Sampling

Meaning
Population - Empirical field studies require collection of first-hand information or data pertaining to
the units of study from the field. The units of study may include geographical areas like districts,
talukas, cities or villages which are covered by the study, or institutions or households about which
information is required, or persons from whom information is required, or persons from whom
information is available.

The aggregate of all the units pertaining to a study is called the population or the universe.
Population is the target group to be studied. All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute Universe or Population. The population or universe may be finite or infinite.

Sample is subset of a larger population. It is the aggregate of elements about which we wish to
make inferences. A member of the population is an element. It is the subject on which measurement
is taken. It is the unit of study.
Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger defined target group
of elements such that the information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be
made about the larger groups. In the other words, it is the process of drawing a sample from a
larger population is called sampling.
Sampling frame - The list of sampling units from which a sample is taken is called sampling frame,
e.g., a map, a telephone directory, a list of industrial undertakings, a list of car licensees etc.
Example: A researcher wants to survey the brand preferences of households regarding toilet soaps
in Jayanagar area of the city of Bangalore. A household is the sampling unit. The total of all
households in Jayanagar area is the population. Suppose in a detailed map of Jayanagar, but list of
households is not available, each block may be considered a sampling unit. A list of such blocks will
be used as the frame.







Need to sample
Lower cost need for sample arises due to budget constraints, where it is not feasible to study
population.
Greater speed of data collection Due to time constraints in data collection, we can employ
sampling.
When greater accuracy of results is needed - Sampling will lead to greater accuracy of
results
Impracticable to survey the entire population
Census Vs. Sampling
Data originally collected for an investigation are known as primary data. Such data are collected
original in character. The primary data may be collected by following either census method or the
sampling method.
Census - A count of all the elements in population is census. When all the units are studied, such a
complete coverage is census survey. A complete detail of all the items in the population is known
as a census inquiry. Besides this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
Example- According to the Census 2001, in India out of total population of 1028 million about 285
millions live in urban areas and 742 millions live in rural areas.
Sample survey - When only a sample of universe is studied, the study is called a sample survey.
The process of designing a field study, among other things, involves a decision to use sampling or
not. The researcher must decide whether he should cover all the units or a sample of units.
In making this decision' of census or sampling, the following factors are considered:
1. The size of the population: If the population to be studied is relatively small, say 50 institutions or
200 employees or 150 households, the investigator may decide to study the entire population. The
task is easily manageable and the sampling may not be required. But if the population to be studied
is quite large, sampling is warranted. However, the size is a relative matter. Whether a population is
large or small depends upon the nature of the study, the purpose for which it is undertaken, and the
time and other resources available for it.
2. Amount of funds budgeted for the study: The decision regarding census or sampling depends
upon the budget of the study. Sampling is opted when the amount of money budgeted is smaller
than the anticipated cost of census survey.
3. Facilities: The extent of facilities available- staff, access to computer facility and accessibility to
population elements- is another factor to be considered in deciding to sample or not. When the


availability of these facilities is extensive, census survey may be manageable. Otherwise, sampling
is preferable.
4. Time: The time limit within which the study should be completed is another important factor to be
considered in deciding the question of census or sample survey. This, in fact, is a primary reason for
using sampling by academic and marketing researchers.

Advantages of sampling over census
Sampling reduces the time and cost of research studies. With the use of sampling, it has
become possible to undertake even national or global studies at a reasonable cost and time.
Such economy in time and cost improves the viability of several field studies like credit surveys,
poverty surveys and marketing surveys.
Sampling saves labour. A smaller staff is required both for fieldwork and for processing and
analyzing the data.
The quality of a study is often better with sampling than with a complete coverage. The
possibility of better interviewing, more thorough investigation of missing, wrong or suspicious
information, better supervision, and better processing is greater in sampling than in complete
coverage.
Sampling provides much quicker results than does a census. The speed of execution
minimizes the time between the recognition of a need for information and the availability of that
information. The speed of execution is vital in feasibility studies, evaluation studies and business
research. Timely execution of a study is essential for making use of its findings.
Sampling is the only procedure possible, if the population is infinite, e.g. consumer
behaviour surveys etc.
Statistical sampling yields a crucial advantage over any other way of choosing a part of
the population for a study.
Limitations of Sampling
1. Sampling demands a thorough knowledge of sampling methods and procedures and an exercise
of greater care; otherwise the results obtained may be incorrect or misleading.
2. When the characteristic to be measured occurs only rarely in the population, a very large sample
is required to secure units that will give, reliable information about it. A large sample has all the
drawbacks of a census survey.
3. A complicated sampling plan may require more labour than a complete coverage.
4. It may not be possible to ensure the representativeness of the sample, even by the most perfect
sampling procedures. Therefore sampling results in a certain degree of sampling errors, i.e., there
will be some difference between the sample value and the population value.


Characteristics of Good Sample
Whether the result obtained from a sample survey would be accurate or not depends upon the
quality of the sample.
1. Representativeness: A sample must be representative of the population. Probability sampling
technique yield representative sample.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An
accurate (unbiased) sample is one which exactly represents the population. It is free from any
influence that causes any difference between sample value and population value (say, average).
3. Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by the standard error
or standard deviation of the, sample estimate. The smaller the standard error or estimate, the
higher is the precision of the sample.
4. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable. The sample should be of
such size that the inferences drawn from the sample are accurate to the given level of
confidence.
Steps in sampling
There are five steps which precede collection of the data by means of sample.
1. Defining the population or universe. The population or universe is the specific group of items
which the researchers wish to study and about which they plan to generalize. If a theatre owner is
investigating the movie going habits of local college students, the population will be the students
enrolled on a particular date. The definition of the universe, in any particular case is determined
solely by the research objectives of the particular study.
2. Development of a frame. A frame is a list of the population. It consists of names and addresses
of the individuals and institutions. It can also specify a definite location, boundary, an address or a
set of rules by which sampling unit can be identified. For example, a researcher has undertaken a
study for finding the proportion of the grocery stores in the Chennai metropolitan area, which stock
cardamom. Here grocery stores would be observed. For the purpose of identifying the stores, a list
of all Chennai metropolitan area grocery stores must be obtained. From the list it will be easy to
choose. If no such list is available one may choose a sample of areas.
3. Selection of sample design. The researcher can go for probability or non-probability design. If
the researcher wants to estimate the sampling error of the results, a probability sample should be
used. If it is very difficult to develop a frame, a non-probability sample should be used. The
researcher should feel confident that the sample used provides a legitimate and accurate picture of
the universe.


4. Selecting the sample size. The sample size should never be less than thirty. But the final
decision on proper sample size really depends on whether the researcher feels reasonably
confident that his sample is large enough to accurately depict the population.
5. Selecting the representative sample. The selected sample should have all the characteristics
of the population and it must provide the whole information about the population from which it is
drawn.
Types of Sampling Methods or techniques
Sampling methods or techniques may be classified into two generic types:
(a) Probability or Random Sampling
(b) Non-probability or Non-random Sampling

Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified random sampling
3. Systematic random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Area sampling
6. Multi-stage
7. Double sampling
8. Sequential methods
Non probability Sampling Methods
1. Convenience or accidental sampling
2. Purposive or Judgmental sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Snow-ball sampling

Probability Sampling Methods
A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater
than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.
Simple Random Sampling
Random sampling refers to the sampling technique in which each and every item of the population
is given an equal chance of being included in the sample. The selection is thus free from personal
bias because the investigator does not exercise his discretion or preference in the choice of items.
Since selection of items in the sample depends entirely on chance this method is also known as the
method of chance selection.


Random sampling is sometimes referred to as 'representative sampling'. If the sample is chosen at
random and if the size of the sample is sufficiently large, it will represent groups in the universe. A
random sample is also known as 'probability sample, because every item of the universe has an
equal opportunity of being selected in the sample.
Methods of obtaining a random sample
To ensure randomness of selection one may adopt any of the following methods:
1. Lottery Method. This is a very popular method of taking a random sample. Under this method,
all the items of the universe are numbered on separate slips of paper of identical -size and shape.
These slips are then folded and mixed up in a container or drum, a blindfold selection is then made
of the number of slips required to constitute the desired sample size. The selection of items thus
depends entirely on chance.
Example: If we want to take a sample of 10 persons out of a population of 100, the procedure is to
write the name of all the 100 persons on separate slips of paper, fold these slips, mix them
thoroughly and then make a blindfold selection of 10 slips

2. Table of Random Numbers: The lottery method discussed above becomes quite cumbersome
to use as the size of population increases. An alternative method of random selection is that of
using the table of random numbers.
Three such tables are available, namely
(i) Tippett's table of random numbers,
(ii) Fisher and Yate's numbers, and
(iii) Kendall and Babington Smith numbers.
Tippett's numbers are most popular. They consist of 41,600 digits taken from census reports and
combined by fours to give 1400 four-figure numbers. We give here the first forty sets as an
illustration of their general appearance. .
2952 6641 3992 9792 7969 5911 3170 5624
4167 9524 1545 1396 7203. 5366 1300 2693
2370 7483 3408 2762 3563 1089 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8126 4233 8776
2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446
One may question, and quite rightly, as to how it was ensured that these digits are random. It may
be pointed out that the digits in the table were chosen haphazardly but the real guarantee of their
randomness lies in practical tests. Tippett's numbers have been subjected to numerous tests and


used in many investigations and their randomness has been well established for all practical
purposes.

An example to illustrate how Tippett's table of random numbers may be used is given below.
Suppose we have to select 20 items out of 6,000. The procedure is to number all the 6,000 items
from 1 to 6000. A page from Tippett's table may then be consulted and the first twenty numbers up
to 6000 noted down. Items bearing those numbers will be included in the sample. Making use of the
portion of table given above, the required numbers are:
2952 3992 5911 3170 5624 4167
1545 1396 5366 1300 2693 2370
3408 2762 3563 1089 0560 5246
1112 4233
The items which bear the above numbers constitute the sample.
Fisher and Yate's table consist of 15,000 numbers. These have been arranged in two digits in 300
blocks, each block consisting of 5 rows, and 5 columns.
Kendall and Smith table also constructed random numbers (10,000 in, all) by using a randomizing
machine. However, this method of random selection cannot be followed in case of articles like ghee,
oil petrol, wheat, etc.
3. Use of computer
If the population is very large and if computer facilities are available, a computer may be used for
drawing a random sample. The computer can be programmed to print out a series of random
numbers as the researcher desires.
Advantages of random sampling
All the elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected.
Since the selection of items in the sample depends entirely on chance there is no possibility of
personal bias affecting the results.
A random sample represents the universe in a better way. As the size of the sample increases,
it becomes increasingly representative of the population.
The analyst can easily assess the accuracy of his estimate because sampling errors follow the
principles of chance. The theory of random sampling is developed much more than any other
type of sampling and provides the most reliable information at the least cost.


Disadvantages of random sampling


It is often impractical, because of non-availability of population list, or of difficulty in listing the
population.
Sometimes it is difficult for the investigator to have up-to date lists of all the items of the
population to be sampled. This restricts the use of random sampling method.
The task of preparing slips is time-consuming and expensive.
The size of the sample required to ensure statistical reliability is usually large under random
sampling than in stratified sampling.
From the point of view of field survey it has been claimed that cases selected by random
sampling tend to be too widely dispersed geographically and that the time and cost of collecting
data become too large.
Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling is a method of probability sampling in which the population is divided
into different homogeneous subgroups or strata or classes and a sample is drawn from each
subgroup or stratum at random. Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population,
out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. A stratified sample is obtained by
independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum.
Example, if we are interested in studying the consumption pattern of the people of Delhi, the city of
Delhi may be divided into various parts (such as zones or wards) and from each part a sample may
be taken at random. However, the selection of cases from each stratum must be done with great
care and in accordance with a carefully designed plan as otherwise random selection from the
various strata may not be accomplished.

Stratified sampling may be either proportional or disproportional.
In proportional sampling the cases are drawn from each stratum in the same proportion as they
occur in the universe. For example, if we divide the city of Delhi into four zones A, B, C and D with
40%, 30%, 20% and 10% of the total population respectively and if the sample size is one thousand
then we should draw 400, 300, 200 and 100 cases respectively from zones A, B, C and D, i.e.,
sample is proportional to the size in the universe. .
In disproportional stratified sampling an equal number of cases is taken from each stratum,
regardless of how the stratum is represented in the universe. Thus, in the above example, an equal
number of items from each zone may by drawn, that is, 250. This approach is obviously inferior to
the proportional stratified sampling.





Advantages of stratified sampling
1. More representatives. Since the population is first divided into various strata and then a sample
is drawn from each stratum there is little possibility of any essential group of the population being
completely excluded. A more representative sample is thus secured. Stratified sampling is
frequently regarded as the most efficient system of sampling.
2. Greater accuracy. Stratified sampling ensures greater accuracy. The accuracy is maximum if
each stratum is so formed that it consists of uniform or homogeneous items.
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
1. Each stratum must contain, as far as possible, homogeneous items as otherwise the results may
not be reliable. However, this is a very difficult task and may involve considerable time & expense.
Utmost care must be exercised in dividing the population into various strata.
2. This method requires a prior knowledge of the composition of the population, which is not always
possible.
3. This method is also subject to classification errors. It is possible that researcher may misclassify
certain elements.
4. The items from each stratum should be selected at random. But this may be difficult to achieve in
the absence of skilled sampling supervisors and a random selection within each stratum may not be
ensured.

Systematic Sampling or Fixed Interval Method
This method is popularly used in those cases where a complete list of the population from which
sample is to be drawn is available. The method is to select every kth item from the list where 'k'
refers to the sampling interval. The first item between the first and the kth is selected at random.
Sampling Interval or k = (size of the universe / size of the sample)
Example, if a complete list of 1,000 students of a college is available and if we want to draw a
sample of 200 this means we must take every fifth item (i.e., k=5). The first item between one and
five shall be selected at random. Suppose it comes out to be three. Now we shall go on adding five
and obtain numbers of the desired sample. Thus, the second item would be the 8th student, the
third 13th student; the fourth, 18th student and so on.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling
1. It is much simpler than random sampling. It is easy to use.
2. The time and work involved in sampling by this method are relatively smaller. The results
obtained are also found to be generally satisfactory provided care is taken to see that there are no
periodic features associated with the sampling interval.
3. This method is cheaper than simple random sampling.


4. Sample is spread evenly over the population.
5. It is statistically more efficient than a simple random sample when population elements are
ordered chronologically, by size, class etc.

Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling
1. This method ignores all the elements between two kth element selected. Further, except the first
element, other selected elements are not chosen random.
Hence, this sampling cannot be considered to a probability sampling in the strict sense of the term.
2. As each element does not have an equal chance of being selected, the resulting sample is not a
random one. For studies aiming at estimations or generalization, this disadvantage would be a
serious one.
3. If the population is ordered in a systematic way with respect to the characteristic the investigator
is interested in, then it is possible that only certain types of items will be included in the population,
or at least more of certain types than others.
For instance, in a study of salaries of workers the list may be such that every tenth worker of the list
gets wages above Rs. 5000 per month.

Cluster sampling
Where the population elements are scattered over a wider area and a list of population elements is
not readily available, the use of simple or stratified random sampling method would be too
expensive and time-consuming. In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted.
Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements.
Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit,
a sample of population elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified random
selection.
Example: Suppose a researcher wants to select a random sample of 1,000 households out of
40,000 estimated households in a city for a survey. A direct sample of individual households would
be difficult to select, because a list of households does not exist and would be too costly to prepare.
Instead, he can select a random sample of a few blocks/wards. The number of blocks to be selected
depends upon the average number of estimated households per block. Suppose the average
number of households per block is 200, then 5 blocks comprise the sample. Since the number of
households per block varies, the actual sample size depends on the block which happen to be
selected. Alternatively, he can draw a sample of more blocks and from each sample blocks a certain
number of households may be selected by systematic sampling.


Advantages of Cluster sampling
1. This method is much easier and more convenient to apply when large populations are studied or
large geographical areas are covered.
2. The cost of this method is much less when compared with other sampling method.
3. Units of study can be easily substituted for other units within the same random section.
Disadvantages of Cluster sampling
1. The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting sample. For
example, if the researcher were to interview all adults in households in each selected street the
number of adults would vary from house to house. There would be certain bias resulting from the
large coverage of big families.
2. The sampling error in this method of sampling is greater. Thus, this method is statistically less
efficient than other probability sampling methods.
Area Sampling
This is an important form of cluster sampling. In larger field surveys, clusters consisting of specific
geographical areas like districts, talukas, villages or blocks in a city are randomly drawn. As the
geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases, their sampling is called area
sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster sampling.

Multi-stage sampling
In this method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The material is regarded as made up
of a number of first stage sampling units, each of which is made of a number of second stage units,
etc. At first, the first stage units are sampled by some suitable method, as such random sampling.
Then, a sample of second stage units is selected from each of the selected first stage units again by
some suitable method which may be the same as, or different from the method employed for the'
first stage units. Further stages may be added as required. Example: Suppose, it is decided to take
a sample of 5,000 households from the State of U.P.
At the first stage, the State may be divided into a number of districts and a few districts
selected at random.
At the second stage, each district may be sub-divided into a number of villages and sample of
villages may be taken at random.
At the third stage, a number of households may be selected from each of the villages selected
at the second stage. In this way, at each stage the sample size becomes smaller and smaller.




Merits of multistage sampling
1. Multistage sampling introduced flexibility in the sampling method which is lacking in other
methods. It enables existing divisions and sub-divisions of the population to be used as units at
various stages, and permits the field work to be concentrated and yet large area to be covered.
2. Another advantage of the method is that sub-division into second stage unit, (i.e., the
construction of the second stage frame) need be carried out for only those first stage units which
are included in the sample.
3. It is, therefore, particularly valuable in surveys of underdeveloped areas where no frame is
generally sufficiently detailed and accurate for, sub-division of the material into reasonable small
sampling units.

Limitations of multistage sampling
However, a multi-stage sample is in general less accurate than a sample containing the same
number of final stage units which have been selected by some suitable single stage process.

Other probability sampling techniques
In addition to the four basic probability-sampling techniques, there are a variety of other sampling
techniques. Most of these may be viewed as extensions of the basic techniques and were
developed to address complex sampling problems. Two techniques with some relevance to
marketing research are double sampling & sequential sampling.

Double ( or Two-Phase) Sampling and Multi-Phase Sampling
Double sampling also called two-phase sampling, certain population elements are sampled twice. In
the first phase, a sample is selected and some information is collected from all the elements in the
sample. In the second phase, a sub sample is drawn from the original sample and additional
information is obtained from the elements in the sub-sample. The process may be extended to three
or more phases, and the different phases may take place simultaneously or at different times.'
Double sampling can be useful when no sampling frame is readily available for selecting final
sampling units but when the elements of the frame are known to be contained within a broader
sampling frame.
For example, a researcher wants to select households in a given city that consume apple juice.
The households of interest are contained within the set of all households, but the researcher does
not know which they are.
In applying double sampling, the researcher would obtain a sampling frame of all households in
the first phase. This would be constructed from the city directory or purchased. Then a sample
of households would be drawn, using systematic random sampling to determine the amount of
apple juice consumed.


In the second phase, households that consume apple juice would be selected and stratified
according to the amount of apple juice consumed. Then a stratified random sample would be
drawn and detailed questions regarding apple juice consumption asked.

Sequential methods
In sequential sampling, the population elements are sampled sequentially, data collection and
analysis are done at each stage, and a decision is made as to whether additional population
elements should be sampled. The sample size is not known in advance, but a decision rule is stated
before sampling begins. At each stage, this rule indicates whether sampling should be continued or
whether enough information has been obtained. Sequential sampling has been used to determine
preferences for two competing alternatives. In one study, respondents were asked which of two
alternatives they preferred, and sampling was terminated when sufficient evidence was
accumulated to validate a preference. It has also been used to establish the price differential
between a standard model and a deluxe model of a consumer durable.

Non-probability Sampling Methods
Non-probability sampling the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population
of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is non-
random, non-probability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. The primary
methods of non-probability sampling are:
Convenience sampling or Accidental sampling
Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn
from that part of the population which is close to hand. It means selecting sample units in a just 'hit
and miss' fashion, e.g., interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means
selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher may select students in
his class. This method is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the
researcher meets accidently are included in the sample.
Usefulness: Though convenience sampling has no status, it may be used for simple purpose such
as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of interest. It lays groundwork
for a subsequent probability sampling. Sometimes it may have to be necessarily used.
Advantages:
1. Convenience sampling is the cheapest and simplest.
2. It does not require a list of population.


3. It does not require any statistical expertise.
Disadvantages:
1. Convenience sampling is highly biased, because of the researcher's subjectivity, and so it does
not yield a representative sample.
2. It is the least reliable sampling method. There is no way of estimating the representativeness of
the sample.
3. The findings cannot be generalized.
Purposive (or Judgement) sampling
Judgment sampling relies upon belief that participants fit characteristics. A judgement sample is
obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of
the population. This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-
determined criteria. This is also known as Judgement sampling. This involves selection of cases
which we judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgement of
the researcher or some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population.
The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the subjective judgement
of the researcher. For example, a researcher may deliberately choose industrial undertakings in
which quality circles are believed to be functioning successfully and undertakings in which quality
circles are believed to be a total failure.
Advantages:
1. It is less costly and more convenient.
2. It guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in the sample. Probability sampling plans cannot give
such guarantee.
Disadvantages:
1. This does not ensure the representativeness of the sample.
2. This is less efficient for generalizing when compared with random sampling.
3. This method requires more prior extensive information about the population one studies. Without
such information, it is not possible to adjudge the suitability of the sample items to be selected.
4. This method does not lend itself for using inferential statistics, because, this sampling does not
satisfy the underlying assumption of randomness.
Quota sampling
This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling
units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. when the population is known to Consist of various
categories by sex, age, religion, social class etc., in specific proportions, each investigator may be


given an assignment of quota groups specified by the pre-determined traits in specific proportions.
He can then select accessible persons, belonging to those quota groups in the area assigned to
him. "Quota Sampling is therefore a method of stratified sampling in which selection within strata is
non-random. It is this non-random element that constitutes its greatest weakness. "
Quotas are stratified by such variables as sex, age, social class and religion. It is easy to classify
the accessible respondents under sex, age and religion, but it is very difficult to classify them into
social categories, since social class usually involves a combination of factors such as occupation,
income and caste and the interviewer's subjective judgement and bias play some role in the social
class classification of respondents.
Snow-ball sampling
Snowball sampling relies upon respondent referrals of others with like characteristics. This is the
colourful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an
initial set of its members as informants. For example, if a researcher wants to study the problem
faced by Indians through some source like Indian Embassy. Then he can ask each one of them to
supply names of other Indians known to them, and continue this procedure until he gets an
exhaustive list from which he can draw a sample or make a census survey. This sampling technique
may also be used in socio-metric studies. For example, the members of a social group may be
asked to name the persons with whom they have social contacts, each one of the persons so
named may also be asked to do so, and so on. The researcher may thus get a constellation of
associates and analyse it.
For example, if the investigator was able to find a few bonded labourers willing to talk to him he
might ask them for the names and locations of others; who might also be willing to be interviewed.
Sampling of this type has often been done in studies for elite groups, either those in power in a
community or members of upper classes. In community studies there is often the feeling that only
those in power really know who else has power.

Sampling and non-sampling error
To appreciate the need for sampling surveys, it is necessary to understand clearly the role of
sampling and non-sampling errors incomplete enumeration and sample surveys. The errors arising
due to drawing inference about the population on the basis of a few observations (sample) is termed
sample errors. Clearly the sampling error in this sense is nonexistent in a complete enumeration
survey, since the whole population is surveyed. However, the errors mainly arising at the stages of
ascertainment and processing of data which are termed non-sampling errors are common both in
complete enumeration and sample surveys.


1. Sampling errors
Even if utmost care has been taken in selecting a sample, the results derived from the sample may
not be representative of the population from which it is drawn, because samples are seldom, if ever,
perfect miniatures of the population. This gives rise to sampling errors. Sampling errors are thus due
to the fact that samples are used and to the particular method used in selecting the items from the
population.
Sampling errors are of two types-biased and unbiased.
(1) Biased errors. These' errors arise from any bias in selection, estimation, etc For example, if in
place of simple random sampling, deliberate sampling has been used in a particular case some bias
is introduced ,in the result and hence such errors are called biased sampling errors.
(2) Unbiased errors. These errors arise due to chance differences between the members of
population included in the sample and those not included.

Thus the total sampling error is made up of error due to bias, if any, and the random sampling error.
The essence of bias is that it forms a constant component of error that does not decrease in a large
population as the number in the sample increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as
cumulative or non-compensating error. The random sampling error, on the other hand, decreases
on an average as the size of the sample increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as non-
cumulative or compensating error.
Causes of bias
Faulty process of selection.
Faulty work during the collection of information.
Faulty methods of analysis.
2. Non-sampling errors
When a complete enumeration of units in the universe is made one would expect that it would give
rise to data free from errors. However, in practice, it is not so. For example, it is difficult to
completely avoid errors of observation or ascertainment. So also in the processing theory to the
available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise between idealism and
feasibility. One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated
techniques.







Criteria for Selecting Sampling Techniques
1. Purpose of the survey
What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to generalize the findings based on the sample
survey to the population, then an appropriate probability sampling method must be selected. The
choice of a particular type of probability sampling depends on the geographical area of the survey
and the size and nature of the population under study. On the other hand, if he is interested in just
understanding the nature of the phenomenon under study, and does not aim at generalizing his
finding, some non-probability sampling method will suffice.
2. Measurability
The application of statistical inference theory requires computation of the sampling error from the
sample itself. Probability samples only allow such computation. Hence, where the research
objective requires statistical inference, the sample should be drawn by applying simple random
sampling method or stratified random sampling method, depending on whether the population is
homogeneous or heterogeneous. All probability samples are non-measurable, e.g., selecting a
single cluster, a systematic sampling from a population with periodic variation, and cluster sampling
in which the primary clusters are not identified.
3. Degree of precision
Should the results of the survey be very precise, or even rough results could serve the purpose?
The desired level of precision is one of the criteria of sampling method selection. Where a high
degree of precision of results would serve the purpose (e.g., marketing surveys) any convenient
non-random sampling like quota sampling would be enough.
4. lnformation about population:
How much information is available about the population to be studied? Where no lists of population
and no information about its nature are available, it is difficult to apply a probability sampling
method. Then exploratory study with non-probability sampling may be made to gain a better idea of
the population. After gaining sufficient knowledge about the populations through the exploratory
study, appropriate probability sampling design may be adopted.
5. The Nature of the population:
In terms of the variables to be studied, is the population homogeneous or heterogeneous? In the
case of a homogeneous population, even a simple random sampling will give a representative
sample. If the population is heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate. "Systematic
sampling would, however, be preferred in those cases where the list of units of population is
available or easily obtainable and where there is no periodic variation or trend present in the
population.


6. Geographical area of the study and the size of the population:
If the area covered by a survey is very large (e.g., a country or a state) and the size of the
population is quite large, multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the area and the
size of the population are small, single stage probability sampling methods could be used.
7. Financial resources:
Is the available finance a limiting factor or not? If the available finance is limited, it may become
necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling or even quota
sampling as a compromise. However, if the objectives of the study and the desired, level of
precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget, there is no alternative than to give up the
proposed survey. Where finance is not a constraint, a researcher can choose the most appropriate
method of sampling that fits the research objective and the nature of population.
8. Time limitation:
The time limit within which the research project should be completed restricts the choice of a
sampling method. Then, as a compromise, it may become necessary to choose less time
consuming methods like simple random sampling instead of stratified sampling/sampling with
probability proportional to size; multi-stage cluster sampling instead of single-stage sampling of
elements. Of course, the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent.
9. Economy should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method.
It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. "A sample is economical if the
precision per unit cost is high or the cost per unit of variance is low." The precisions and costs of
various measurable probability sampling methods can be compared and the method which achieves
the optimal balance between reliability of results and costs may be selected. This calls for much
thought and ingenuity.
The above criteria frequently conflict and the researcher must balance and bend them to obtain a
good sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the sampling theory to the
available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise between idealism and
feasibility. One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated
techniques.






PRINCIPLE STEPS OF SAMPLING
Objectives of the survey
The first step when assessing a sample survey is to well identify the general objectives of the survey.
Without a lucid statement of the objectives, it is easy in a complex survey to forget the objectives
when engrossed in the details of planning, and to make decisions that are at variance with the
objectives.
One of the principal choice is between average values (mean of the population) or total values. In
fact, depending on this choice, techniques for the optimal sample size and estimators factors are
different.
A number of measures exist that have been used by various agencies to measure the economic
significance of fisheries to the regional economy. In addition, a number of performance indicators
also exist that can be used to assess the performance of fisheries management in achieving its
economic objectives (see chapter 1 and related annexes).
2 Population to be sampled
The word population is used to denote the aggregate from which the sample is chosen. The definition
of the population may present some problems in the fishing sector, as it should consider the complete
list of vessels and their physical and technical characteristics.
The population to be sampled (the sampled population) should coincide with the population about
which information is wanted (the target population). Some-times, for reasons of practicability or
convenience, the sampled population is more restricted than the target population. If so, it should be
remembered that conclusions drawn from the sample apply to the sampled population. Judgement
about the extent to which these conclusions will also apply to the target population must depend on
other sources of information. Any supplementary information that can be gathered about the nature
of the differences between sampled and target population may be helpful.
For example, let us consider the Italian statistical sampling design for the estimation of "quantity and
average price of fishery products landed each calendar month in Italy by Community and EFTA
vessels" (Reg. CE n. 1382/91 modified by Reg. CE n. 2104/93). Aim of the survey is to estimate
total catches and average prices for individual species. Therefore, the sampling basis consists of the
more than 800 landing points spread over the 8 000 km of Italian coasts. It is not however feasible to
consider the list of the landing points as the list of elementary units. To overcome these difficulties, a
sampled population, distinct from the target population but including units in which the considered
phenomenon takes place, has been considered. In synthesis, the elementary units considered are the
landings of the vessels belonging to the sampled fleet. Thus, the list from which the sampling units


are extracted is constituted by all the vessels belonging to the Italian fishery fleet.
3 Data to be collected
It is well to verify that all the data are relevant to the purposes of the survey and that no essential data
are omitted There is frequently a tendency to ask too many questions, some of which are never
subsequently analysed. An overlong questionnaire lowers the quality of the answers to important as
well as unimportant questions.
4 Degree of precision desired
The results of sample surveys are always subject to some uncertainty because only part of the
population has been measured and because of errors of measurement. This uncertainty can be
reduced by taking larger samples and by using superior instruments of measurement. But this usually
costs time and money. Consequently, the specification of the degree of precision wanted in the
results is an important step. This step is the responsibility of the person who is going to use the data.
It may present difficulties, since many administrators are unaccustomed to thinking in terms of the
amount of error that can be tolerated in estimates, consistent with making good decisions. The
statistician can often help at this stage.
5 The questionnaire and the choice of the data collectors
There may be a choice of measuring instrument and of method of approach to the population. The
survey may employ a self-administered questionnaire, an interviewer who reads a standard set of
questions with no discretion, or an interviewing process that allows much latitude in the form and
ordering of the questions. The approach may be by mail, by telephone, by personal visit, or by a
combination of the three. Much study has been made of interviewing methods and problems.
A major part of the preliminary work is the construction of record forms on which the questions and
answers are to be entered. With simple questionnaires, the answers can sometimes be pre-coded, that
is, entered in a manner in which they can be routinely transferred to mechanical equipment. In fact,
for the construction of good record forms, it is necessary to visualise the structure of the final
summary tables that will be used for drawing conclusions.
Information may be collected using a number of different survey methods. These include personal
interview, telephone interview or postal survey. The questionnaire design needs to vary based on the
approach taken.
Personal interviews involves visiting the individual from which data are to be collected. The
interviewer controls the questionnaire, and fills in the required data. The questionnaire can be less
detailed in terms of explanatory information as the interviewer can be trained on its completion
before starting the interview process. This type of survey is best for long, complex surveys and it
allows the interviewer and fisher to agree a time convenient for both parties. It is particularly useful


when the respondent may have to go and find information such as accounts, log book records etc.
The personal interview approach also allows the interviewer to probe more fully if he/she feels that
the fisher has misunderstood a question, or information provided conflicts with other earlier
statements.
Data collectors are usually external to the phenomenon that is being examined and, moreover, they
are often part of some public structure, in order to avoid possible influences due to personal interests.
However, on the basis of the experience acquired in this field by Irepa, it has been demonstrated
(Istat, Irepa 2000) that it is essential to have data collectors belonging to the fishery productive chain
in order to obtain correct and timely data. Therefore, data collectors should belong to the productive
or management fishery sectors.
During meetings on socio-economic indicators partners involved presented several questionnaires.
These questionnaires are aimed to collect the information required to calculate the socio-economic
indicators and some of them are reported in appendix C.
6 Selection of the sample design
There is a variety of plans by which the sample may be selected (simple random sample, stratified
random sample, two-stage sampling, etc.). For each plan that is considered, rough estimates of the
size of sample can be made from a knowledge of the degree of precision desired. The relative costs
and time involved for each plan are also compared before making a decision.
7 Sampling units
Sample units have to be drawn according to the sample design.
To draw sample units from the population, several methods can be used, depending on the type of
the chosen sample strategy:
sample with equal probabilities
sample with probabilities proportional to the size (PPS).

In the first case, each unit of the population has the same probability to take part of the sample, while
in the case of a PPS sample each unit has a different probability to be sampled and this probability is
proportional to the following measure: Pi = Xi/Xh, where, i = a generic vessel, h = stratum, X= a size
parameter, for example the overall length of a vessel.
8 The pre-test
It has been found useful to try out the questionnaire and the field methods on a small scale. This
nearly always results in improvements in the questionnaire and may reveal other troubles that will be
serious on a large scale, for example, that the cost will be much greater than expected.
9 Organization of the field work


In a survey, many problems of business administration are met. The personnel must receive training
in the purpose of the survey and in the methods of measurement to be employed and must be
adequately supervised in their work.
A procedure for early checking of the quality of the returns is invaluable.
Plans must be made for handling non-response, that is, the failure of the enumerator to obtain
information from certain of the units in the sample.
10 Summary and analysis of the data
The first step is to edit the completed questionnaires, in the hope of amending recording errors, or at
least of deleting data that are obviously erroneous. The check on the elementary data to eliminate
non-sampling errors can be achieved by means of computer programmes implemented to correct the
erroneous values and to permit statistical data analysis. These programmes are mainly based on
graphical analysis of elementary data.
Thereafter, the computations that lead to the estimates are performed. Different methods of
estimation may be available for the same data.
In the presentation of results it is good practice to report the amount of error to be expected in the
most important estimates One of the advantages of probability sampling is that such statements can
be made, although they have to be severely qualified if the amount of non-response is substantial
11 Information gained for future surveys
The more information we have initially about a population, the easier it is to devise a sample that
will give accurate estimates. Any completed sample is potentially a guide to improved future
sampling, in the data that it supplies about the means, standard deviations, and nature of the
variability of the principal measurements and about the costs involved in getting the data. Sampling
practice advances more rapidly when provisions are made to assemble and record information of this
type.








FACTORS HELP TO DECI DE SAMPLI NG METHOD AND DESI GN:
Determining an appropriate sampling design is a challenging issue and has greater implications on
the application of the research findings. The following are the factors to be considered on choosing u
on random sampling techniques.
1. Research objectives
A clear understanding of the statement of the problem and the objectives will provide the initial
guidelines for determining the appropriate sampling design. If the research objectives include the
need to generalize the findings of the research study, then a probability sampling method should be
opted rather than a non probability sampling method. In addition the type of research viz.,
exploratory or descriptive will also influence the type of the sampling design.
2. Scope of the research
The scope of the research project is local, regional, national or international has an implication on the
choice of the sampling method. The geographical proximity of the defined target population
elements will influence not only the researchers ability to compile needed list of sampling units, but
also the selection design. When the target population is equally distributed geographically a cluster
sampling method may become more attractive than other available methods. If the geographical area
to be covered is more extensive then complex sampling method should be adopted to ensure proper
representation of the target population.
3. Availability of resources
The researchers command over the financial and human resources should be considered in deciding
the sampling method. If the financial and human resource availability are limited, some of the more
time-consuming, complex probability sampling methods cannot be selected for the study.
4. Time frame
The researcher who has to meet a short deadline will be more likely to select a simple, less time
consuming sampling method rather than a more complex and accurate method.
5. Advanced knowledge of the target population
If the complete lists of the entire population elements are not available to the researcher, the
possibility of the probability sampling method is ruled out. It may dictate that a preliminary study be
conducted to generate information to build a sampling frame for the study. The researcher must gain
a strong understanding of the key descriptor factors that make up the true members of any target
population.
6. Degree of accuracy
The degree of accuracy required or the level of tolerance for error may vary from one study to
another. If the researcher wants to make predictions or inferences about the true position of all


members of the defined target population, then some type of probability sampling method should be
selected. If the researcher aims to solely identify and obtain preliminary insights into the defined
target population, non probability methods might prove to be more appropriate.
6. Perceived statistical analysis needs
The need for statistical projections or estimates based on the sample results is to be considered. Only
probability sampling techniques allow the researcher to adequately use statistical analysis for
estimates beyond the sample respondents. Though the statistical method can be applied on the non
probability samples of people and objects, the researchers ability to accurately generalize the results
and findings to the larger defined target population is technically inappropriate and questionable. The
researcher should also decide on the appropriateness of sample size as it has a direct impact on the
data quality, statistical precision and generalizability of findings

















Marketing sampling plan
A marketing sampling plan maps out how your company intends on gathering data to fulfill its short-
and long-term marketing objectives. Methods for collecting market data include polling, surveys and
focus groups. Because of its significance, the creation of a marketing sampling plan should be
consistent with your company's overall business strategy.
Understanding the Market
It is important to identify your target market, or the type of consumers that your company wants to
attract. Key items to focus on include demographic and socioeconomic trends. Take time to
understand the size of the target market and whether it is a truly representative sample. This is
paramount to formulating a relevant sampling plan. The information you obtain forms the basis for
the company's overall marketing strategy for such expenses as advertising and promotion, branding
and product positioning.
Data Collection
Decide how, where and when you intend to collect information about your target consumers.
Secondary data uses already existing information, such as government census reports or trade
publications. Secondary data may also include internal company information like sales invoices.
Primary data supplements secondary data and focuses on obtaining first-hand information. Decide on
a combination of secondary and primary data collection that satisfies your company's overall
marketing research objective.
Research Methodology
Choose which market research methodologies you want to include in the marketing sampling plan.
Quantitative market research methods rely on numerical measurement, such as the use of surveys
and statistics. Qualitative market research uses in-person interviews, focus groups and similar
methods to gather information. Focus on assessment of findings and how the company intends on
using the information it gathers. It is important to define the market research within the framework of
the company's marketing objectives.
Consideration
Your marketing sampling plan will evolve. You may find that you have to update it, particularly if
the company changes strategies or enters new markets. Secondary data, while useful, has its limits
but is a good building block because it is inexpensive. Primary data is expensive but often necessary.
Therefore, craft a marketing sampling plan with your company's budget in mind.


After deciding on the research approach and instruments, the marketing researcher must design a
sampling plan. This calls for three decisions:
1. Sampling unit:
Who is to be surveyed? The marketing researcher must define the target population that will
be sampled. In the American Airlines survey providing an internet facility in their First class
with a nominal fee, should the sampling unit be only firstclass or business travelers,
firstclass vacation travelers or both? Should travelers under age 18 be interviewed?
Should both husbands and wives be interviewed? Once the sampling unit is determined, a
sampling frame must be developed so that everyone in the target population has an equal or
known chance of being sampled.
2. Sample size:
How many people should be surveyed? Large samples give more reliable results than small
samples. However, it is not necessary to sample the entire target population or even a
substantial portion to achieve reliable results. Samples of less than 1% of a population can
often provide good reliability, with a credible sampling procedure.
3. Sampling procedure:
How should the respondents be chosen? To obtain a representative sample, a probability
sample of the population should be drawn. Probability sampling allows the calculation of
confidence limits for sampling error. Thus, one could conclude after the sample is taken that
the interval 5 to 7 trips per year has 95 chances in 100 of containing the true number of
trips taken annually by first class passengers flying between Chicago and Tokyo.?
Three types of probability sampling are described below part A. When the cost or time
involved in probability sampling is too high, marketing researchers will take non-probability
samples. Part B describes three types.
A. Probability Sample
Simple random sample: every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.
Stratified random sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups (such as
age groups), and random samples are drawn from each group.
Cluster (area) sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups (such as city
blocks) and the researcher draws a sample of the groups to interview.
B. Non-probability Sample
Convenience sample: The researchers select the most accessible population members.
Judgment sample: The researcher selects population members who are good prospects for
accurate information.


Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of
several categories.
Some marketing researchers feel that non-probability samples are very useful in many
circumstances, even though they do not allow sampling error to be measured.


































SAMPLING FRAME IN MARLETING:
In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or device from which a sample is drawn. It is a
list of all those within a population who can be sampled, and may include individuals, households or
institutions.
Importance of the sampling frame is stressed by Jessen:
In many practical situations the frame is a matter of choice to the survey planner, and sometimes a
critical one. [...] Some very worthwhile investigations are not undertaken at all because of the lack of
an apparent frame; others, because of faulty frames, have ended in a disaster or in cloud of doubt.
Raymond James Jessen
Sampling frame types and qualities
In the most straight, such as when dealing with a batch of material from a production run, or using
a census, it is possible to identify and measure every single item in the population and to include any
one of them in our sample; this is known as direct element sampling.
[1]
However, in many other
cases this is not possible; either because it is cost-prohibitive (reaching every citizen of a country) or
impossible (reaching all humans alive).
Having established the frame, there are a number of ways for organizing it to improve efficiency and
effectiveness. It's at this stage that the researcher should decide whether the sample is in fact to be
the whole population and would therefore be a census.
This list should also facilitate access to the selected sampling units. A frame may also provide
additional 'auxiliary information' about its elements; when this information is related to variables or
groups of interest, it may be used to improve survey design. While not necessary for simple
sampling, a sampling frame used for more advanced sample techniques, such as stratified sampling,
may contain additional information (such as demographic information). For instance, an electoral
register might include name and sex; this information can be used to ensure that a sample taken from
that frame covers all demographic categories of interest. (Sometimes the auxiliary information is less
explicit; for instance, a telephone number may provide some information about location.)
An ideal sampling frame will have the following qualities:
all units have a logical, numerical identifier
all units can be found their contact information, map location or other relevant information is
present


the frame is organized in a logical, systematic fashion
the frame has additional information about the units that allow the use of more advanced
sampling frames
every element of the population of interest is present in the frame
every element of the population is present only once in the frame
no elements from outside the population of interest are present in the frame
the data is 'up-to-date
The most straightforward type of frame is a list of elements of the population (preferably the entire
population) with appropriate contact information. For example, in an opinion poll, possible sampling
frames include an electoral register or a telephone directory. Other sampling frames can include
employment records, school class lists, patient files in a hospital, organizations listed in a thematic
database, and so on. On a more practical levels, sampling frames have the form of computer files
Not all frames explicitly list population elements; some list only 'clusters'. For example, a street
map can be used as a frame for a door-to-door survey; although it doesn't show individual houses, we
can select streets from the map and then select houses on those streets. This offers some advantages:
such a frame would include people who have recently moved and are not yet on the list frames
discussed above, and it may be easier to use because it doesn't require storing data for every unit in
the population, only for a smaller number of clusters.
Sampling frames problems
The sampling frame must be representative of the population and this is a question outside the scope
of statistical theory demanding the judgment of experts in the particular subject matter being studied.
All the above frames omit some people who will vote at the next election and contain some people
who will not; some frames will contain multiple records for the same person. People not in the frame
have no prospect of being sampled.
Because a cluster-based frame contains less information about the population, it may place
constraints on the sample design, possibly requiring the use of less efficient sampling methods and/or
making it harder to interpret the resulting data.
Statistical theory tells us about the uncertainties in extrapolating from a sample to the frame. It
should be expected that sample frames, will always contain some mistakes. In some cases, this may
lead to sampling bias. Such bias should be minimized, and identified, although avoiding it


completely in a real world is nearly impossible. One should also not assume that sources which claim
to be unbiased and representative are such.
In defining the frame, practical, economic, ethical, and technical issues need to be addressed. The
need to obtain timely results may prevent extending the frame far into the future. The difficulties can
be extreme when the population and frame are disjoint. This is a particular problem
in forecasting where inferences about the future are made from historical data. In fact, in 1703,
when Jacob Bernoulli proposed to Gottfried Leibniz the possibility of using historical mortality data
to predict the probability of early death of a living man, Gottfried Leibniz recognized the problem in
replying
Nature has established patterns originating in the return of events but only for the most part. New
illnesses flood the human race, so that no matter how many experiments you have done on corpses,
you have not thereby imposed a limit on the nature of events so that in the future they could not vary.
Gottfried Leibniz
Kish posited four basic problems of sampling frames
1. Missing elements: Some members of the population are not included in the frame.
2. Foreign elements: The non-members of the population are included in the frame.
3. Duplicate entries: A member of the population is surveyed more than once.
4. Groups or clusters: The frame lists clusters instead of individuals.















SAMPLING: JOANNE BIRCHALL FROM RAINBOW RESEARCH

Unless you are in the luxurious position of having access to everyone who forms your population,
you will need to take some form of sample from which to glean information for Market Research
purposes. In addition to accessibility, the method chosen will depend upon a variety of statistical and
practical factors. You will want to ensure your sample size is sufficient for the purpose of the
analysis you intend to perform, ensure your sample is representative of the population you are
attempting to say something about, and of course you will need to take into account your
affordability.

This section covers the following:

- Sampling methods
- Calculating a sample size
- Calculating a sampling error

Sampling Methods
In most surveys, access to the entire population is near on impossible, however, the results from a
survey with a carefully selected sample will reflect extremely closely those that would have been
obtained had the population provided the data.

Sampling therefore is a very important part of the Market Research process. If you have surveyed
using an appropriate sampling technique, you can be confident that your results will be generalised to
the population in question. If the sample were biased in any way, for example, if the selection
technique gave older people more of a chance of selection than younger people, it would be
inadvisable to make generalisations from the findings.

There are essentiality two types of sampling: probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling Methods
Probability or random sampling gives all members of the population a known chance of being
selected for inclusion in the sample and this does not depend upon previous events in the selection
process. In other words, the selection of individuals does not affect the chance of anyone else in the


population being selected.

Many statistical techniques assume that a sample was selected on a random basis. There are four
basic types of random sampling techniques:

1) Simple Random Sampling
This is the ideal choice as it is a perfect random method. Using this method, individuals are
randomly selected from a list of the population and every single individual has an equal chance of
selection.

This method is ideal, but if it cannot be adopted, one of the following alternatives may be chosen if
any shortfall in accuracy.

2) Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a frequently used variant of simple random sampling. When performing
systematic sampling, every kth element from the list is selected (this is referred to as the sample
interval) from a randomly selected starting point. For example, if we have a listed population of 6000
members and wish to draw a sample of 2000, we would select every 30th (6000 divided by 200)
person from the list. In practice, we would randomly select a number between 1 and 30 to act as our
starting point.

The one potential problem with this method of sampling concerns the arrangement of elements in the
list.? If the list is arranged in any kind of order e.g. if every 30th house is smaller than the others
from which the sample is being recruited, there is a possibility that the sample produced could be
seriously biased.

3) Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a variant on simple random and systematic methods and is used when there are
a number of distinct subgroups, within each of which it is required that there is full representation. A
stratified sample is constructed by classifying the population in sub-populations (or strata), base on
some well-known characteristics of the population, such as age, gender or socio-economic status.
The selection of elements is then made separately from within each strata, usually by random or
systematic sampling methods.


Stratified sampling methods also come in two types proportionate and disproportionate.

In proportionate sampling, the strata sample sizes are made proportional to the strata population
sizes.For example if the first strata is made up of males, then as there are around 50% of males in the
UK population, the male strata will need to represent around 50% of the total sample.

In disproportionate methods, the strata are not sampled according to the population sizes, but higher
proportions are selected from some groups and not others. This technique is typically used in a
number of distinct situations:

The costs of collecting data may differ from subgroup to subgroup.
We might require more cases in some groups if estimations of populations values are likely to be
harder to make i.e. the larger the sample size (up to certain limits), the more accurate any estimations
are likely to be.
We expect different response rates from different groups of people. Therefore, the less co-operative
groups might be over-sampled to compensate.



















CONCLUSI ON:
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest
so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen. Let's begin by covering some of the key terms in sampling like
"population" and "sampling frame." Then, because some types of sampling rely upon quantitative
models, we'll talk about some of the statistical terms used in sampling. Finally, we'll discuss the
major distinction between probability and Nonprobability sampling methods and work through the
major types in each.
Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population they are
studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals a sample and use those observations
to make inferences about the entire population.
Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the characteristic(s) of interest. In that case,
the researcher's conclusions from the sample are probably applicable to the entire population.
This type of correspondence between the sample and the larger population is most important when a
researcher wants to know what proportion of the population has a certain characteristic like a
particular opinion or a demographic feature. Public opinion polls that try to describe the percentage of
the population that plans to vote for a particular candidate, for example, require a sample that is highly
representative of the population.













References:
Methodology of research in social science, 2
nd
Ed., OR Krishnaswamy & M. Ranganathan,
Himalaya Publications.
Research Methodology, 2
nd
Ed., CR. Kothari, New Age Int. Publishers.
Business research methods, BBM BU textbook, Appannaiah Reddy & Ramanath, Himalaya
Publications.




BOOKS FOR REFERENCE:
1. OR Krishna Swamy, Research Methodology.
2. Wilkinson & Bhandarkar, Methodology and Techniques of Social Research.
3. V.R Michael, Research Methodology in Management.
4. CR. Kothari, Research Methodology.
Note: Module is just a reference material. Please do refer the books mentioned above.