimental results experimental results
Suitable Coefficients need to be used
depending on the shape of the body p g p y
Validity range shall be checked before use
and generally suitable for most jacket type
structures where D/L << 0.2 where D is the
diameter of the structural member and L is
the wave length the wave length
27
Morison Equation Morison Equation
Wave and current loading can be calculated by Morison
equation equation
Morison equation can be written as:
a C
D
V V D C F
1
2
+ = a C V V D C F
W M w D T

4

2
+ =
Where F
T
is the total force,
w
is the density of water, C
D
and
C th d d i ti ffi i t ti l D i th C
M
are the drag and inertia coefficients respectively, D is the
diameter of the member including marine growth, V is the
velocity and a is the acceleration.
The first term in the equation is drag component (F
D
) and the
second term is the inertia component (F
I
). This can be
d expressed as:
F
T
= F
D
+ F
I
28
d b Wave Load on a Member
Morison equation is a general form and can not be Morison equation is a general form and can not be
applied to all members in the offshore structure. It
was developed specifically for a surface piercing was developed specifically for a surface piercing
cylinder like pile of a structure. But in reality, the
members of the offshore structure may be
horizontal or inclined in space and can not used
without modification
29
S S STEPS
Establish Wave Height, Period and Current g ,
Distribution along the depth
Establish Wave Theory applicable for H,T,d
E ti ti f W t ti l ki ti Estimation of Water particle kinematics
including wave current interaction
Establish Cd and Cm Establish Cd and Cm
Establish Marine Growth
Establish Wave Kinematics factor
Conductor Shielding (if applicable)
Current Blockage factor
Morison Equation used to estimate the forces
30
WAVE CURRENT INTERACTION WAVE CURRENT INTERACTION
Presence of current either stretches the wave Presence of current either stretches the wave
or shortens it depending on the direction of
current. This is called Doppler shift. pp
The apparent wave period need to be
calculated to use in the load calculation
Drag term is nonlinear and hence the water
particle velocities due to wave and current p
needs to be added vectorialy before using it
in Morison equation.
31
Dispersion Relationship Dispersion Relationship
2
2
gT
)
2
tanh(
2
d
L
gT
L

=
2
2
L
T

=
)
2
tanh( d
L
g
T
=
32
Apparent Wave Period Apparent Wave Period
Following three equations needs to be solved to obtain the T
app
I
V
T
L
T
L
+ =
g q
app
app
T T
2 2 L
T

=
)
2
tanh( d
L
g
T
app
+ =
0
) / ) ( 4 cosh( ) (
) / 4 sinh(
) / 4 (
d
c I
dz L d z z U
L d
L
V
) (
U
c
(z) is the current profile elevation z
33
N li D T i M i ti Nonlinear Drag Term in Morison equation
a C
D
V V D C F
W M w D T
+ =
4

2
1
2
Vw Vc V + =
4 2
Vc = Current Velocity
Vw = Wave Water Particle Velocity
Example
Lets assume Vc=2m/sec, Vw=3m/sec / , /
If we calculate the drag forces separately, add, we will get 2*2 +
3*3 = 13
If we add the velocities first and compute the loads we get If we add the velocities first and compute the loads, we get
(2+3)*(2+3) = 25
It under predicts the forces as much as by 50%
34
Source : API RP 2A
35
W t W Ki ti Water Wave Kinematics
Airy wave theory is considered in the calculation of y y
wave kinematics. Consider a progressive wave with
water surface elevation depicted by cosine curve,
cos( )
2
H
kx t =
2
and the corresponding velocity potential is given by:
) sin(
sinh
) ( cosh
2
t kx
kh
z h k
k
H

+
=
sinh 2 kh k
36
Selection of wave theory for load calculation Selection of wave theory for load calculation
Source : API RP 2A
37
Source : API RP 2A
38
Marine Growth Marine Growth
Marine growth around submerged structural
members increases the wave/current loads
as the diameter is increased
It varies from 50mm to 150mm thickness
along the depth from seabed
At also adds to additional weight
This is to be modelled such that the above is
taken in to account
Density of marine growth is around 1300 y g
kg/m
3
39
40
41
C t Bl k F t Current Blockage Factor
Source : API RP 2A
42
Conductor Shielding Factor Conductor Shielding Factor
Source : API RP 2A
43
SELECTION OF SUITABLE DRAG SELECTION OF SUITABLE DRAG
AND INERTIA COEFFICIENTS
44
C d C C
d
and C
m
These are empirical Coefficients to be used in
Morison equation and they have been corelated with
experimental data p
These coefficients vary due to shape of the structure,
surface roughness, flow velocity and direction of flow
Extensive research on various shapes available Extensive research on various shapes available
API RP 2A has enough information for circular
cylinders
DNV recommendation can be used for non-circular
shapes
45
C d C C
d
and C
m
For Smooth cylinders Cd = 0.65, Cm=1.6
For rough cylinders Cd = 1.05, cm=1.2
The values shall be used only if UT/D > 30
For other region of flow, charts available literature
shall be used
46
K l C t N b Keulegan-Carpenter Number
T U 2
D
T U
K
m 2
2
=
D
Where K is Keulegan-Carpenter Number, U
m
is the maximum
velocity including current and T
2
is the duration of half wave
cycle and D is the diameter of the member cycle and D is the diameter of the member
47
R ld N b Reynolds Number
D U
D U
R
m
=
Where R is Reynolds Number, U

m
is the maximum velocity
including current and D is the diameter of the member
is the kinematic viscosity is the kinematic viscosity
48
Inertia Coefficient e t a Coe c e t
Source : API RP 2A
49
Drag Coefficient ag Coe c e t
Source : API RP 2A
50
Non-circular shapes Non circular shapes
51
The horizontal and vertical velocity and acceleration of The horizontal and vertical velocity and acceleration of
water particle can be calculated using the following
equations.
) (
) ( cosh
k
z h k H + equations.
) i (
) ( sinh
) cos(
sinh
) ( cosh
2
t k
z h k H
V
t kx
kh
z h k H
x
V
h
+
=
=
) sin(
) ( cosh
) sin(
sinh
) (
2
2
t kx
z h k H V
a
t kx
kh z
V
h
v

+
=
=
=
=
) cos(
) ( sinh
) sin(
sinh 2
2
t kx
z h k H V
a
t kx
kh t
a
v
h

+
=
=
=
=
) cos(
sinh 2
t kx
kh t
a
v

Where k is the wave number defined by 2/T, is the wave

i l f d fi d b 2 /T L i h l h d circular frequency defined by 2/T, L is the wave length, and
x is the distance of the point in consideration from origin.
52
Maximum Load on a vertical member Maximum Load on a vertical member
Consider a case of a surface piercing cylinder such as
pile of a structure or a leg of a jacket, the combined pile of a structure or a leg of a jacket, the combined
drag and inertia force (total force) varies with time
and will be maximum only at one occasion. In order
find the maximum force phase angle at which the find the maximum force, phase angle at which the
maximum force occurs shall be found first.
Let us express the total force on the pile by
b tit ti th l it d l ti t substituting the velocity and acceleration components
and integrating between the limits (from surface to
seabed, i.e. 0 to h)
h
k
kh
kh T
H
D C F
D T

2 4
) 2 sinh(
sinh
cos cos
2
1
2 2
2 2
+ =
k T
H D
sin 2
4
C -
2
2 2
M
53
Wave Loads on Jacket Structure Wave Loads on Jacket Structure
Storm Wave
54
Th l f ill b i h The total force will be maximum when,
T
F
0 =
T
F
Substituting the values of velocity and acceleration
components in to the drag and inertia force p g
equation and differentiating with respect to and
rearranging the terms, we get
=

kh kh
kh
C
C
H
D
M
2 2 ( i h
sinh 2
cos
2
1
max

+ kh kh C H
D
2 2 (sinh
a
55
Maximum Load on a horizontal member Maximum Load on a horizontal member
Consider a case of horizontal cylinder such as brace of a
jacket, the combined drag and inertia force (total force) varies j , g ( )
with time and will be maximum only at one occasion. In order
find the maximum force, phase angle at which the maximum
force occurs shall be found first force occurs shall be found first.
Let us express the total force on the pile by substituting the
velocity and acceleration,
+h z k H
D C F
) ( cosh
cos cos
1
2 2 2

=
h z k H D
kh
D C F
D T
) ( cosh
sinh
cos cos
4

2
2 2 2

+
kh
h z k H D
-C
M
sinh
) ( cosh
sin
2 4


56
Th l f ill b i h The total force will be maximum when,
T
F
0 =
T
F
Substituting the values of velocity and acceleration
components in to the drag and inertia force p g
equation and differentiating with respect to and
rearranging the terms, we get
=

) ( ( h
sinh
2
sin
1
max
h k
kh
C
C
H
D
M
+ ) ( (cosh 2
max
z h k C H
D
57
Maximum Load on a inclined member Maximum Load on a inclined member
The resultant force on a arbitrarily oriented circular
cylinder in water waves can be calculated using cylinder in water waves can be calculated using
vector analysis combined with Morison equation
The total force per unit length of the cylinder can be
t n
F F F

+ =
The total force per unit length of the cylinder can be
written as
The force in normal direction an be expressed as:
n n n

inertia and drag the are and where
1
1
n n
D
D
F F
F F F + =
ly. respective forces
g
1 D
58
These forces expressed as: These forces expressed as:
2
1
=

n n
n
D
n
D
V V D C F
4
1
2
2
=

n
n
M
n
D a ID C F
cylinder the to normal flow for t coefficien Drag C
where
4
n
=
n M
cylinder of Diameter D
cylinder the to normal flow for t coefficien Inertia C
cylinder the to normal flow for t coefficien Drag C
n
M
D
=
=
=
axis cylinder the to normal particle fluid of Velocity V
seawater of Density
cylinder of Diameter D
=
axis cylinder the to normal particle fluid of on Accelerati a

axis cylinder the to normal particle fluid of Velocity V
n
n
=
=

59
The equation for tangential force can be
written as

t t
F F
1
=
=

t t
t
D
t
V V D C F
F F
cylinder the to l tangentia flow for t coefficien Drag

2
=
=
n
t t D D
C
V V D C F
axis cylinder the to l tangentia particle fluid of Velocity
cylinder the to l tangentia flow for t coefficien Drag
=
=
t
D
V
C
axis cylinder the to l tangentia particle fluid of Velocity
t
V
60
Th f b d d d These forces can be summed and expressed
in terms of cylinder local axis as below:

=
t t
t
D x
V V D C F
2
1

+
n n
ID C V V D C F
1 1
2
+ =
y
n
M y n
n
D y
a ID C V V D C F
4 2

+ =
z
n
M z n
n
D z
a ID C V V D C F
2
4
1
2
1
4 2
61
Maximum Global Loads
Maximum global loads on a platform
can be calculated using two can be calculated using two
principles
Maximum Base Shear Method
Maximum Overturning Moment Method
62
Maximum Base Shear Maximum Base Shear
Maximum base shear or maximum total force on a
structure has to be determined for the global analysis of
structures As the wave propagates across structure wave structures. As the wave propagates across structure wave
force on each member is different and all the locations will
not be attaining the maximum forces. To find the
maximum total force a structure, following steps need to
be considered be considered.
Position the wave crest at the origin of the structure as shown
in figure. in figure.
Divide one wave cycle into number of segments either in
terms of or in terms of length
Compute the wave forces on all members at that instant of
time using water wave velocities and accelerations computed time using water wave velocities and accelerations computed
Sum up the forces in horizontal direction for all the members
Repeat the calculation in step 4 for all the points for one wave
cycle y
The maximum of all the total forces computed in step 5 is the
maximum base shear or total force.
63
Maximum Overturning Moment
Maximum overturning moment on a
structure can be determined following the structure can be determined following the
procedure for the maximum bas shear
case. In this case, the loads on the case. In this case, the loads on the
members shall be multiplied by the lever
arm from mud-line. This shall be summed
d h d h ll b d f up and the procedure shall be repeated for
all the steps in the wave.
64
Hydrodynamic Factors
Wave Kinematics factor
This varies between 0.8 to 0.95. This is to be applied
since the calculated wave loading is based two
dimensional wave theory while the actual loading is y g
from three dimensional wave climate.
Conductor Shielding factor
The presence of rows of conductors will provide a The presence of rows of conductors will provide a
shielding effect to the conductors behind and this
depends on the spacing and number of conductors
Current Blockage Factor Current Blockage Factor
This current blockage factor is used to account for the
reduction in the current due to the presence of the
st ct e in a f ee st eam structure in a free stream.
65
SELECTION OF SUITABLE WAVE THEORY SELECTION OF SUITABLE WAVE THEORY
Example Example
Water Depth d= 60m
Wave height H= 12m g
Wave Period T
app
= 10 Sec
Calculate H/gT
app
2
=0.012
app
Calculate d/gT
app
2
=0.06
Refer to API RP 2A and the Stokes Wave Theory
is applicable
66
H/gTapp
2
=0.012
d/gTapp
2
=0.06
67
W / C t Wave / Current
Direction
Wave / Current Wave / Current
assumed to be acting in
same direction
Wave Directions shall Wave Directions shall
be set to maximize the
total loads and pile loads
Minimum 8 directions Minimum 8 directions
for 4 or 8 legged jackets
and 12 for tripods
Directional or Omni- Directional or Omni-
directional depending on
the design requirement
68
69
400
300
350
m
)
Shear
Moment
150
200
250
t

(
k
N

(
o
r
)

k
N
-
m
0
50
100
(
o
r
)

M
o
m
e
n
t
-150
-100
-50
S
h
e
a
r

-200
-150
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of a single pile along phase angle
70
700
500
600
700
m
)
Shear
Moment
300
400
k
N

(
o
r
)

k
N
-
m
0
100
200
r
)

M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
-200
-100
S
h
e
a
r

(
o
r
-400
-300
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of two pile group along phase angle
71
900
Shear
700
N
-
m
)
Shear
Moment
300
500
t

(
k
N

(
o
r
)

k
N
100
100
r

(
o
r
)

M
o
m
e
n
-300
-100
S
h
e
a
r
-500
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg)
Maximum shear and moment of two pile group structure along phase angle
72
200
Shear
150
-
m
)
Shear
Moment
100
t

(
k
N

(
o
r
)

k
N
0
50
(
o
r
)

M
o
m
e
n
t
-50
S
h
e
a
r

-100
0 90 180 270 360
Phase angle (deg) g ( g)
Maximum shear and moment of a member in two pile group
structure along phase angle
73
Wave slamming Load Wave slamming Load
Wave slamming predominant in horizontal members
Needs to be taken in to account together with global
loads
Wave Slamming is computed similar to drag force Wave Slamming is computed similar to drag force
Slamming Force Co-efficient is to assumed and the
recommended value is 5.5
1
s s w S S
V V D C F
2
1
=
74
Wave Breaking Load Wave Breaking Load
Wave slamming predominant in Vertical members
and vertical faces of coastal structures and vertical faces of coastal structures
The wave breaking force coefficient C
s
is to assumed
as 5.98 for breaking wave and 2.74 for broken wave
The coefficient for calculating the impact velocity is The coefficient for calculating the impact velocity is
to taken as 0.48 for breaking wave and 0.70 for
broken wave
C is the speed of breaking wave C is the speed of breaking wave
C V
b
=
A
gT
V V C F
b b w b b
=
2
092 . 1
gT
C =
75
FLOW PAST HORIZONTAL CYCLINDER
76
77
Assymetric Vortices
78
79
BOUNDARY LAYER
80
LIFT FORCES
1
s s w L L
U U D C F
2
1
=
C C 7 0
2
=
d L
C C 7 . 0
81
FLOW PAST HORIZONTAL PLATES
82
WAVE FORCES ON LARGE
BODIES
83
Diffraction Forces
Assumption of No disturbance is not valid
if D/L > 0 2
Diffraction Forces
if D/L > 0.2
Part of Wave reflected once the wave
touches the structure and part of it pass touches the structure and part of it pass
around
This phenomenon is called diffraction p
These forces also can be measured
experimentally
Many research papers exist for different
types and shapes of structures
84
Di t ib ti f b d diti Distribution of boundary conditions
for the linear diffraction problem
85
Governing Equation Governing Equation
The governing equation for the diffracted spatial The governing equation for the diffracted spatial
potential can be expressed as follows.

2 2 s s

=
in 0
2 2
y x

The velocity potential due to an incident
monochromatic wave traveling in the
positive direction can be expressed as positive direction can be expressed as
follows:
) ( cosh d y k ga +
) ( ,
exp
cosh
) ( cosh
kx
kd
d y k ga

+
=
86
Boundary conditions y
Free surface boundary condition
The kinematic boundary condition on y= can be y y
written as
0 =
y x x t

y
which after linearisation by neglecting the nonlinear terms
in equation
The dynamic boundary condition on the free surface

0 y at 0 = =
The dynamic boundary condition on the free surface

where the atmospheric pressure and surface tension are
taken as zero can be written as
1

at 0 .
2
1
= = + +
y g
t
87
The second term in the above equation is
nonlinear and is neglected in the present
formulation leading to
s
0 y at 0 = = +
g
t
The kinematic and dynamic boundary
conditions can also be specified by combining
0 0
2 2

s s s
p y g
0 y at or 0
2 2
= +
+
g y y
g
t
88
Body boundary condition
The boundary condition on the body boundary should
satisfy the no flow condition or the velocity normal to satisfy the no flow condition or the velocity normal to
the body boundary should be equal and opposite to
the incident wave velocity as follows:
i
s
o
i
s
q
n
n
=
n
Bed boundary condition
The kinematic boundary condition on the fixed horizontal The kinematic boundary condition on the fixed horizontal
sea bed can be specified as a no flow condition as
follows:
0 =
n
s

89
Radiation boundary condition
The boundary condition on the left and right
boundaries of the computational domain should
be specified in order avoid multiple reflection of be specified in order avoid multiple reflection of
scattered waves. This can be specified using the
Sommerfeld radiation condition
0
s
s
ik
= +
x 0
s
ik
x


90
Diffraction Forces
Diffraction forces can be calculated manually
f i l h
Diffraction Forces
for simple shapes
For Complex shapes Numerical Methods
h ll b d h shall be used such as
Finite Difference Method
Fi it l t th d Finite element method
Source and Sink Method
Boundary Element Method Boundary Element Method
Many commercial codes including SACS,
SESAM and others can be used SESAM and others can be used
91
Diffraction Forces
Solution of Boundary Value Problem for
V l it P t ti l
Diffraction Forces
Velocity Potential
Calculation of Pressures
Integration of Pressures to obtain Forces
92
Boundary Value Problem Boundary Value Problem
93
Diffraction Forces Diffraction Forces
94
Ice Loads
Based on Empirical and Measured values
Ice Loads
95
ICE LOADS ICE LOADS
96
SEISMIC ANALYSIS
To generate forces on the structure due to base motion arising
from earthquake from earthquake.
Structural
response
Horizontal
motion
Vertical
motion
97
API RP 2A IS 1893 API RP 2A IS 1893
STRENGTH LEVEL EQ
(200 YEARS)
DESIGN BASIS EQ
(DBE) (200 YEARS)
DUCTILITY LEVEL EQ
(DBE)
MAXIMUM Q
(2000 YEARS) CONSIDERED EQ
(MCE)
98
GEOMETRY GEOMETRY
AND
SEASTATE
SOIL MODEL
PSI INPUT
FILE
Seismic Analysis Steps
LINEARISE
FOUNDATION
SUPERELEMENT
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
MODE SHAPES
& FREQUENCIES
DYNINP
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
RESPONSE
SPECTRA METHOD
SEISMIC
SPECTRA
API / IS 1893
LOAD COMBINATION
MODEL: CQC
DIRECTIONAL: SRSS
NUMBER CHECK
PRST 1.0
PRSC
99
Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) Indication
of Strength of earthquake
PGA = 0.3 X Spectral average between period
0 1 to 0 3 sec 0.1 to 0.3 sec.
Structure
PGA
100
CALCULATED PGA FOR ZONE II TO V CALCULATED PGA FOR ZONE II TO V
AS PER IS: 1893-2000
ZONE SEISMIC
INTENSITY
ZONE
FACTOR
II Low 0.10
III Moderate 0.16 III Moderate 0.16
IV Severe 0.24
V Very 0.36
101
Earthquake Design Criteria
Specific design criteria depends on the country, location and
type of soil stratum etc.
IS 1893
Design Basis Earthquake. (DBE)
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE)
API RP 2A
Strength Level Earthquake (SLE)
Ductility Level Earthquake (DLE)
102
Earthquake Design Criteria
OPERATIONAL EARTHWUAKE (200 YEARS RETURN PERIOD)
No damage to structure
conventional structural design
Allowable stresses can be increased
EXTREME EARTHQUAKE (2000 YEARS RETURN PERIOD)
structure to be stable
Redundant framing
Ductile failure expected
103
The peak ground acceleration of a particular site depends on
the following parameters.
Soil stratum Soil stratum
Distance from epicenter
It is specified in terms of G values as a relative significance.
IS 1893 defines PGA as IS 1893 defines PGA as
( ) ( )
0.1 0.3
0.4
Sa Sa
G G
s s
PGA
+
=

0.4
2
PGA

104
Response Spectra Spectra Normalized to 1 0 Gravity (API RP 2A) Response SpectraSpectra Normalized to 1.0 Gravity (API RP 2A)
105
Response spectra for rock and soil sites for 5% damping (IS 1893)
106
Methods of Analysis
Seismic co-efficient method
Time series method
Response spectra method
Response consideration
Horizontal acceleration both orthogonal directions Horizontal acceleration both orthogonal directions
Vertical acceleration
Number of modes to be combined by complete quadratic Number of modes to be combined by complete quadratic
combination (CQC)
Directional combination to be combined using SRSS.
(S R t f S f S ) (Square Root of Sum of Sequences)
e.g.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
X Y Z
ER ER ER ER = + +
107
Seismic Co-efficient method
Design horizontal co-efficient
h
ZISa
A =
2
h
Rg
Where
Z =zone factor
I =importance factor
=average response acceleration co-efficient
Sa
R =response reduction factor
g
108
Design of Design Forces
Total base shear can be calculated as
V
B
=A
h
.W
Where
A
h
=design horizontal seismic co-efficient
W=total weight of structure
Distribution of Design Forces
Design seismic force at each floor is to be calculated by
2
i i
i B n
j j
Wh
Q V
W h
=
1
j j
j =
n=number of storage or points of mass located along the height.

W
i
=seismic weight of floor, i
109

Loads OFFSHORE

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Loads OFFSHORE

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Offshore Structures Loads

Where R is Reynolds Number, U

Where k is the wave number defined by 2/T, is the wave

26 May 2007 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

axis cylinder the to normal particle fluid of on Accelerati a

26 May 2007 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

cylinder the to l tangentia flow for t coefficien Drag

The dynamic boundary condition on the free surface

The dynamic boundary condition on the free surface

26 May 2007 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

26 May 2007 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

n=number of storage or points of mass located along the height.

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