INT. J. SCI. EDUC.

, 1999,
VOL.
21,
NO
. 4, 431 446
Concept cartoons, teaching and learning in science:
an evaluation
Brenda Keogh and Stuart Naylor, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
Concept cartoons were created in an attempt to develop an innovative teaching and learning strategy
which took account of constructivist views on learning in science. The nature and development of
concept cartoons is described. The article reports the results of an evaluation of the use of concept
cartoons in a range of teaching situations. Data sources were teachers, student teachers and pupils across
the primary and secondary age ranges. The data indicate that the response of teachers and learners to
the concept cartoons was generally highly positive. Suggestions are put forward for possible mechan-
isms by which the concept cartoons might be effective.
Introduction
Concept cartoons had their genesis in 1992. At that time, research into learners
alternative conceptions was having an impact on the beliefs and practice of teachers
and teacher educators. Although the research into learners understanding of
science concepts was extensive, the literature revealed few teaching strategies
which took account of this research. Millar ( 1989: 588) concluded that:
. . . many teachers are now persuaded of the value of knowing about the prior ideas
their pupils are likely to have about a given science topic . . . but are much less sure
about how to act on this knowledge when teaching a class of 25 or more learners.
Claxton ( 1986) and Trumper (1990) pointed to the limited attention which had
been paid to the application of the research in the classroom. More recently, White
(1994: 225) has alluded to the same issue in claiming that
. . . although the literature on alternative conceptions has sparked an interest in con-
tent, it has not yielded clear advice on how to teach different topics.
The concept cartoons discussed in this article were developed in a search for
strategies which could help to clarify the relationship between constructivist mod-
els of learning, scientific epistemology and classroom practice. The article reports
the findings of research into the use of concept cartoons in order to evaluate their
effectiveness in supporting teaching and learning in science.
The nature of concept cartoons
Cartoons have been employed in a variety of ways for educational purposes. These
include the development of reading skills (Demetrulias 1982) and vocabulary
(Goldstein 1986); problem solving (Jones 1987) and thinking skills (De Fren
1988); enhancing motivation (Heintzmann 1989); resolving conflict (Naylor and
09500693/99 $12 00

1999 Taylor & Francis Ltd.
McMurdo 1990); eliciting tacit scientific knowledge (Guttierrez and Ogborn 1992)
and making scientific ideas accessible (Peacock 1995).
The label cartoon may be potentially misleading, since many individuals
expect a strong association to exist between cartoons and humour. The
concept cartoons do not employ humour or satire. They follow the form of
a multiple choice question, but unlike most multiple choice questions, the
concept cartoons integrate written text in dialogue form with a visual stimulus.
The nature of concept cartoons is illustrated in the examples given in figures 1
and 2.
In some ways, the concept cartoons have much in common with some of
the strategies used by researchers to explore children s scientific conceptions
(e.g. Osborne and Gilbert 1980, Stavy and Berkovitz 1980, Stead and
Osborne 1980, Nussbaum 1985, Russell et al. 1989). In each of these strategies,
common elements exist which include minimal use of written language,
utilization of a visual image and often the presentation of alternative concepts or
questions relating to one central idea or word. Extensive use has been made of the
above strategies as conceptual probes in research. White and Gunstone (1992)
discuss the effectiveness of some of these strategies in a classroom context in
relation to assessment. Although concept cartoons are intended to elicit learners
concepts, assessment of understanding is not their only or prime purpose. They
were intended primarily as an aid to teaching and learning. As Gunstone (1988: 90)
notes:
The methods used to probe students ideas/beliefs are also, almost by definition,
excellent teaching/learning strategies.
The concept cartoons developed markedly in the early stages of their use.
Some of the draft concept cartoons involved a single character starting a
misconception. While these concept cartoons proved stimulating and challenging
to some learners, it became clear that for others there was a possibility of
reinforcing inappropriate ideas. Recognizing the effectiveness of the use of a
group of characters engaged in dialogue was a significant point in the develop-
ment of the concept cartoons. The use of dialogue creates the opportunity to
present alternative ideas, including one or more views which are scientifically
acceptable.
The research literature provides an extensive source of alternative concepts
which learners are likely to hold, enabling the mountain of examples of children s
alternative frameworks (Claxton 1986) to be fed into classroom practice. For
example, the snowman concept cartoon (figure 1) takes into account research by
Tiberghien (1985) which indicates that children may believe that different
materials have the property of being hot or cold. Other concept cartoons draw
on ideas identified through interactions with learners in our own teaching experi-
ence.
The concept cartoons are located in a familiar context in order to cause
learners to reflect on the science located within their everyday experience, so
giving relevance to the ideas being considered. The significance of the place of
the familiar in influencing students learning is identified by Wittrock ( 1994: 30),
who expresses the view that familiar believable contexts and problems facilitate
generative learning .
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B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
Research methodology
A set of concept cartoons was made available to a group of teachers and student
teachers who were asked to use those which they felt were most appropriate for
the particular learning needs of their pupils. Wherever possible, the concept car-
toons were to be used within a normal teaching sequence. In the event, due to
timetabling difficulties, 12 of the student teachers used the concept cartoons out-
side the normal science programme of their schools. Each concept cartoon was
used on at least two occasions, either on its own or grouped with other related
cartoons.
The concept cartoons were selected from a sample of approximately 50. These
focused mainly on light, sound, forces, change of state and living things. Some
additional concept cartoons were created during the course of the data collection to
satisfy particular curriculum demands.
Guidance on the utilization of the concept cartoons was provided. The guid-
ance material also included an explicit invitation to the teachers to use the concept
cartoons in any additional ways which they felt were appropriate. Typically, a
lesson based on the concept cartoons involved:

a brief introduction to the activity;

an invitation to the learners to reflect on the concept cartoons and to discuss

in groups what they think and why;

interaction and intervention by the teacher as appropriate during the teach-

ing session;

practical investigation or research-based activity to follow up the learners

ideas as appropriate, encouraged and supported by the teacher as necessary;

a whole class plenary to share and challenge ideas.

CONCEPT CARTOONS
433
Figure 1. From Keogh and Naylor ( 1997).
Data collection
The data was obtained through four main sources

Questionnaires completed by 51 teachers working in a range of teaching

contexts. Of these six were higher education teacher education tutors (one
in a non-British university), 19 taught in secondary schools, 21 taught in
primary schools, two taught in special education at secondary level, one
gave advisory support for English as a second language with primary-
aged children, one was working with nursery-aged children and one in an
interactive science centre.

Questionnaires and more detailed reports completed by 85 primary student

teachers engaged in school-based research. This was a compulsory part of
their course carried out towards the end of their final year of training, after
their final school experience.

Interviews to probe the interpretation of the data conducted towards the

end of the research period. They involved three of the above teachers, five
pupils from one of the primary classes and two groups of five student
teachers.

Two case studies involving classroom observation of Year 7 pupils in a

secondary school (Case Study A) and physics graduates on a one year
PGCE course (Case Study B).
The teachers were all volunteers, identified through conferences and profes-
sional networks. The student teachers were included to broaden the sample
beyond volunteers and to evaluate the use of the concept cartoons by novice
teachers. Prior to conducting the research, the students were introduced to the
use of the concept cartoons by tutors other than the researchers. The two case
studies were selected on the basis that the learners, in each situation, were per-
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B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
Figure 2. From Keogh and Naylor ( 1997).
ceived by their teacher as being difficult or challenging. In case study A, the class
of 1112 year olds in an inner city secondary school was described by their teacher
as demotivated and lacking in interest. Some of the physics graduates in case study
B were perceived as being over-confident and challenging. In each case study, the
concept cartoons were included in the normal teaching programme.
The case studies provided an important opportunity for a degree of triangula-
tion of the data (Denzin 1970). Each case study allowed methodological triangula-
tion through the use of different data collection strategies, in this case classroom
observation, interviews with the teacher, oral and written feedback from learners,
and interviews with learners. Investigator triangulation was effected by the
learners, the teachers and the authors each reporting on the same events in the
case studies.
Response was requested to the following questions, with exemplification to be
included where possible:

How involved were the learners when using the concept cartoons?

How useful were the concept cartoons for finding out the learners existing
ideas?

How effective were the concept cartoons at challenging and developing

learners ideas?

How effective were the concept cartoons in relating the process of finding
out the pupils ideas with the process of developing their ideas?

How useful were the concept cartoons for helping learners to decide which
would be an appropriate investigation to test their ideas?

How easy was it for you to use the concept cartoons?

Are there other issues you see as relevant when using the concept cartoons?
These criteria were consistent with issues emerging from early pilot studies
using the concept cartoons. They appeared to be relevant to the practical concerns
of teachers and to concerns about the relationship between theory and practice in
the teaching of science.
Information was also collected about the purposes for which the concept car-
toons were employed, the age, nature and size of the teaching group involved, the
concept cartons used, the context in which they were used and the approach
adopted.
Each of the 85 student teachers responded in detail to the above questions.
Detailed written responses, including fully completed questionnaires and some
examples of work, were received from 34 teachers. The positive nature of these
responses raised concern that only those teachers who felt highly motivated by the
approach had responded. Consequently, a follow-up evaluation form was devised,
setting the first five questions against a Likert Scale to minimize the time required
to respond. An additional question was included about the value of the concept
cartoons in promoting differentiated learning, an issue which emerged through the
initial responses. This questionnaire was sent to those teachers who had not
returned to the original questionnaire. Of these n 25 , 17 completed the
Likert Scale, some adding brief additional comments to exemplify their grading.
On the Likert Scale (16), a score of 1 indicated little or no value and 6 indicated
exceptional value.
The data are based on 149 teaching sessions.
CONCEPT CARTOONS
435
Data and data analysis
The data presented an unexpectedly positive account of the use of the concept
cartoons. While problems were identified, many of the criticisms and concerns
tended to be at the micro level (e.g. drawing style or style of writing). It is reason-
able to assume that volunteer teachers are likely to view innovation in their own
teaching favourably. The students, however, were not volunteers, some being very
sceptical about the use of the concept cartoons in their research with nothing to
gain by discounting the shortcomings in the concept cartoons.
The data from the teachers and student teachers are discussed together, except
where it is pertinent to draw a distinction.
Learner motivation and involvement
In all 149 teaching sessions high or exceptionally high levels of motivation and
interest amongst most or all learners were recorded. The 17 teachers completing
the 16 Likert Scales scored motivation at either 5 n 5 or 6 n 12 . Factors
such as the age, ability or purpose for using the concept cartoons appeared to have
little influence on the nature of the pupils response.
The Year 7 class in case study A appeared to typify the reported response of
the majority of learners to the use of the concept cartoons. The pupils were
observed engaging in deep discussion for long periods of time. In an interview
with four of the pupils, they noted their own increased involvement and interest,
and concluded that:
. . . even Dennis, the naughtiest boy in our class, wants to stay in at play time to carry
on discussing. (secondary pupil, case study A 1995)
This perception was confirmed in a separate interview with the teacher. She
stressed the importance of the concept cartoons in focusing the thinking of her
pupils, an aspect of motivation which had been problematic.
Seventeen respondents noted that the amount of time where the learners were
on task was longer than they would normally have expected for the particular
group of learners. A teacher of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties
observed that the involvement was immediate and sustained (secondary EBD
teacher 1995). Seven respondents referred to the apparent increased interest of
normally quiet children. One teacher reflected on a usually timid child s involve-
ment, The concept cartoons seemed to make her feel comfortable and confident
(primary teacher 1997). Another found the strategy helped reluctant talkers
because there was nothing to intimidate them and it (the concept cartoon) gave
them ideas to start from (student teacher 1997). The high quality of the pupils
written work and an improvement in the quality of the pupils discussions were
also reported as significant outcomes.
Respondents attempted to give reasons for the high level of learner involve-
ment. Many pointed to the visual appeal of the cartoon-style format. Five specu-
lated that the novelty value when first using the concept cartoons could be
significant. However, repeated use of the concept cartoon strategy did not appear
to diminish the level of interest, as evidenced in case study A where they were used
regularly in the teaching programme over a year. Some teachers speculated that
inviting engagement in argument about science is highly motivating since it pre-
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B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
sents a view of science where all ideas are of worth (secondary teacher 1996). It
was also suggested that, for pupils reluctant to put forward their own ideas, having
voices speaking for them gives them the confidence to discuss the ideas (EBD
teacher 1996).
Not all learners are instantly motivated by the concept cartoons. Observations
of the pupils using concept cartoons in case study A revealed two instances where
one pupil s domination of the discussion about the concept cartoon left the other
pupils uninvolved. Similarly, in case study B, dominant students sometimes were
able to inhibit discussion within groups. In the later case, tutor intervention had a
positive impact on the nature of the group interactions. The choice of concept
cartoons outside the conceptual level of learner was also seen as problematic. A
primary teacher noted one group of his pupils failing to make progress with a
concept cartoon which was too demanding for them.
It is likely that there was more instances where lack of motivation for some
learners occurred. Perhaps this was perceived as normal and was therefore not felt
noteworthy. The teacher in case study B added weight to this view, saying that
reluctance to participate was not unusual for the students and that it was worth
considering why the problematic groups, discussed above, had ultimately engaged
so actively. It is also possible that some of the novice teachers may have attributed
lack of motivation due to their lack of experience.
Elicitation
The data can be separated in two aspects: elicitation for the teacher and elicitation
for the learner.
Elicitation for the teacher. All respondents felt that the concept cartoons had some
value in making learners ideas more accessible to them during teaching sessions.
On the 16 Likert Scales, scores of 6 n 10 and 5 n 7 were given. Typical
comments were
I feel it is important to know where the children are coming from. The cartoons were
ideal indicators of where the children were in their understanding. (primary teacher
1996)
I did not have to spend time trying to encourage them to explain their thinking and so
was able to concentrate on challenging and supporting learning. (student teacher
1997)
An EBD teacher observed that EBD children are very territorial with their
ideas the concept cartoons encouraged sharing and discussion . She went on to
note how much easier it was to access ideas when pupils are engaged in active and
purposeful discussion (secondary EBD teacher 1995).
Thirty-six of the respondents made reference to the value of the concept
cartoons in relation to assessment of understanding. Eight indicated that their
main purpose for using the concept cartoons had been the assessment of learners
ideas. In both case studies, the teachers were observed actively responding to ideas
whilst the learners were engaged in using the concept cartoons. In later interviews,
both teachers highlighted the ease of access to ideas as a positive aspect of the
concept cartoons. Four of the student teachers expressed concern that so much
discussion was occurring that they were missing important opportunities to gain
CONCEPT CARTOONS
437
access to learners ideas and felt it necessary to limit the number of groups using
the concept cartoons.
Elicitation for the learner. The importance of learners being aware of their own
ideas and/or the ideas of their peers was identified by 17 respondents.
It is a little community of enquiry because they are all giving their opinions. Simply
by articulating an idea, well, it makes it clearer for them. (primary teacher 1997)
One teacher explained how the concept cartoons had caused her to reflect on
metacognition and its role in children s learning.
I don t think we talk to children enough about their own learning. I realised it wasn t
just presenting a nice cartoon but actually a way to tell them this is one way of finding
out what you know and to use that for yourself. (student teacher 1997)
In interviews, pupils commented on their use of the concept cartoons in their
own learning.
They made us think about our ideas and when we talked about it (the concept cartoon)
we learnt a lot from each other s ideas. (primary pupil interview 1997)
The teacher in this school also noted that the children seemed to be more
aware of their own ideas and the changes in their ideas when using the concept
cartoons.
In case study A, the pupils talked readily about their own ideas and those of
their peers. The teacher noted that being aware that there was more than one idea
about a particular situation seemed to be a revelation to her pupils. The more they
used the concept cartoons, the more they gave credence to each others ideas, and
hence the better the discussion.
Challenging and developing learners ideas
This question was felt to be difficult to answer by some teachers. Although most
teachers expressed the belief that learners ideas were developed, few of them could
offer evidence about the nature of the change in ideas. It is therefore not possible
to use these data in any meaningful way. On the Likert Scale, developing learners
ideas was scored at 5 n 5 or 6 n 8 with one teacher giving it a score of 4; the
remaining two respondents did not give a score. No additional comments were
made to justify these scores.
In case studies A and B, observation of groups using the concept cartoons
revealed a constant shifting of ideas, introduction of new ideas to the discussion,
realigning of positions and introduction of justification to support ideas. Learners
appeared to go through a period of conflict, before discussion, research or inves-
tigation caused them to settle, sometimes a little tentatively, on a solution. Even
where learners felt confident about the subject matter being considered, in most
instances the alternative ideas presented in the concept cartoons seemed to create
the need to question thinking and argue about the ideas.
This is exemplified by a learner in case study B. His initial ideas seemed very
persistent. He was reluctant to accept any of the alternative ideas, but they
appeared compelling. Later, he discussed the impact of the concept cartoon on
his own thinking about light.
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B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
I thought I know this one, it s too easy . I was tending to think in text book explana-
tions. This was unhelpful. Suddenly there was more than one idea. Initially they all
seemed plausible. I had never realised the importance of the scattering of light before.
In this situation it is important. It really challenged my thinking. (student 1995)
In summarizing their discussions, the pupils in case study A were insistent
that the concept cartoons had helped them to learn something new . By discussing
the ideas presented in the concept cartoons they had been encouraged to think
carefully about their understanding of the situation presented. Transcripts of their
conversations confirmed this in many instances. Furthermore, most pupils were
able to justify their new ideas and give explanations for why they had changed their
views. However, the something new was not always more scientifically accurate
than the original view expressed. Nevertheless, there was, overall, a noticeable
movement towards more scientifically acceptable understanding, though the data
available do not indicate the relationship between the concept cartoons and this
movement.
Central to all the comments and observations about challenge and learning
were ideas about questioning, discussion and argument. It appeared that the alter-
natives presented in the concept cartoons gave a purpose for engaging in debate.
Questions were asked by the concept cartoon, not by the teacher. Arguments were,
therefore, legitimated and had a clear focus.
Drawing together elicitation and restructuring
In completing the questionnaires, some teachers reflected on the relationship
between elicitation and restructuring. This issue was probed further in the inter-
views. Some teachers firmly held the view that effective science teaching meant the
separation of these two processes in a teaching sequence.
I thought that taking children s ideas into account was important . . . The problem is
the time involved between finding out what they know and actually setting it (the next
lesson) up. It is not realistic when there is so much to be covered. (secondary teacher
1996)
In some cases, where teachers held this naive view of constructivism, the use of
the concept cartoons appears to have caused them to question this understanding.
At first I wondered if I was using them (the concept cartoons) properly because I was
trying to assess the children s ideas and I couldn t stop them (the children) learning!
(primary teacher 1997)
In other instances, teachers felt that the concept cartoons were enabling them
to put into practice the principle of taking learners ideas into account, in a way that
was realistic, purposeful and manageable (secondary teacher 1996). One noted
her changed role in the learning process.
I was able to sit back and take a different role. The children were in control of their
own learning. It wasn t necessary to go away and plan how to follow-up their ideas, it
just naturally followed from their discussion. (student teacher 1997)
Evidence gained through interviews and observation of learner behaviour in
the case studies reinforced the notion of how elicitation and restructuring were
strongly connected when pupils were engaged in using the concept cartoons.
CONCEPT CARTOONS
439
Promoting investigations
In 91 of the teaching sessions, the concept cartoons were viewed as effective in
providing a stimulus for scientific investigations (in 41 sessions they were not used
for this purpose and there was not any information given about this aspect in
relation to the other 17 sessions). On the Likert Scale, the majority of teachers
scored this aspect at either 5 n 4 or 6 n 8 . Two teachers gave a score of 3;
one of these used the concept cartoons for assessment purposes at the end of a
block of work and the other teacher only to find out children s ideas at the start of a
topic. Our own observations noted the ease with which many of the learners
advanced onto practical activity from their discussions.
Examples were quoted of the concept cartoons creating a powerful desire in
learners to investigate their ideas. One situation was described where within
10minutes the whole group was engaged in active investigations (primary teacher
1995). Another teacher remarked on how the concept cartoons led to pupils testing
out their ideas with no further prompting (secondary teacher 1995). A teacher
working with older children with behavioural difficulties described how, unusually
for them, the pupils started their own investigations without any support from her.
I didn t need to tell them what to do or what they needed (EBD teacher 1995).
Interviews with learners also highlighted this aspect of the concept cartoons.
Primary children talked about being unable to wait to investigate their ideas.
The pupils in case study A discussed how they just had to try their ideas out
to find out what would happen and moved purposefully from discussion to inves-
tigation.
Two instances were identified where an individual or group seemed reluctant
to engage in practical work, even though an investigation seemed necessary to
enable a discussion to progress. In both situations, the teacher attempted to inter-
vene. One group reluctantly became involved but ignored any evidence which
would cause a change in their thinking. The other group was content to continue
their discussion and remained open-minded about the outcome until the plenary
session.
Manageability
All respondents commented favourably on the ease of use of the concept cartoons.
On the Likert Scales, 10 respondents scored manageability at 6 and the remainder
5 n 17 .
The approach was very easy to use as most of the children were on task and working at
a good level, leaving me free to cope with those who were experiencing difficulty or in
need of a focusing challenge. (primary teacher 1996)
Some teachers were honest about their management of science teaching,
recognizing a tension between what they would ideally like to do in order to
respond to individuals ideas and what they saw as realistic
We know what we want to do for each child but for simplicity we take them all
through the same activity regardless of what we know their ideas are. (primary teacher
1996)
Use of the concept cartoons seems to offer the possibility of reconciling this
dilemma.
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B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
The reality is that I normally get them to do more or less the same thing. It s the only
way to cope. The concept cartoons still mean they do the same thing but they have
different reasons, so it s easy for me and good for them! (secondary teacher 1996)
The teacher used the pupils response to the snowman concept cartoon to
exemplify this (figure 1).
Whichever of the ideas was held by the pupils they still needed to carry out the same
activity of modelling putting coats on snowmen. (ibid)
Differentiation
Analysis of the use of the concept cartoons revealed that many (but not all) of the
concept cartoons were used with learners across a wide age and ability range.
Student teachers noted that often the same concept cartoon had been utilized
effectively across the whole primary age range. Inclusion of differentiation on
the Likert Scale revealed that generally the teachers perceived value in the concept
cartoons in supporting differentiation, giving scores of 6 n 7 , 5 n 6 and
4 n 4 . The teachers giving a high score to this aspect had used those concept
cartoons which had been used most frequently with a range of age groups.
In discussing research into student teachers understanding of science con-
cepts, Carre

(1993) notes similarities between the level of understanding held by

primary-aged children and that held by adult teacher trainees. This could offer a
partial explanation for the broad accessibility of many of the concept cartoons.
However, this explanation does not fully account for the many instances where the
same concept cartoons have been used effectively with groups from primary-aged
pupils through to science graduates.
In case studies A and B, some of the same concept cartoons were observed
being used. The learners appeared to discuss the concept cartoon at the level of
their own current understanding of the concept being explored. Learners with
more sophisticated ideas were able to look beyond the basic scientific concept
and consider a range of factors which could influence the particular situation.
However, students in case study B helped to confirm Carre

s findings. Despite
having degrees in physics, some of the students expressed the same misconceptions
as the 11-year-old pupils in case study A. One student tried to explain this by
commenting that:
. . . you know the theory behind it but never related it to everyday situations. (physics
graduate 1995)
The range of uses of concept cartoons
Most of the teachers engaged in the research project used the concept cartoons to
generate discussion, to encourage investigation and to challenge learners under-
standing within normal teaching sessions or for assessment. However, respondents
identified a much broader range of uses which included:

material for homework;

consolidation and extension material;

help to teach English as a second or foreign language;

as research material to explore learners scientific thinking;

summarizing at the end of a topic;

CONCEPT CARTOONS
441

making worksheets more interesting;

presenting children s own ideas to them (in the speech bubbles) in a non-
threatening form;

enabling pupils to summarize their own views by drawing cartoons;

assessment by inviting pupils to fill in blank speech bubbles;

illustrating that the nature of science includes alternative viewpoints;

helping the pupils to ask more questions on their own;

display material in interactive science centres;

material to enhance the public understanding of science.

Discussion
This study was designed to evaluate the use of concept cartoons as a tool for
teaching and learning in science in a range of typical situations. The data indicate
that teachers and learners had strongly-held and consistent views as to the efficacy
of the concept cartoons against the selected criteria. Triangulation of data in the
two case studies generally confirmed this view. Observation of these teaching
situations provided additional evidence of learner behaviour which revealed, in a
small number of instances, the impact of the lack of motivation of groups and the
influence of dominant individuals. Teacher intervention was able to modify this
response, but not in all circumstances. However, the overwhelming impression in
both case studies was of learners positively engaged in discussion about the con-
cept cartoons, with a firm desire to explore their understandings through investi-
gation and research.
If, as the data suggest, the concept cartoons are perceived by teachers and
learners to have some value in the teaching of science, which aspects of them
might be influential in forming that judgement?
Capturing the learners attention in promoting learning is considered to be
important in the model of generative learning put forward by Wittrock (1994). The
concept cartoons appear to provide a powerful stimulus to learners to focus their
attention on constructing meaningful explanations in a similar manner to enigmas
and problems identified by Wittrock. Learners responded positively in the major-
ity of instances. Even in situations where the pupils were normally considered to
be lacking in motivation, typified by Dennis in case study A, higher than expected
levels of involvement and interest were reported.
The presentation of the ideas in a visual form seems to be significant in the
process of capturing attention. Bliss et al. (1989) noted the motivating factor of
cartoon-style material in their research, and Arnheim ( 1969), Barlex and Carre

(1985), and Fisher (1990) point to the importance of visual communication. As one
child explained
You can climb inside the picture and you can see the discussion. It helps you to hold
the ideas inside your head and you can look again if you need to. (Year 4 child 1997)
In engaging with the concept cartoons, learners appear to experience cognitive
conflict by being presented with conflicting but apparently plausible ideas. The
student in case study B, developing his ideas about scattered light, goes some way
to illustrate the nature of the conflict generated by the concept cartoons. Posner et
al. ( 1982) describe conditions for conceptual change as dissatisfaction with existing
ideas, with the new ideas being more intelligible, plausible and fruitful. They, like
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B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
Hammrich s (1997) description of cooperative controversy as a strategy which
engages learners in debate about opposing views on an issue, provide a useful
parallel with the debate generated by the concept cartoons.
Parallels can also be drawn with Chinn and Brewers (1993) discussion of
anomalous data and the factors involved in enabling students to learn from the
use of such data. They conclude that deep processing can be encouraged by pro-
moting personal involvement of the learners with issues and encouraging the jus-
tification of their reasoning. They identify the importance of competing theories in
this process. An identifiable strength of the concept cartoons is a similar presenta-
tion of competing theories or ideas in which the learners notions are challenged by
the multiple lines of data that are provided (Chinn and Brewer 1993). In this
respect, there are similarities between the utilization of concept cartoons and other
active learning techniques which endeavour to promote conceptual change (e.g.
Roth and Anderson 1988, White and Gunstone 1992, Chinn and Brewer 1993).
That the learners engage in discussion when using the concept cartoons is
evident. The high quality and prolonged nature of much of the discussion was
noted. Pupils were talking, sometimes pupils who were otherwise reluctant to talk
or to express their personal views. Carr et al. ( 1994) identify conversation as the
most important feature of an approach to science classes . Some of the teachers
involved in the research and the pupils in case study A referred to the word argue
rather than discuss . The concept cartoons legitimized argument by presenting
the learners with an argument in visual form, inviting observers of the concept
cartoon to engage in and extend the argument. The pupils in case study A enjoyed
being allowed to argue in class .
Although the concept cartoons do not provide alternative theories as such,
they do provide illustrations of how alternative theories may apply in specific
situations. In this respect, they might move some way to addressing the concern
about how access to scientifically acceptable ideas (Osborne 1996) can be provided.
Of course, in many of the concept cartoons there will be more than one scientifi-
cally acceptable view of the situation, or It all depends on . . . may be the only
accurate view. This seems to come much closer to the view of science as tentative
and provisional than the frog-marched discovery (Solomon 1980) which some-
times occurs in some classrooms. However, the data do not enable conclusions to
be drawn as to whether concept cartoons are any more or less effective than any
other strategies at leading learners towards more scientifically acceptable ideas.
Although the data revealed examples of learning, identified from the point of
view of the teacher and the learner, a more detailed study would be required to
establish the extent and stability of that learning.
Millar (1989: 588) suggested that:
for some teachers the constructivist model of learning has (invalidly) become associ-
ated with a particular model of instruction.
This view was supported by the evidence from some of the teachers in the
research who attached value to concept cartoons in helping to make some of the
principles of constructivism more manageable. Whilst committed to constructivist
ideas, principally those of taking learners ideas into account, they felt that in reality
this was unmanageable. Central to this appeared to be the issue of the separation of
elicitation and restructuring. The teachers discussion reflected models of instruc-
tion which had been explored earlier by some constructivist writers (Cosgrove and
CONCEPT CARTOONS
443
Osborne 1985, Driver and Oldham 1986, Needham 1987, Russell and Watt 1990).
Although Harlen (1996) describes elicitation and restructuring as part of a con-
tinuous process, the notion of separation was strongly held within our sample
group. The evidence reveals that the drawing together of these two processes
when using the concept cartoons gave the teachers a more manageable way to
take ideas of the learners into account. Teachers were aware of the ideas of lear-
ners, not only at the start of the teaching sequence, but throughout the lesson in
which the concept cartoons were being used. They found that the separation of
elicitation and restructuring was neither desirable or necessary.
This aspect of the research has had significant implications for our own teach-
ing and that of colleagues, leading us to reflect on how to challenge a naive view of
constructivism which seems to exist for some teachers. The use of the concept
cartoons, and other strategies which enable elicitation and restructuring to be
clearly connected, appears to provide a tool which may challenge not only teachers
and student teachers understanding of science concepts, but also their concepts
about effective teaching in science. Perhaps this is one way in which the tunnel
vision which Solomon (1994) describes in relation to constructivism may begin to
be reduced.
Concerns raised about the use of the concept cartoons centred on issues relat-
ing to the dominance of individuals ideas within group work and lack of motiva-
tion of some learners. The selection of the concept cartoon had some bearing on
these issues, for whilst many do work effectively across a wide age range, matching
to the learners needs is still important. The nature of teacher intervention is also
significant. However, no single teaching strategy is likely to completely resolve
these issues.
Of greater significance is the impact of the concept cartoons on learners
understanding. We know that the early concept cartoons, in which a single char-
acter presented a single misconception, created conditions which were misleading
to some learners. Although the research has identified no such concerns since
dialogue was introduced into the concept cartoons, we still do not have sufficient
evidence to know quite what is the impact on the learner of being confronted with
a range of alternative ideas. There is strong evidence that concept cartoons open
discussion for many learners and appear to encourage reluctant learners to engage
in debate. Evidence exists of learners developing ideas which were more scienti-
fically acceptable. As Wittrock ( 1994: 30) claims:
Conventional methods of covering subject matter and presenting only the scientists
view of scientific phenomena clearly do not effectively teach science to all students.
However, we do not know whether the format might inhibit the thinking of
some learners nor how the concept cartoons compare with other strategies in this
respect.
This study has indicated a number of ways in which the use of concept car-
toons has been found to be valuable in typical classroom teaching situations. As the
data reveal, the range of uses extended beyond those which were our original
intention. Chambers and Andre (1997) recognize that any useful approach can
lose its effectiveness if it is used on every occasion, and concept cartoons are no
exception to this. It is also important to acknowledge the need for a range of
approaches to meet different learning needs. There is much we have yet to learn
about concept cartoons and how they function. Ultimately, they must be viewed
444
B. KEOGH AND S. NAYLOR
alongside other strategies which attempt to provide opportunities for active learn-
ing and promote conceptual development.
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