Self-Concept and Self-Esteem.

E. Alpay
Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology,
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine,
Prince Consort Road, London. S! "#$.
e.alpay%ic.ac.&'
A(stract.
An o)er)ie* of the self+concept and its constr&ction in children and adolescents is presented.
The importance and ed&cational implications of &nderstanding the formation of the self concept, and in
partic&lar self+image and self+esteem, are also considered. The (enefits of self+esteem enhancement on
academic achie)ement, thro&gh parental and teacher infl&ences ,or indeed inter)ention programmes-, are
indicated.
Introd&ction.
The indi)id&al.s sense of themsel)es *ill in)ol)e an a*areness of mental and physical attri(&tes,
as *ell as social roles. S&ch a self+a*areness defines the self+image and, as *ill (e disc&ssed (elo*,
(egins to de)elop at an early age. Sim&ltaneo&s *ith the de)elopment of the self+image is the ideal+self,
*hich is the indi)id&al.s c&lmination of desira(le characteristics, standards, (eha)io&r and s'ills. The
relati)e meas&re (et*een self+image and the ideal+self reflects the indi)id&al.s self+esteem. Self+esteem in
t&rn may (e displayed thro&gh the indi)id&al.s confidence le)els, o)erall contentment, and moti)ations
for ne* e/periences and challenges. In the conte/t of ed&cation therefore, the st&dent.s constr&ct of the
self may ha)e important implications on the learning e/perience. In the follo*ing sections, disc&ssion on
the components of the self *ill (e gi)en. 0o* children and adolescents constr&ct an o)erall sense of
themsel)es as indi)id&als *ill then (e addressed, and the importance ,ed&cational implications- of an
&nderstanding of these processes for parents and teachers descri(ed.
ho am I1 An 2)er)ie*
As mentioned a(o)e, the self+image is the indi)id&al.s a*areness of personal attri(&tes. This is
de)eloped at an early age thro&gh the infl&ences of the parents or g&ardians. 3or e/ample, se/+role
stereotyping (y the parents, as *ell as feed(ac' on or e/aggeration of personal characteristics, may
esta(lish an early self+image and body image &pon the child. The process contin&es in the school years
thro&gh ne* e/periences and the infl&ences ,i.e. percei)ed opinions- of significant others, s&ch as peers and
teachers. The self+image therefore can (e deemed to de)elop thro&gh a 4loo'ing glass5 ,Cooley, 678"-,
*hich refers to image formation thro&gh feed(ac' from others. 0o*e)er, the cogniti)e de)elopment of
the indi)id&al *ill also ena(le reflection on e/periences, and th&s image formation as a response from the
en)ironment, and reflection on the en)ironment9 see La*rence ,677:-.
The s&m total of a person.s percei)ed and desired mental and physical characteristics, as *ell as
the person.s percei)ed *orthiness from these, is often referred to as the self+concept. Th&s, self+concept
can (e )ie*ed as an 4&m(rella5 term ,La*rence, 677:- *hich encompasses the self+image, the ideal+self
and the self+esteem of the indi)id&al. hen an indi)id&al is as'ed to repetiti)ely ans*er the ;&estion
4*ho am I15, the indi)id&al is li'ely to first re)eal the self+image, s&ch as age and physical attri(&tes,
follo*ed (y aspects of the ideal+self and self+esteem, s&ch as aspirations and percei)ed strengths and
*ea'nesses. Th&s, the self+concept can (e )ie*ed as an o)erall interpretation of 4*ho am I15.
Constr&cting I and Me.
In early childhood ,i.e. pre+school-, the child.s self+image is li'ely to foc&s on specific
o(ser)a(le (eha)io&rs and characteristics. That is, specific s'ills, possessions and preferences are li'ely to
(e stated (y the child to descri(e the self, and percei)ed personal attri(&tes directly related to (eha)io&rs.
The child is &nli'ely to ma'e reference to any relati)e e)al&ation of the self *ith respect to peers or
society, *hich s&ggests that iss&es of an idealised self, and th&s self+*orth, are inconse;&ential to the
child. 0o*e)er, there is some e)idence *hich s&ggests that the child.s self+esteem may in fact (e
partic&larly reflecti)e of the parental perception of the child at this ,and middle childhood- stages
,#roo'o)er et al. ,67:<--. 3&rthermore, &ncritical ,s&perficial- self+e)al&ation or self+do&(t may f&rther
res&lt in the child to e/hi(it an inflated sense of a(ilities. S&ch characteristics of the child may (e a
reflection of the cogniti)e limitations at this stage of life ,re a pre-operational stage ,Piaget ,67<"--, and
may in fact (e (eneficial in promoting, for e/ample, an emotionally &ninhi(ited approach to ne*
e/periences and challenges.
In middle childhood ,i.e. pre+adolescence-, a greater sense of social a*areness arises, possi(ly
thro&gh the *ide increase of significant others ,e.g. peers, teacher, and idols-, as *ell as some
internalisation of the percei)ed )al&es and norms of society ,see (elo*-. At his stage, statements of self+
image *ill incl&de emotionality, interpersonal references, as *ell as trait la(els. Iss&es of self+esteem are
th&s li'ely to arise in middle childhood. As indicated earlier, the self+esteem or self+*orth of the child
refers to a relati)e meas&re (et*een the child.s self+image and ideal ,or desired- self, i.e. in the *ords of
=ames ,6>78-, self+esteem can (e considered as the ratio of 4o&r act&alities to o&r s&pposed potentialities5.
A lo* self+esteem therefore indicates a large discrepancy (et*een the self+image and the ideal+self, and may
(e e/hi(ited thro&gh se)eral operations (y the child ,La*rence ,677:--?
@ a)oidance9 i.e. a st&dent *ith lo* self+esteem and an intro)ert temperament may adopt the attit&de that
4*ith no attempt there can (e no fail&re5
compensation9 i.e. a st&dent *ith lo* self+esteem and an e/tro)ert temperament may e/hi(it
(oastf&l and arrogant (eha)io&r to co)er an &nderlying inferiority comple/ ,=&ng ,67"A--
lo* moti)ation9 i.e. altho&gh the discrepancy (et*een self+image and the ideal+self may act as a
moti)ator for personal de)elopment, if a st&dent percei)es a partic&lar tas' as not rele)ant to
their self+concept, then ,as mentioned a(o)e- little moti)ation for the tas' may (e e/hi(ited
resistance9 i.e. the st&dent *ill try to maintain the self+concept and resist change, e)en if this may
(e of (enefit. Interestingly, st&dents of lo* self+esteem are li'ely to offer the greatest resistance,
so as to minimise ris'.
The middle childhood indi)id&al *ill also (egin to recognise the different components and
domains in life *hich infl&ence their )ie* and e)al&ation of themsel)es. This leads to the emphasis of the
notion of situational and global self+esteem. The former descri(es self+esteem for a partic&lar tas' or
sit&ation ,e.g. academic+related-, *hereas the latter the o)erall, or s&m+total, self+esteem. S&ch
differentiation of self+esteem has (een &sed to e/plain *hy specific st&dent inade;&acy or incompetence is
not necessarily reflected in the o)erall self+*orthiness of the indi)id&al. 3&rthermore, if the specific tas'
is not of significance to the st&dent.s ideal+self, irrespecti)e of its teacher+percei)ed )al&e, then
moti)ation for the tas' itself *ill (e lo*. 3or e/ample, La*rence ,677:- descri(es cases of poor readers
*ho act&ally ha)e good ling&istic and cogniti)e a(ilities in other tas's, (&t simply do not see reading as
important to them.
In adolescence, self+)ie*s are generally o(ser)ed to (ecome more sta(le ,P&r'ey ,67!8--.
0o*e)er, some of the e)al&ations of the self may (e rather hypothetical ,e.g. &no(ser)a(le or a(stract-.
There is also greater emphasis (y the indi)id&al on the psychological interior, s&ch that st&dents *ill often
ma'e references to, for e/ample, depression, moodiness and sensiti)ity. It is perhaps the press&res of
academic p&rs&its, the c&lt&ral emphasis on s&ccess and assessment, and peer press&re and competition,
that partic&larly facilitate self+concept and self+esteem de)elopment at this stage of life ,#&rns ,67>"--.
Li'e*ise, adolescents may (e partic&larly s&scepti(le to the infl&ences of media and ad)ertisement, as
they endea)o&r to esta(lish an identity ,c.f. self+concept- of themsel)es. Role (ased a(stractions also
appear in adolescence, *here(y the self+image of the indi)id&al is percei)ed conte/t&ally, i.e. a different
self *ith different types of people ,teachers, friends, parent-. S&ch role (ased self+image has (een
e/plained (y =ames ,6>78- thro&gh the distinction (et*een 4I5, i.e. the self as knower, and the 4me+self5,
i.e. the self ,or sel)es- as 'no*n. In specific, the indi)id&al is post&lated to create a me+self for e)ery
person ,or gro&p- he or she enco&nters.
hat may possi(ly dri)e the creations of me+self, and *hy is it that )ery different and distinct
me+sel)es arise in adolescence1 It *as mentioned earlier that in addition to the role of significant others,
*hich constit&te the indi)id&al.s immediate en)ironment, infl&ences may arise thro&gh a concept&alised
notion of societal )al&es and norms, i.e. generalised others ,Mead ,67AB--. Th&s the generalised other
in)ol)es inc&lcated notions ,e.g. attit&des, e/pectations, points of )ie*- of some a(stract social class or
gro&p, *hich an indi)id&al *ill adopt as one.s o*n. Altho&gh the formation of a
generalised other may ha)e originally in)ol)ed the specific attit&des of indi)id&als, o)er time, the f&ll
comple/ of factors (ecome inter+related and no longer reflect specific attit&des. It is perhaps thro&gh the
infl&ence of the generalised other that an indi)id&al may come to effecti)ely interact *ithin a gro&p or
society. Mead.s theory therefore strongly emphasises the social infl&ence on the de)elopment of an
indi)id&al.s self+concept, (&t in this case, there is perhaps reinforcement of the self+image thro&gh a
percei)ed looking-glass *hich arises from generalised constr&cts. In a gro&p sense therefore, the me+self
may (e )ie*ed as a prod&ct of adoption ,or percei)ed adoption- of a partic&lar generalised other.
0o*e)er, perhaps a lac' of adolescent e/perience, and th&s possi(ly inacc&rate or incomplete cogniti)e
interpretation, may lead to some )olatility and inconsistency amongst an indi)id&al.s m&ltiple sel)es ,c.f.
4conflict of the different mes5 ,=ames ,6>78--. ith mat&rity, cogniti)e reasoning is (elie)ed to red&ce the
importance of social infl&ences on the self+concept, and th&s a greater consistency in character ,see, for
e/ample, 0arter ,677A--. 0o*e)er, it is &nli'ely that an indi)id&al co&ld e)er (e tr&ly free of s&ch
infl&ences ,Reynolds ,"886--.
Ed&cational Implications.
The social infl&ences on the indi)id&al.s sense of themsel)es, *o&ld s&ggest possi(le
inter)entionist programmes for the impro)ement in, for e/ample, self+esteem. In an ed&cational conte/t,
the premise of s&ch programmes ha)e (een that there is a relationship (et*een st&dent achie)ement and
self+esteem, and that impro)ements in self+esteem *ill lead to impro)ements in achie)ement. hilst
research findings on this relationship are mi/ed, there is general agreement amongst researchers that
st&dents *ho are &nderachie)ing at school are also li'ely to ha)e lo* self+esteem ,#&rns ,67>"--.
0o*e)er, the direction of ca&sality has (een of de(ate, i.e. is it lo* self+esteem *hich ca&ses
&nderachie)ement, or is it &nderachie)ement *hich ca&ses lo* self+esteem1 If the former case is tr&e,
then the parental and teacher roles ,i.e. significant others- in st&dent achie)ement are apparent. Li'e*ise,
on a *ider conte/t, the role of an ed&cational instit&te itself, thro&gh, for e/ample, the creation of a
generalised other *hich defines its commitment and attit&des to ed&cation, m&st not (e &nderestimated. In
contrast, if lo* st&dent self+esteem ,academic or other*ise- is primarily an artefact of poor achie)ement,
then perhaps assessment criteria, (oth in terms of appropriateness and methods of implementation, re;&ire
re+e)al&ation ,see also the disc&ssions of Cardner ,6777- on assessment (ased on multiple intelligences,
rather than the ling&istic and logical+mathematical (ias e/pressed in typical estern schooling-.
To date, the most con)incing e)idence for ca&sality comes from research *or's *hich attempt to
impro)e achie)ement (y first impro)ing self+esteem9 see, for e/ample #roo'o)er et al. ,67:<-, La*rence
,677:-, and the re)ie* of Andre*s ,677>-. S&ch *or'ers demonstrate that indeed an impro)ement in
st&dent self+esteem can lead to impro)ements in academic achie)ements and D or interpersonal (eha)io&r.
0o*e)er, #&rns ,67>"- indicates that *hilst academic s&ccess raises or maintains self+esteem, it is self+
esteem *hich infl&ences performance thro&gh, for e/ample, higher e/pectations, standards and
moti)ation. This, interdependency on self+esteem and achie)ement is also released thro&gh =ames.
post&lation that
self esteem = success / pretensions
*hich may (e also stated as
self esteem = achievement / expectations.
Th&s, high achie)ement may (e realised thro&gh high e/pectations and high self+esteem, (&t as s&ggested
(y #&rns, self+esteem itself may not (e f&nctionally independent of e/pectations. 3or e/ample, st&dents
*ith a high specific self+esteem for a tas', s&ch as reading, may act&ally (e &nderachie)ing in the tas'
itself, *hich *o&ld s&ggest lo* e/pectations or standards for the tas', and th&s an inherent apathetic ,lo*
moti)ation- approach. Ender these circ&mstances, perhaps a clearer distinction is needed (et*een self+
esteem and moti)ation. In partic&lar, if consideration is gi)en to the $er'es+Dodson ,678>- la* of aro&sal
and performance, then it is not too s&rprising to e/pect an optim&m le)el of self+esteem for moti)ation.
Th&s, the optimal learning state is not necessarily one of lo* self+esteem, *here iss&es of an/iety,
resistance or a)oidance may arise, or one of )ery high self+esteem, *here iss&es of apathy and false+
confidence may arise, (&t one of an optimal le)el of self+esteem. S&ch an optim&m, of co&rse, may (e
st&dent and tas' specific, s&ch that considerations need to (e gi)en to the st&dent temperament ,e.g.
intro)ert+e/tro)ert nat&re- as *ell as prior e/perience in related tas' areas.
A
It is also important to note that research e)idence s&ggests that the relationship (et*een self+
esteem and achie)ement does not necessarily hold tr&e for general ,glo(al- self+esteem ,or indeed an
o)erall academic self+esteem-, (&t for self+esteem for )ery specific s&(Fects s&ch as reading, mathematics
and science9 see, for e/ample, the disc&ssions and research references of 0&itt ,677>-. The implication
here is that s&ccess in a partic&lar s&(Fect or area does not need to in)ol)e a change in the st&dent.s self+
concept or glo(al self+esteem, (&t perhaps the st&dents e/pectation ,or tas'+specific self esteem- for f&t&re
s&ccess. Interestingly, s&ch a )ie* has a some relation to the expectancy-value model for st&dent learning
,see, for, e/ample, #iggs and Moore ,677A-. Ge)ertheless, for st&dents of lo* o)erall self+esteem, *ho
may, for e/ample, (e e/hi(iting (eha)io&ral pro(lems, the (enefits of tas' specific impro)ement of self+
esteem may (e considera(le on the o)erall self+*orth.
The a(o)e disc&ssion on the research findings defining the inter+relationships (et*een self+image
and self+esteem lead to se)eral implications for parents and teachers. 3or e/ample, as significant others,
and possi(le proponents of a generalised other, efforts are needed to recognise specific pro(lems of lo*
self+esteem in the child D adolescent, and to act effecti)ely to negate lo* self+esteem9 see, also the
disc&ssions of Rosen(erg ,67:<, 67!7-, Coopersmith ,67:!-, and Andre*s and #ro*n ,67>>, 677A- on the
parental infl&ences on self+esteem. The *or's of Carl Rogers ,67:6- may (e partic&larly rele)ant here,
*here(y specific ;&alities of the teacher or parent are indicated to (enefit st&dent self+esteem, e.g. non+
F&dgemental acceptance of the child, gen&ineness, and empathy. These ;&alities are li'ely to lead to a
tr&sting and comm&nicati)e en)ironment for learning and de)elopment.
The social nat&re of the self+concept s&ggests gro&p acti)ities may also (e partic&larly (eneficial
for enhancing self+esteem, as has (een demonstrated (y La*rence ,677:-. 3or e/ample, s&ch acti)ities
may lead to the st&dent to e/perience positi)e feed(ac' from peers, and th&s a possi(le means of
reassessing a poorly percei)ed self+image ,e.g. 4circle+time5 and 4recalling the good times5 acti)ities-.
Certain acti)ities co&ld also pro)ide st&dents *ith opport&nities to ta'e ris's, and th&s challenge any
e/isting a)oidance or resistance traits ,e.g. 4playing the hero or e/pert5 acti)ities-. The specific nat&re of
acti)ities co&ld, of co&rse, (e adapted to s&it the age gro&p of concern.
3inally, in order esta(lish a positi)e ethos in the classroom and home ,c.f. a fa)o&ra(le
generalised other-, the self+esteem of the teacher and parents are also of importance ,#&rns ,67!<--.
Indeed, the ;&alities &nderlying good co&nselling s'ills are more li'ely to (e identified *ith high self+
esteem. 2ne implication here is that the ed&cation comm&nity as a *hole has a responsi(ility in pro)iding
teachers *ith a fa)o&ra(le *or'ing en)ironment, and opport&nities for personal gro*th, if indeed this is to
(e fa)o&ra(ly reflected in st&dent achie)ement.
Concl&sions.
An o)er)ie* of ho* children and adolescents constr&ct a sense of themsel)es as indi)id&als has
(een presented. This considered aspects of the self+image, self+esteem and self+concept. 3actors
infl&encing self+esteem and the self+concept ha)e (een sho*n to comprise of social and cogniti)e iss&es,
the former (eing deemed to (e most significant. The social infl&ence on the self+concept, as *ell as
research findings *hich indicate a relationship (et*een specific self+esteem and achie)ement, s&ggest that
school+(ased inter)ention programmes may (e (eneficial in impro)ing the academic performance of
st&dents of lo* self+esteem. Li'e*ise, the role of the parents in the indi)id&al.s ed&cational de)elopment
m&st not (e &nder)al&ed.
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