electronics Club

Introductory Lecture on Digital Electronics

url: www.iitk.ac.in/eclub
email: eclub.iitk@gmail.com
Basic Concepts:
Digital Electronics: Digital Electronics is defined in the dictionary as the
electronics applied to the processing binary numbers. Basically, this branch of
electronics has just two building blocks, or to say two building numbers, namely 0 &
1. t all depends whether the input or output is 1 or 0, in other terminology, low or
high respecti!ely.
Logical High/ Low: "s said abo!e, in
digital electronics there are basically two states
# $igh or %ow. $igh refers to the state when the
!oltage is more than the reference !oltage
&mostly ground' & %ow refers the state when
the !oltage is close to the reference !oltage.
$igh is referred by 1 & %ow is referred by 0.
Number System: (he two number system which are used most often in the
digital electronics are Binary )o. *ystem & the he+adecimal *ystem. $ere we deal
only with the binary system.
Binary System: t consists of
just two numerals # 0 & 1.
Decimal numbers in binary
system using , bits &
he+adecimal system are-
. 1 .
Decimal
)o.
Binary
E/ui!alent
$e+adecimal
E/ui!alent
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
0 0010 0
1 0011 1
, 0100 ,
2 0101 2
3 0110 3
4 0111 4
5 1000 5
6 1001 6
10 1010 "
11 1011 B
10 1100 7
11 1101 D
1, 1110 E
12 1111 8
time
!
o
l
t
a
g
e
ig!
Low
Clock: Looking electronically, a clock is simply a square wave i.e. alternate
high & low states. Each alternate high-low forms a clock cycle with a
specific frequency & duty cycle. Frequency is the no of cycles completed
in 1 sec & duty cycle is the ratio of the time period of high state to the time
period of the low state
Gates & Truth Tables: ates are the logical units that perform
!oolean operations on one or more inputs. "he common gates are #$"
gate, %#& gate, $' gate, #%#& gate, #$' gate, ($' gate & #-($'
gate. For the function of the gates & their truth ta)les, refer the datasheets
of the gates or the presentation availa)le on the clu) we)site.
. 0 .
time
!
o
l
t
a
g
e
Now let us look into the C!s & other electrical
com"onents that are going to be use# $or the
han#s on worksho":
But, first of all, let9s see what an 7 is-
IC # integrated circuit # is a small chip which when gi!en input, performs
some specific operation on the inputs & gi!es some output. t basically is
made of millions of transistors in such a way that the desired operation is
performed.
Eg- 222, ,006, 4,,4 etc
"esistors- (hese are the resistors whose !alue can be identified
from the colour code as gi!en bel
Capacitors: :e prefer to use electrolytic capacitors o!er ceramic
as they are more accurate. (he important point to be noted is that
although the resistors, mica capacitors are non directional,
Electrolytic capacitors ha!e to be used in the circuit with terminals
with the right polarity i.e. the terminal with marking of ground or
#!e is always the anode&it has a shorter leg'. f these are connected
with opposite polarity, the capacitor won9t work & would infact burst;
Breadboards: (hese are the bases on which circuits
are built which already ha!e certain holes
interconnected. $ow to use it & which holes are
interconnected would be e+plained in the workshop.
. 1 .
%orking with the &&&
222 is used for producing a clock &s/uare wa!e' at a
desired fre/uency. t can be used in !arious ways
like the astable mode, monostable mode etc. $ere,
we deal with the astable operation of 222. "stable
mode ensures that the 222 is self.triggered & so, it
acts as a multi.!ibrator.
%et us look into the working of 222 in astable mode-
(hese are the
connections
needed to
make the 222 chip run in the <astable9 mode.
(he pin numbers are gi!en in circles.
)ote the right.most side of the figure, and
consider all the connections with the pins as
<open.circuits9. gnore the rest of the circuit
for a while.
D# . Circuit
Connections to be made
(his o!er.familiar circuit will majestically
jump up. (he =c1 is the dri!ing signal for
this 222, connected at >) 3, which is the
($?E*$@%D >). "s soon as =c1
reaches A=cc, then the output at >) 1
goes low, and the capacitor starts
discharging, !ia >) 4 with ?
b
as the
?esistor and ground as the other terminal.
&?efer to the first image to see how it
BC$( happen.' :hen it reaches D=cc,
the output at >) 1 goes high, and the
D*7$"?CE >)9s connection with
ground is broken. (he capacitor again
starts charging, and the cycle is repeated.
Eou need not bother yourself with how
the
7ircuit is broken or established.
(his graph gi!es the @F(>F( at >) 1
and the input !oltage at >) 4.
. , .
D$% &utput
. 2 .
D'. Internal (orking o) t!e ***
(his is the internal working of the 222 timer. (he chip deri!es its name from the three
?9s on the top of the image, they all are 2 kG. $ence, the name 222.
)ow, let us see how we can set the 222 to work at the desired fre/uency by selecting
the right combination of resistances & capacitances. Fsing the con!ention as in D1,
8rom circuit analysis & mathematics, it can be obtained that-
+re,uency - #.''/./"
0
1 2"
B
3 4 C
#
5
"lso, 222 can produce wa!es with duty cycle else than the 20 H cycle. (he desired
duty cycle can be worked out by using the result-
Duty Cycle - /"
0
1 "
B
3 4 #66/ /"
0
1 2"
B
3
where duty cycleI ?atio of time period when the output is 1 to the time
period when the output is 0
. 3 .
%orking %ith '()* Counter
(he 7 ,006 has multiple function , i.e. as
a counter as well as a memory
de!ice&using the flip flops'. $ere in the
workshop, we are considering only the
counter function & how it works.
:hen connected in the way as described
below, the ,006 counts from 0 to 6 &or 0 to
12' & gi!es the output in B7D &Binary
7oded Decimal' with , bits.
7ins 8 t!eir Connections:
7in 9o. 9ame +unction Connection
1 >arallel %oad :hen high, parallel bits are
corresponding output bits.
:hen low, counter.
Cround
0 @utput Bit 1 Bost significant bit @utput&goes to 4,,4'
1 >arallel bit 1 Bit copied to @1 when >% is
high
ground
, >arallel bit 0 Bit copied to @0 when >% is
high
Cround
2 7lock Enable &bar' :hen grounded, the clock is
enabled
Cround
3 @utput Bit 0 %east significant bit @utput&goes to 4,,4'
4 (7 &bar' Ci!es a low when one cycle
of count completes
@utput # can be used for
subse/uent clock for other
counter
5 = reference&%ow' (o be connected to make the
chip work
Cround
6 Binary or he+ count (o count upto 10 or 13 ground
10 F> or Down increase or decrease 2 !
11 @utput Bit 1 @utput bit @utput&goes to 4,,4'
10 >arallel bit 1 Bit copied to @1 when >% is
high
Cround
11 >arallel bit 0 Bit copied to @0 when >% is
high
Cround
1, @utput bit 0 @utput bit @utput&goes to 4,,4'
12 7lock >ulse nput.the clock pulse. each
high increments the counter
@utput of 222 i.e. pin 1
13 =oltage &high' (o be connected to make the
chip work
2 =
. 4 .
a
g
f b J
e d J c decimal
%orking %ith +CD to , Segment Deco#er
,'',
(he B7D to 4 *egment Decoder 7
4,,4 takes in the , output bits &@0,
@1, @0, @1 from the ,006 here' &
decodes it such that the corresponding
digit in decimal form can be shown on
the 4 *egment Display. (he output
here are the pins numbered 6 to 12
named a to g as shown in the pin out
diagram. (hese 4 bits are to be
connected to the corresponding pins&to
be identified by the alphabets' !ia a
resistor, preferably a 000 G or 110G.
&(hink about the reason resistor is
used. (he pin connections in this chip
are-
>in 1,0, 3,4 # input pins
>in 5 # Cround
>in 13 # 2 =
>in 6 to 12 # (o 4 *egment Display
>in 1 # (o test whether the 4 segment is defecti!e. f it is high, all the 4 segments
must glow. t has to be connected to Cround.
>in , , 2 # Cround
, Segment Dis"lay
(he 4 *egment Display consists of 4 %EDs which can be
glowed in some particular fashion using the 4 different
input pins. 8or e+ample, if a, b, g, e, d glow, numeral 0 is
represented.
J stands for cathode, i.e. J has to be connected to 2 =. (he
decimal is optional as it is used to glow the decimal point in
bottom right of the 4 segment display.
. 5 .
m"ortant Ti"s %hile Circuiting:
nterconnect the horiKontal lines & use them for ground & 2= purposes so that
ground & high can be pro!ided to any pin in the circuit easily.
"lways keep in mind, ne!er e!er short high with low.
$andle the chips carefully.
"lways keep in mind to gi!e the chip $igh & %ow at the corresponding place
i.e. =ss&or ground'' & =dd&or =cc', else the chip won9t work.
)e!er lea!e any input of the chip in floating position i.e. not connected as that
can affect the output by introducing noise.
:hen using an %ED, always use it along with a resistor of appropriate !alue.
Fse the electrolytic capacitor with correct polarity.
Jeep the wires small & tight for clean & strong circuiting.
Fse some colour coding for easy identification of wires & connections during
debugging. 8or eg- Fse red for high, green for ground & yellow, blue for
interconnections.
n digital electronics, keep an %ED ready for testing & debugging purposes.
:hat mean by this is, that the %ed should be connected to a resistor & wire,
so that it is fle+ible.& belie!e me, there is going to be a great use of it'.
:hen using resistors, do check that the legs do not touch each other.
ncase of any confusion, contact your friendly neighbourhood *ecy or
7oordy;
Things to -on#er:
*hy +s LE& connected along with a resistor,
*hy did we connect each pin of - segment display through a resistor,
+s there any other way also that would use lesser no of resistors &
serve the same purpose,
+s there a way that you can make your circuit safe against any cross-
connection that takes place )etween high & low in your circuit,
+f you used ... with a different duty cycle )ut same frequency, how
would it affect the counter,
/an you think how you could use a 0123 as a memory device,4hint5
6arallel Load7
/an you upgrade this counter of yours to multiple displays i.e. 2
&isplays for seconds & 1 for min 4 count upto 11 minutes only7 working
like a clock i.e. after every 3 sec, the tens digit is incremented & after
.3 seconds, sacs should go to 11 & minute is incremented, 4hint5
6arallel load & "/7
. 6 .