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Geog 301 Lecture Notes

Prepared by Dr. J.K. Teye


Soil Classification
Soil classification entails the systematic categorization of soils based on
distinguishing features and criteria that dictate choices in use. As is the
case with climate, the major soils of the world can be categorised into major
groups to produce world soil maps.
Soil Classification Systems
Soil classification systems provide scientists and resource managers with
generalized information about the properties of various types of soil. Various
soil classification systems are in use worldwide. Even in the same country,
there may be different classification systems. One reason for this is the fact
that different groups of people have different motives for classifying soils. or
instance, geotechnical engineers usually classify soils according to their
engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building
material. On the other hand, agricultural scientists classify soils based on their
properties and suitability for agriculture.
Criteria for Classifying Soils
Soils are classified in different ways depending on the purpose for which the
classification is being done. !he criteria used in classifying soils may vary,
even within the same country. One reason for this is the fact that different
occupational groups have different motives for classifying soils. or instance,
agriculturalists classify soils on the basis of their properties and suitability for
agriculture. On the other hand, geotechnical engineers usually classify soils
according to their engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation
support or building material.
Systems of classifying soils can be broadly divided into two, namely
indigenous and scientific systems. !he indigenous systems "also referred
to as Vernacular systems# are developed by the land users. $ost indigenous
soil classification systems are based on physical or perceptual dimensions of
soil "Ettema, %&&'#. (hysical dimension classification systems classify soils
on the basis of the readily observable features li)e soil colour and te*ture that
can be detected by sight, feel, or smell. !he criteria of the perceptual
dimension are not as concrete and readily recognized and include suitability
classes for different crops, degree of land degradation or non+agricultural
classes based upon the use of soil for house building or pottery ",reuning+
$adsen et al. -.%.#. or a long time, indigenous soil classification systems
have been ignored by soil scientists. /n recent years, however, some social
scientists are showing interests in these systems. Ethnopedology is the
study of these indigenous systems of soil classification.
/n contrast to indigenous systems of soil classification, three different criteria
are commonly used by scientists to classify soils. !hese are Genetic
Classification, Morphological classification and Applied Classification.
Genetic Classification places considerable emphasis on the mode of
formation of the soils or the genesis of the soil. Emphasis is on soil+
forming factors. Morphological Classification is based on the use of
diagnostic horizons and gives specific properties of the soil that may be
measured in the laboratory. Essentially, soils are categorised on the basis of
0uantifiable characteristics. Applied Classification1 2ere, soils are classified
based on their land+use capability. Several e*amples e*ist based on the
particular use the soil is to be put. As noted already, for instance, geotechnical
engineers usually classify soils according to their engineering properties as
they relate to use for foundation support or building material. On the other
hand, farmers often classify soils to determine their potential for the cultivation
of crops. 3hile an applied soil classification system may be useful for
particular land users who developed the system, it may not be useful for other
land users. or instance, a classification made for the purpose of engineering
may not be useful for agricultural purposes. !he desire by different
occupational groups to develop classification systems for their purpose has
resulted in the emergence of so many classification systems worldwide. or
instance, the Unified Soil Classification System "4S5S# is used in
engineering and geology disciplines to describe the te*ture and grain size of a
soil. !he !he AASH! Soil Classification System was developed by the
American Association of State 2ighway and !ransportation Officials, and is
used as a guide for the classification of soils and soil+aggregate mi*tures for
highway construction purposes.
/ want to stress that while we have discussed scietific soil classification
systems under three broad headings "i.e. genetic, morphological and applied#,
some researchers also classify all the systems only based on the first two
criteria "genetic, morphological#. /t is also important to mention that some
systems of soil classification have elements of both genetic and morphological
criteria. !hese are called comprehensive soil classification systems.
inally, / want you to bear in mind that soil classification systems are not
static. As )nowledge is gained, old systems and class names are changed for
new ones, as with plant and animal classification systems. /n view of the
differences in soil classification systems, it is important to include descriptions
of classified soils when reporting so that correlation to other systems is
possible.
$any countries have their own systems or use those of other countries. One
system that has been e*tensively used in the mapping and classification of
soils in 6hana is the "nterim Ghana Soil Classification System #hich #as
developed in the late %&7.s "see ,rammer, %&8-#. One of the most useful
classification systems is the US$A Soil a%onomy first published by the
4nited States 9epartment of Agriculture:s Soil Survey Staff in %&;7. !he
system has undergone a number of changes since that time, and the -nd
edition was published in %&&&. !his classification system provides a
comprehensive categorization of soil types based on several parameters
"most importantly their properties !he Canadian System of Soil
Classification is another widely used system. !he &ood and Agriculture
!rganization of the United 'ations (&A!) also designed a supra+national
classification system, which provides important generalized information about
soils pedogenesis. !he system, also )nown as the *orld Soil Classification
system, was first published in %&;', and it was modified by many countries to
fit their specific needs. /n %&&<, this system was replaced by the *orld
+eference ,ase for Soil +esources (*+,).
Soils of the *orld- based on US$A
!he 4S9A Soil !a*onomy, which is one of the most comprehensive soil
classification systems, places soils of the world in one of %- categories )nown
as soil orders. !hese are1 Entisols, /nceptisols, 2istosols, O*isols, 4ltisols,
Vertisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, $ollisols, Aridisols, Andisols and 6elisols. =et
me now ta)e you through the main features of these soil types.
Entisols are young soils that do not show any profile development other than
the A horizon. !he soils are unaltered from their parent material, which is
usually unconsolidated roc) or sediment. !hey are found on steep, roc)y
slopes where erosion tends to cause delayed soil development. !hey also
occur in desert and tundra regions where weathering is very low. Some
entisols are also found on fresh deposits from rivers, glaciers and sand dunes.
As the materials are not highly weathered, it may be difficult for plants to
obtain nutrients from some of these soils. 2owever, entisols of large river
valleys and associated shore deposits are good for the cultivation of crops.
"nceptisols are more developed than entisols, but still lac) most of the
features of older soils. !hese young soils contain enough moisture to support
plants for at least three months of the year. !hey are often found on fairly
steep slopes and on resistant parent materials. !hey are also common in the
tundra region where weathering is very slow. Some inceptisols are also found
on floodplains where significant sedimentation is no longer occurring. !he
ecological setting of various inceptisols partly determines their agriculture
potential. or instance, those developed on floodplains can support the
cultivation of some crops, while those found in mountainous areas are often
used for forestry, watershed and recreation.
Histosols are wet soils that contain high levels of organic matter. !hey are
often referred to as peats. !hey tend to develop on wetlands where poor
drainage inhibits the decomposition of organic materials, allowing them to
accumulate over time. Although they can be found in any region on wet,
vegetated sites, they commonly occur within coniferous forests. !hey are
common in Scandinavia, 5anada and the 3est Siberian (lain. 4sually, these
soils are acidic and are low in nutrients. 2istosols are generally not very
productive because of their restricted drainage and low fertility. /f carefully
managed, histosols can be used for fruit production.
!%isols are e*tremely weathered soils that occur in the tropical moist climate
zones and under the tropical rain forest. !hey are commonly found in the
tropical areas of Africa and South America. As a result of high concentration of
o*ides of iron and aluminium, O*isols are normally red or yellowish in colour.
!hey have high moisture levels, but the nutrient content is always low. /n fact,
most nutrients in O*isol ecosystems are contained in the standing vegetation
and decomposing plant material. As they are heavily leached, o*ysols tend to
show little evidence of soil horizons, e*cept that the surface is dar)er due to
the presence of organic matter. Although they are not very fertile, O*isols are
0uite productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers.
Ultisols are highly leached, acid forest soils found primarily in humid
temperate and tropical areas of the world. According to $ac9onald "-..>#,
these soils commonly occur in climatic regions characterised by abundant
moisture in one season and dry conditions in another season. !hey have
relatively low fertility. !he subsurface horizon contains clay accumulations
and is characterised by strong yellowish or reddish colours, due to the
presence of iron o*ides. As a result of the high acidity and relatively low
0uantities of nutrients, 4ltisols are poorly suited for continuous agriculture
without the use of fertilizer and lime. 3ith these inputs, however, these soils
can be very productive.
.ertisols are soils with high content of clay. !hey often develop under
savannah vegetation in the tropical and subtropical climates. !hese soils are
commonly found in eastern Australia, the 9eccan (lateau of /ndia, Ethiopia
and 5had. 9uring the dry season, the soil shrin)s and deep wide crac)s
occur. /t swells or e*pands in the wet season. !hus, vertisols shrin) and swell
depending on water content. !his shrin) and swell action generally prevents
the formation of distinct, well+developed horizons in these soils. As vertisols
are very stic)y when wet and very hard when dry, they can only be wor)ed
within a limited range of soil moisture content that is naturally difficult to attain.
5onse0uently, rainfed farming is very difficult on these soils. 3hen irrigation is
available, the soils can support the cultivation of rice.
Alfisols are moderately leached soils primarily found in temperate humid and
subhumid regions of the world. !hey develop under forests and mi*ed forest+
grassland. !hey are rich in plant nutrients and have a subsurface horizon in
which clays have accumulated. !he combination of very favourable climate
and high native fertility enables Alfisols to be very productive soils for both
agricultural and silvicultural use.
Spodosols often have a light+coloured E horizon. !he , horizon contains an
accumulation of illuviated humus, iron and aluminium. Spodosols often occur
under coniferous forest in cool, moist climates. !hese soils are acidic and low
in nutrients. 6iven that they are naturally infertile, Spodosols re0uire additions
of lime in order to be productive agriculturally.
Mollisols tend to develop on loess, limestone and wind+blown sand. !hey are
commonly found under grassland vegetation. !hey have a thic), dar) surface
horizon. Vertical crac)s usually form in the soil due to cycles of wetting and
drying out. !hese soils have high amounts of nutrient content and calcium.
$ollisols are among some of the best agricultural soils in the world and are
therefore widely used for crop production.
Aridisols are dry soils with distinct horizons. As the name implies, they are
found in the semi arid and arid regions "deserts# where water content in the
soil is too low to support much plant growth. 3ater deficiency is one of the
distinguishing characteristic of Aridisols. ,ecause there is no lu*uriant
vegetation on the desert where they are formed, aridisols have very low
concentration of organic matter. =eaching is limited in Aridisols, and they
usually contain high amounts of calcium and salts layers. ,ecause they do not
contain enough water, these soils are not good for agricultural production
unless irrigation water is available.
Andisols are young soils formed on fresh deposits of volcanic ash. !hey are
mostly found in central Ecuador, 5olombia and $e*ico. Andisols are very
fertile, and support intensive cropping. Andisol areas are often used for the
cultivation of fruits, tea, maize, coffee and tobacco.
Gelisols are soils of e*tremely cold climates that contain permafrost within -
meters of the surface. !hey are limited to the high+latitude (olar ?egions and
localized areas at high mountain elevations. 6elisols are commonly found in
Alas)a, Siberia and 5anada. =ow temperatures cause decomposition of
organic materials to proceed very slowly. As a result, organic matter
accumulates in the upper layer. !his gives the surface soil a blac) or dar)
brown colour. 6elisols are not very fertile.
Soils of Ghana
Soils in the orest !one o" Ghana
!he main soil groups in the forest zone of 6hana are the forest o*ysols, forest
ochrosols.
&orest !%ysols
!he forest o*ysols are the main soil group found under the rain forest in the
South/*estern part of Ghana. !hough these soils generally develop in
areas with annual rainfall amounts of %<.. mm and above, they have also
been identified in some areas with annual rainfall amounts of around %8..
mm on certain parent materials ",rammer, %&8-#. !he soils are formed over a
wide range of highly weathered parent materials, notably granite, ar0#aian,
and ,irrimian roc0s.
O*ysols have matured profiles, and their colour ranges from brown to orange.
!he topsoil colour depends on the parent material type. O*ysols that formed
on granite and lower ,irrimian roc)s have greyish brown colour in the topsoil,
while those that formed on upper ,irrimian roc)s have dar) brown colour in
the topsoil. !he te*ture of these soils also largely depends on the parent
material. 2owever, most O*ysols are loamy and well drained. !he heavy
precipitation in the forest zone promotes rapid decomposition. 2ence, organic
matter content of O*ysols is lower than those of orest Ochrosols. Again, the
high amount of rainfall in the rain forest zone causes a high degree of
leaching and this leads to e*treme reductions in the amounts of magnesium,
calcium and other nutrients that the soils may contain. !heese soils are also
strongly acid because of the high degree of leaching. /n fact, topsoil p2 values
are generally lower than 7... ,ased on subsoil colour, these soils are further
divided into @ellow and ?ed orest O*ysols.

,ecause they are strongly acid, orest O*ysols are only good for the
cultivation of acid tolerant tree crops, such as coconut, coffee, oil palm and
rubber. !hey are not good for the production of cocoa, which does not grow
well in acid soils.
&orest !chrosols
orest Ochrosols are the main soils found under the moist semi/deciduous
forest. !hey are also found in portions of the forest+savannah transition agro+
ecological zones. !hese zones stretch from 3est to East along the middle
parts of 6hana. /n many ways, the characteristics of the orest Ochrosols are
similar to those of orest O*ysols. or instance, both soil groups developed
over the same )inds of e*tremely weathered parent materials + granites,
,irrimian roc0s and sandstone. Again, li)e the orest O*ysols, Ochrosols
have matured soil profiles.
!he degrees of leaching and nutrient levels are important factors that
differentiate orest Ochrosols from O*ysols. As rainfall amounts in regions
with orest Ochrosols are not as high as those with orest O*ysols, orest
Ochrosols are not as highly leached as orest O*ysols. 5onse0uently, orest
Ochrosols tend to contain higher 0uantities of nutrients, and are also relatively
less acid "Asiamah et al., -...#. orest Ochrosols can also be further divided
into red or yellow ochrosols.
6iven that orest Ochrosols are relatively less acid, they are suitable for the
cultivation of a wide range of crops. !he common tree crops that can be
cultivated on these soils include1 cocoa, oil palm, rubber and citrus. orest
Ochrosols can also support food crops, such as cassava, plantain, yams and
maize.
3hile orest Ochrosols and orest O*ysols are the main soil groups in the
forest zone, there are some soils whose features are intermediate between
these two soil groups. !hese are called !chrosol/!%ysol intergrades. !he
term intergrade means Aintermediate in gradeB. !he Ochrosol+O*ysol
/ntergrades occupy the areas between the orest Ochrosols and orest
O*ysols. /n appearance, it is difficult to distinguish them from either of the two
main soil groups. !hey contain more nutrients than the orest O*ysols, but
have lower nutrient content than orest Ochrosols. As they are not as acid as
the orest O*ysols, they can, to some e*tent, support the cultivation of cocoa.
Another soil group in the forest zone of 6hana is the +ubrisol/!chrosol
intergrades, which are found in very few areas within the orest Ochrosol
region. !hese soils are not so leached and therefore contain more nutrients
than the orest Ochrosols. /n fact, as far as crop production is concerned, the
rubrisol+ochrosol intergrades are among the best soils in 6hana.
Soils under the "nterior *ooded Sa1anna of
Ghana
Sa1anna !chrosols

!hese soils are similar to the orest Ochrosols e*cept that they are found in
the sa1anna areas #ith semi/arid climatic conditions. !he soils developed
over granites, sandstone and shale. !hey are well drained, porous and loamy
soils. !he soils are moderately deep, but the solum is relatively thinner than
the orest Ochrosols. !he topsoils have greyish brown colour. !he main
difference between these soils and the orest Ochrosols is that the Savanna
Ochrosols have less nutrient levels and are also less acid than their forest
counterparts. !he Savanna Ochrosols can be divided into ?ed and @ellow
Savanna Ochrosols.
Although nutrients levels of Savanna Ochrosols are not as high as they are in
the orest Ochrosols, the Savanna Ochrosols are 0uite good for crop
production. !his is due to the fact that these soils are less acid. /n fact, the
bul) of 6hana:s food crops are grown on these soils. !he most common crops
that are cultivated on these soils are1 maize, millet, cowpea, groundnuts,
yams, and cassava. !he major factors that militate against crop production on
these soils are low nutrient and moisture levels.
Ground#ater 2aterites
!he 6roundwater =aterites are the most e*tensive soil group in the interior
wooded savanna zone of 6hana. !hey cover about ;7C of this zone. !he
soils developed over Voltaian shales and granites. 6roundwater =aterites
developed over granites have relatively deeper solum than those developed
over shale ",rammer, %&8-#. ,elow the surface of groundwater laterites is a
Acemented layerB of ironstone, referred to as iron pan. !his hard layer, which
is the main characteristics of the 6roundwater =aterites, ma)es it difficult for
water to pass through the soil. 5onse0uently, the surface soil becomes
waterlogged in the rainy season, but dries out in the dry season. !he colour of
the soil ranges from pale brown to pale grey. !he te*ture varies depending on
parent material. =aterites developed over Voltarian shales are usually silty or
sandy loam. !hose developed over granite are normally coarse sandy+loam.
6roundwater =aterites are generally poor in nutrients and in organic matter.
!he agricultural potential of 6roundwater =aterites is significantly limited by
the abundance of iron pan "hard layer of ironstone#. !he soils also have less
nutrient and moisture levels. !he e*treme waterlogging that occurs in the
rainy season also affects the availability of o*ygen to roots of plants. 9espite
these limitations, some crops are cultivated on these soils. !hese include
millet, maize, groundnuts and cowpea. /n addition, wetland rice is grown on
the low flat terrains which are inundated in the rainy season.
Soils in the South/East Coastal Sa1anna 3one of
Ghana
ropical ,lac0 Clays (Earths)
!he !ropical ,lac) 5lays "also )nown as the A)use soils# are mostly found in
the coastal savanna zone. !hese soils are developed over basic gneiss in the
Accra+2o+Deta plains. !hey are al)aline and contain high amounts of calcium
and magnesium. !ropical ,lac) 5lays are generally heavy and stic)y during
the rainy season. 2owever, in the dry season, they become hard and develop
wide crac)s.
6iven that !ropical ,lac) 5lays are very heavy and stic)y when wet and very
hard when dry, they can only be ploughed within a limited range of soil
moisture content that is naturally difficult to attain. 5onse0uently, a greater
proportion of these soils are not often cultivated. 5ommercial crop production
on these soils occurs on irrigated lands "e.g Asutuare and Dpong irrigation
projects#. Sugar cane and ?ice are the main crops on these irrigated fields.
ropical Grey Earths
!hese soils are also commonly found in the coastal savanna zone of 6hana.
!hey actually occupy the rest of the gneiss areas lying to the east of the blac)
clays. !hey usually develop on lower slopes where they are locally influenced
by drainage. !he soils consist of a thin layer of grey sand overlying clay pan
"very hard clay#. !o some e*tent, the tropical grey earths are similar to the
tropical blac) soils. !he main difference is that the grey soils are slightly acid.
!he presence of hardpan near the surface of the soil seriously affects water
infiltration and the development of roots. Again, the topsoils are very low in
nutrients and the subsoils which are relatively richer in nutrients are not
accessible to plant roots. 5onse0uently, these soils are mostly used as open
grazing fields.
Sodium .leisols
!hese are al)aline soils commonly found in areas around salty coastal
lagoons and cree)s of the lower end of the Volta ?iver. Specifically, they
stretch eastward from the Songaw lagoon to the !ogo border along the coast
of 6hana. !hese soils are blac) or dar) grey in colour. !hey are clayey soils
which become stic)y in the rainy season, but lose a significant proportion of
their moisture in the dry season. !he Sodium Vleisols are not very suitable for
crop production. Sugarcane is, however, cultivated on Sodium Vleisols around
the =ower Volta ,asin.

Soil Erosion
Soil erosion involves the removal of soil particles from the environment. Soil
erosion occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice. /t can also be caused
by down+slope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity.
3ater and wind are the two most important agents of soil erosion in many
countries, including 6hana.
*ater Erosion
3ater erosion is the removal of soil particles by water. !here are a number of
processes by which soil particles are removed by water. !hese are rainsplash
erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion and gully erosion.
+ainsplash erosion "or splash or raindrop erosion# is the detachment of
small soil particles by the direct impact of raindrops. !he particles removed by
splash erosion are usually transported only a few centimetres away.
5onse0uently, the effects of this process are only felt at the place where the
soils are removed. 6enerally, splash erosion is only effective when the rain
falls with a high intensity. !his type of erosion is therefore mainly common in
the tropics where rain can fall with such a high intensity.
Sheet erosion- !his is the removal of soil particles by water flowing overland
as a sheet instead of in definite channels. !his erosion occurs uniformly over
the land surface and may not be noticed until most of the topsoil has been
lost.
+ill erosion1 !his refers to the removal of soil particles by means of runoff in
small channels "rills#. /n other words, rill erosion occurs when surface runoff
concentrates forming small channels "rills# on the land surface.
Gully erosion1 !his is the removal of soil particles by means of runoff in
gullies "larger channels. /n many parts of the world, rill and gully erosions are
the dominant forms of soil erosion.
&actors that Affect the Magnitude of Soil Erosion by *ater
Soil erosion by water is naturally influenced by climate, vegetation,
topography, and the properties of the soil itself.
+ainfall "ntensity and +unoff- !he most important climatic factors that
control soil erosion by water are rainfall intensity and fre0uency. /n general,
places with high+intensity precipitation and more fre0uent rainfall tend to have
more erosion. As noted already, soil erosion by raindrop "splash# is only
significant during high+intensity thunderstorms. A higher volume of runoff
"water that moves on the surface# also produces more severe soil erosion
than a lower amount of runoff. !he volume of surface runoff depends upon the
amount of rainfall and the rate at which it is absorbed by the soil. ?unoff tends
to be higher whenever there is e*cess water on a slope that cannot be
absorbed into the soil or trapped on the surface. A reduction in infiltration, as a
result of soil compaction, can result in a higher amount of runoff, thereby
increasing the rate and magnitude of erosion.
Soil 4roperties- Some physical properties of soil also affect its resistance to
erosion. !he magnitude of soil erosion tends to be higher in soils #ith poor
structure. Soils with faster infiltration rates have a greater ability to resist
erosion. /f water infiltration is high, less runoff is generated and this reduces
the amount of surface erosion. Again, organic matter protects the soil by
absorbing the impact of rain drops. 2ence, soils that contain relatively higher
amount of organic matter are able to resist erosion. (ast erosion also strongly
affects a soil:s erodibility. E*posed subsoils ", horizon# on previously eroded
sites are generally more susceptible to erosion than surface soils. !his is
because such subsoils have poor soil structure and lower organic matter.
Again, the lower nutrient levels that characterise such subsoils contribute to
poorer plant growth. 5onse0uently, these soils are not well protected by
vegetative cover.
.egetation- Soil erosion tends to be higher when the soil has very little or no
vegetative cover. (lant andEor residue cover can protect the soil against
rainsplash erosion. /n addition, vegetation tends to reduce the speed of
surface runoff flows and allows e*cess surface water to infiltrate. /t needs to
be stressed that the effectiveness of vegetation to chec) erosion depends on
the type and amount of the cover they provide. Vegetation andEor residue that
totally cover the soil and protect it from the direct impact of raindrops are the
most efficient in controlling erosion "e.g. forests, permanent grasses#. !he
effectiveness of any vegetation to control erosion also depends on how much
protection is available at various periods during the year. (lants that provide
protective cover for a longer period of the year, especially in the rainy season,
can reduce erosion much more than can those which leave the soil bare for a
longer period of time. /n other words, for a vegetative cover to chec) erosion
effectively, it must cover the soil throughout the rainy season.
Slope Gradient and 2ength1 6enerally, the steeper the slope of a land
surface the greater the speed of surface runoff. As the carrying power of
surface runoff increases with its speed, steep slopes usually erode more
easily than gentle slopes. !he magnitude of soil erosion by water also
increases as the slope length increases. !his is because higher slope lengths
cause greater accumulation of runoff.
*ind Erosion
!he removal of soil material by wind is referred to as wind erosion. One
process by which wind causes soil erosion is by deflation. !his occurs when
wind causes small particles to be lifted and moved to another place. As these
suspended particles are moved, they may erode the surfaces of solid objects
by a process called abrasion.
&actors that "nfluence the Magnitude of Soil Erosion by *ind
!he major factors that determine the rate and magnitude of soil erosion by
wind are1 climate "wind speed and moisture level#F soil propertiesF soil surface
roughnessF unsheltered distance and vegetative cover.
*ind speed and moisture le1el- 3ind speed and soil moisture level are the
most important components of climate that control the magnitude of soil
erosion by wind. !he speed and duration of the wind are directly related to the
magnitude of soil erosion. !hus, soil erosion by wind is higher in places with
high wind speed. Surface soil particles with very low moisture levels are more
easily transported by wind.
Soil properties- Soil:s ability to resist erosion by wind also depends on its
te*ture. Very fine particles can be suspended by the wind and then
transported to very far places. !his does not mean that coarse particles are
not prone to erosion by wind. /n fact, coarse particles can also be blown along
the surface, although these larger particles are usually deposited 0uite closer
to where they have been removed. As coarse materials are blown along the
surface, the abrasion that results can reduce soil particle size and further
increase the soil susceptibility to erosion.
+oughness of soil surface1 ?ough soil surfaces tend to offer resistance to
soil erosion. 5onversely, very smooth soil surfaces offer very little resistance
to the wind. Stated differently, surfaces that are not rough tend to promote soil
erosion.
Unsheltered distance1 Soil erosion by wind also tends to be more severe at
areas with no windbrea)s "trees, shrubs, residue, etc#. !his is because the
lac) of windbrea)s allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for greater
distances, thereby increasing soil erosion.
.egetati1e co1er- As e*plained already under water erosion, wind erosion
also commonly occurs in places with no or little vegetative cover. 3hile
completely bare soil is the most susceptible, vegetation that produces very
low levels of residue may also not ade0uately protect the soils against
erosion.
Human &actors that Cause Soil Erosion
/t is clear from the above discussion that soil erosion is naturally caused by1
climatic factors, notably high rainfall intensity and strong windsF poor
vegetation coverF steep slopesF and poor soil structure. 3hile these natural
factors can cause soil loss, accelerated soil erosion is always a result of
human activities. !hese human+induced causes of soil erosion are discussed
below1
$eforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion in many parts of the
world, including 6hana. /n a natural forest, the mineral soil is protected by a
litter layer and an organic layer. !hese two layers absorb the impact of rain
drops. Vegetation cover in the forest also physically reduces the speed and
volume of surface runoff, thereby protecting the soil against erosion. !rees in
the forest can also chec) erosion by wind. !he loss of forest cover e*poses
the topsoil to erosion by wind or water. !he most common human activities
that usually lead to the destruction of forestEvegetation cover and associated
soil erosion are1 uncontrolled logging, mining acti1ities5 farming acti1ities
and bush fires. 4ncontrolled logging and fuel wood production directly
reduce vegetation cover, thereby creating a pre+condition for soil erosion.
$ining activities of both large+scale companies and small+scale local miners
also cause severe destruction of forests. !his e*poses the topsoil to erosion
by wind or water. arming activities also lead to destruction of forest cover
and for that matter soil erosion. A farming practice that causes soil erosion in
many developing countries is Shifting 5ultivation. Shifting 5ultivation, which
usually incorporates the Aslash and burnB method, leads to the destruction of
natural vegetation.
,ush fires have also long been identified as part of disturbances on the
landscape "!urner, -..%#. As hinted already, most peasant farmers
deliberately set fire to the natural vegetation "e.g forest# through the Aslash
and burnB farming method. /n 6hana, hunters also use fires for directing the
game in the hunting process. 5harcoal production is another cause of bush
fires. !hese fires also destroy vegetation cover and therefore promote soil
erosion.
!1er/grazing by animals can also reduce ground cover, causing the topsoil to
be more susceptible to erosion. /t is important to stress that most of the above
mentioned human factors that directly lead to vegetative cover loss and soil
erosion are triggered by a number of underlying factors, notably rapid
population growth and poverty which force people to e*ploit the environment
for their needs "!eye, -..7#. 5ultivation along steep slopes also causes soil
erosion. !his is because ploughing parallel to slopes tends to increase the
speed and volume of surface runoff along the slopes. ?oad construction also
causes increased soil erosion as it leads to the removal of ground cover.
Effects of Soil Erosion
!he effects of accelerated soil erosion by water and or wind can be
categorised into two groups. !hose impacts that are seen at the place where
the soil is detached are referred to as on/site affects. On the other hand, off/
site effects are seen at the place where the eroded soils are deposited.
!n/site effects of soil erosion1 One of the most serious on+site effects of
soil erosion is the reduction in soil 0uality. Erosion usually causes the loss of
the productive topsoil. /n addition to the loss of the nutrient+rich upper layers
of the soil, erosion also causes reduction in the water+holding capacity of soil.
!his is because the finest soil constituents which have high water+holding
capacity are usually removed from the surface by water and or wind. 6iven
that crops particularly rely on the upper horizons of the soil, the loss of
nutrient+rich topsoil and reduction in water+holding capacity of eroded soils
can both affect the agriculture productivity of soils. /n fact, the damaging on+
site effects of erosion, in terms of decreased agricultural yields, are well
)nown in many developing countries, including 6hana. Again, in the
developing world, soil erosion by water creates deep gullies on some untarred
roads. $any roads in the rural areas of 6hana are almost not motorable in the
rainy season due to the adverse effects of erosion.
!ff/site effects of soil erosion1 !he most serious off+site effect of soil
erosion is the movement of sediment into watercourses. !his often causes the
silting+up of dams and disruption of the ecosystems of la)es. /n some cases,
siltation also alters the habitat of a0uatic organisms. ish can be affected as
increased sediment usually affects their feeding and clogs gill tissues. !he
accumulation of sediments also smothers eggs of fish. Soil erosion also
seriously affects the recovery of underwater grass beds as the sediment
reduces the amount of light reaching plants. Sediment may also fill gutters
and water channels, thereby causing flooding. !he constant dredging of
channels may be costly. $oreover, agricultural chemicals that often move with
eroded sediment are usually deposited into downstream watercourses. !hus,
soil erosion is one of the major causes of water pollution and for that matter
degradation of water 0uality. !he cost of removing such pollutants from
drin)ing water can be considerable. /n developing countries li)e 6hana where
people drin) directly from streams, this )ind of pollution may affect the heath
of many poor people who directly drin) from streams. Eroded soil may also
have a decreased capacity to absorb water. /n such cases, increased runoff
may lead to downstream flooding and local damage to property.
Controlling Soil Erosion
As soil erosion is more serious on steeper slopes and surfaces that have little
or no vegetation cover, any technical measure that increases vegetation cover
andEor reduces slope steepness will help control erosion. !he following are
some of the specific soil erosion control measures1
Controlling deforestation and promoting tree planting1 Since soil erosion
is more severe on land surfaces with little vegetation, the problem can be
chec)ed by controlling the loss of vegetation cover. !his can be done by1
regulating mining and logging activitiesF avoiding overgrazing and controlling
the incidence of bush fires. /ncreasing vegetative cover through afforestation
"establishing forest on land that is not a forest by planting trees or their seeds#
and reaforestation "restoc)ing of e*isting forests and woodlands which have
been depleted# programmes can also help reduce the rate of soil erosion. /n
recent years, many countries including 6hana are embar)ing on these
programmes with the aim of solving various environmental problems li)e
deforestation, desertification and soil erosion.
Contour ploughing6farming is the farming practice of ploughing across a
slope follo#ing its contour lines. /n this type of ploughing, the ruts made by
the plough usually run perpendicular rather than parallel to the slopes. !his
generally results in furrows that curve around the land. !he rows produced
can slow surface runoff to prevent the soil from being washed away.
Additionally, these rows allow water to percolate into the soil. 5ontour
ploughing is a common farming practice in the 4nited States, 5anada and
Australia.
erracing involves the cutting of gigantic steps along the slopes. ,y
definition, a terrace is a giant step or levelled section of a hillside, designed to
reduce rapid surface runoff. Although a terrace is designed primarily to reduce
the speed of surface runoff and prevent erosion, it also facilitates the storage
of available water. !his farming techni0ue is commonly used for crops
re0uiring a lot of water "e.g rice#. =evel terraces are common in Southeast
Asia.
,uffer strip is an area of land maintained in permanent vegetation to prevent
soil erosion on land that is being used for agriculture. /n some places, buffer
strips are also used to conserve water 0uality. ,uffer strips trap sediment and
enhance filtration of nutrients by slowing down surface runoff. /n addition, the
root systems in these buffers hold soil particles together. 3indbrea) is
basically a type of buffer strip made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs
planted to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion by
wind. !he trees are usually planted at right angles to the prevailing winds.
Crop rotation is a system of growing different )inds of crops in recurrent
se0uence on the same land. Specific crop rotation methods, especially those
that leave significant mass of crop stubble "plant residue left after harvest# on
the surface of the soil can reduce erosion. A high amount of such plant
residue on the soil usually controls erosion from water by reducing overland
flow velocity and thus the ability of the water to detach and transport
sediment. or instance, wheat stubble tends to leave a significant mass of
plant residue after harvest. ?otation that includes wheat and crops such as
permanent pasture )eep soil erosion to a minimum.

Mulching- /n agriculture, mulch is litter or any protective cover placed over
the soil, to protect the soil against erosion and water loss. A wide variety of
materials are used for mulching. !hese include dead leaves, sawdust, hay,
straw, shells, shredded newspaper, wool etc. $ulching controls soil erosion
by reducing raindrop impact and the ability of surface water to detach and
transport sediment.

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