Math Gems

An assortment of mathematical marvels.

12345679 142857 × 2 = 285714

×9 16 3 2 13 π
142857 × 3 = 428571 =1 − 13 + 15 − 17 + 19 - …
111111111 142857 × 4 = 571428 5 10 11 8 s 2 1 bh �r 2 4
2
× 111111111 142857 × 5 = 714285 9 6 7 12 π 2 2 4 4 6
12345678987654321 142857 × 6 = 857142 = × × × × ×…
4 15 14 1 π = 3.14159… 2 1 3 3 5 5
1 1
9
= .111111… 7
= .142857… s3 π r 2h π 2
r h 4 πr3
The ratio of the circumference 3 3
A magic square. of a circle to its diameter is pi. Pi, expressed as
Fun arithmetic with the Fun arithmetic with the All rows, columns, and Pi is transcendental, i.e., Area and volume formulas. an infinite series and
number nine. number seven. diagonals have the same sum. irrational and non-algebraic. Archimedes solved the sphere. an infinite product.

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, …

n! ≈ ( ne )n√ 2πn
2 4 6 8 10 12 ∞
n n 1 1
x ζ ( s) = ∑ =∏
∑ i =1 + 2 + 3 + … + n ∏ i = 1× 2 × 3 ×…× n Γ (n + 1) = n! 3 9 π(x ) ≈
log x n =1 n
s
p 1−
1
i =1 i =1 5 ps
n (n + 1) Γ(12 ) = √ π
= = n! 7
2
11
Stirling's approximation
of n factorial. A prime number is divisible The prime number theorem The zeta function of Euler and
Euler's gamma function gives only by one and itself. of Gauss and Legendre Riemann, expressed as an
The sum of the numbers The product of the numbers factorials for integers but has The sieve of Eratosthenes approximates the number infinite series and a curious
from 1 to n. from 1 to n is n factorial. surprising values for fractions. finds primes. of primes less than x. product over all primes.

n Suppose √ 2 were rational

n c
( x + y) n = ∑ ( k ) x n −k y k
k =0
n!
( nk ) = k ! (n − k )!
The binomial theorem expands
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
powers of sums.
The binomial coefficient is the
number of ways to choose
k objects from a set of
n objects, regardless of order.
a
c sin θ =
1 → √ 2 = mn , reduced a 2
a +b =c 2 2 a c
θ b
1 1 → ( mn ) 2 = 2 → n 2 = 2m 2 b b cos θ =
1 2 1 c
→ n 2 is even → n is even
1 3 3 1
→ n 2 is divisible by 4 ax 2 + bx + c = 0 a2 y = sin x
tan θ =
a
b
1 4 6 4 1
→ m 2 is even → m is even c2
1 5 10 10 5 1
− b ±√ b − 4ac
2 b2 ( ac )2 + ( bc )2 = 1
→ mn is not reduced
x=
… → √ 2 is not rational 2a sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
The trigonometric functions.
Pascal's triangle shows the Proof that the square root The quadratic equation The Pythagorean theorem. Another form of
binomial coefficients. of two is irrational. defines a parabola. A proof by rearrangement. the Pythagorean theorem.

a+b a 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …

φ= = Fn +1
a b lim =φ
n →∞ Fn
1
φ =1 + 1
φ φ =1 + φ n − ( −φ1)n
1 Fn =
1 1+
φ = 1.618… = 0.618… 1 + 1+1… √5
φ
φ= √
1+ 5
The golden rectangle,
The golden ratio, phi. a classical aesthetic ideal.
2 Each Fibonacci number is the The ratio of successive
The ratio of a whole to its Cutting off a square leaves sum of the previous two. Fibonacci numbers approaches
larger part equals the ratio of another golden rectangle. The pentagram contains many The number of spirals in a the golden ratio.
the larger part to the smaller. A logarithmic spiral is pairs of line segments that The golden ratio, expressed sunflower or a pinecone is a An exact formula for the
phi is irrational and algebraic. inscribed. have the golden ratio. as a continued fraction. Fibonacci number. nth Fibonacci number.

→ → →
i j k
→ → k
A ×B = Ax Ay Az i
1 n
e x √ −1 = cos(x ) + √ −1 sin( x ) j
e = lim (1 + n ) Bx By Bz
n →∞
d x
y = ex x = log y dx
e = ex
∫ e dx = e
x x

e =1 + 11! + 21! + 31! + 41! + …

e π√ −1 = −1
1 − (
1 x −μ
)
2
→∂ →∂
∇ = i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z
→∂

e = 2.71828…
Newton and Leibniz, is based
Napier's constant, e,
is the base of natural
logarithms and exponentials.
e is transcendental.
y= e 2 σ
∇U ∇ · V
→
∇×V
→
σ √ 2π
Calculus, developed by 2 2
Euler's formula relating
∇ U U
on derivatives (slopes) and exponentials to sine waves.
integrals (areas) of curves. A special case relating the The Gaussian or Gibbs's vector cross product.
The derivative of ex is ex. e, expressed as a limit numbers pi, e, and the normal probability distribution Del operates on scalar and vector
The integral of ex is ex. and an infinite series. imaginary square root of -1. is a bell-shaped curve. fields in 3D, quad in 4D.

Imagine listing all real numbers

v −e+f =2
The five regular polyhedra.
Euler's formula for the number of
vertices, edges, and faces
of any polyhedron.
between 0 and 1 in any order.
1→ . 8 4 9 7 3 8… (∃y)(x) ~ Dem (x, y)
2→ . 1 7 9 3 8 0… ⊃
3→ . 1 0 3 4 2 1… (x) ~ Dem (x, sub (n, 13, n))
4→ . 3 5 6 1 2 2…
You can always make an unlisted [from Nagel and Newman, Gödel's Proof]
real number by changing every
v –e+f −c=0 digit on the diagonal,
e.g., change .8731… to .9842… Gödel proved that
The hypercube. The Möbius strip has if arithmetic is consistent,
Schläfli's formula for vertices, only one side. Fractals of Mandelbrot, Cantor's proof that the infinity it must be incomplete,
edges, faces, and cells of The Klein bottle's inside Koch, and Sierpinski have infinite of real numbers is greater than i.e., it has true propositions
any 4-dimensional polytope. is its outside. levels of detail. the infinity of integers. that can never be proved.

To find out more, look it up on the web or in the library.

© 2007 Keith Enevoldsen thinkzone.wlonk.com