Solar Energy, Vol. 17, pp. 167-172. Pergamon Press 1975.

Printed in Great Britain

YEAR ROUND PERFORMANCE STUDIES ON A BUILT-IN
STORAGE TYPE SOLAR WATER HEATER AT JODHPUR,
INDIA
H. P. GARG
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India
(Received 3 July 1974; in revised [orm 16 December 1974)
Abstract--An improved solar water heater (capacity 901) made up of a 112 x 80 x 10 cm rectangular tank which
performs the dual function of absorbing heat and storing the heated water has been designed and a prototype tested in
Jodhpur. The performance tests carried out at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, indicate an
efficiency factor reaching as high as 70 per cent. The year-round performance tests show that this heater can supply
901 of water at a mean temperature of 50 to 60C in winter and 60 to 75C in summer (measured at 4:00 p.m.). The
performance tests also indicate that sufficient hot water can be obtained in the early morning if the heater is covered
with an insulation blanket overnight or if the hot water is stored in an insulated tank.
A performance equation for this type of heater, where the inputs are the solar intensity, ambient air temperature
and geometry and material specifications of the heater, has also been developed. With this performance equation the
optimum gap depth, i.e. the distance between upper and lower plate of the heater, has been found to be 10.0 cm.
INTRODUCTION
Flat-plate collectors are widely used to obtain low-grade
heat. These collectors have been extensively studied by
Hottel and Woert z[l ], Morse[2], Garg[3] and Bliss[4].
Their daily average efficiency, which is defined as the ratio
of the solar energy utilized to the total incident solar
radiation, ranges from 40 to 70 per cent depending on the
design and operating temperature. This is remarkably high
compared with that of, say, a silicon cell (10 to 14 per
cent) or photosynthesis in plants (0.5 per cent). Apart
from their high efficiency, they are simple in operation and
design, durable, relatively inexpensive, able to absorb
direct and diffuse radiation, and can be used for a number
of applications such as water heating, crop drying,
building heating and cooling, water distillation and electric
power generation.
Solar water heaters employing fiat-plate collectors can
be divided into three types: (i) Domestic solar water
heaters in which the storage t ank and absorber are
separate and water is circulated by natural circulation.
These heaters are popular in Israel[5], Australia[6] and
Florida[7]. (ii) Large size solar water heater designed for
community use such as in hostels, hotels, hospitals, etc.
These have been developed by Garg[8] in India and
Morse [9] in Australia; and (iii) Built-in storage-type solar
water heaters designed with a view toward reducing costs.
Such units are widely used in Japan[10] and are
recommended for low income communities in South
Afri ca[l 1]. A combined collector and storage-type solar
water heater developed by Chinnappa[12] is comparable
in cost to a domestic solar water heater.
This paper reports the design details of the optimized,
built-in storage-type solar water heater, some details of
which have already been published by Garg [13] and Garg
and Kri shnan [14]. The advantages of this heater are that it
is easy to install and is of comparatively low cost. This
heater has been tested over a one-year period at Jodhpur,
and the test results are presented in this paper. A
performance equation has been developed by the author
and tested by means of a digital computer for optimizing
the gap depth. This is discussed here.
DESIGN OF SOLAR WATER HEATER
The solar water heater consists of a rectangular, 20
gauge galvanized iron tank measuring 112 80 x 10 cm
with a capacity of 901. It is contained in a mild steel sheet
box with 5 cm layer of fibre glass insulation below it and
one glass cover on the top. Bulging of the tank under
water pressure is reduced by using angle iron fiats bolted
on the sides of the box. The front face of the tank is
blackened by lamp black paint. The hot water is taken
from the heater outlet pipe at the top by opening the gate
valve from the inlet pipe side of the heater fixed at the
bottom. The heater is inclined[15] at 43 deg from the
horizontal and is oriented due south to collect maximum
solar radiation during the winter season at Jodhpur
(Latitude 26.30 deg N). Two solar water heaters installed
side-by-side in the solar energy yard of the Institute are
shown in Fig. 1. For rural use, where there is no water
supply, a large funnel can be fixed at the top of the heater
and then connected to the inlet tube as shown in Fig. 2.
Hot water can be taken out immediately by putting the
same amount of cold water in the funnel. One such solar
water heater is installed in a village near Jodhpur and is
rendering good service.
PERFORMANCE OF THE HEATER
The solar water heater was filled daily at 8:00 a.m. with
fresh water by opening the gate valve provided in the inlet
pipe of the heater. For one complete year, i.e. from 1
January 1973 to 31 December 1973, at 8:00a.m. and
4:00 p.m. the storage water temperature was noted with a
mercury-in-glass thermomester. Total solar radiation
received on the horizontal surface was also automatically
recorded with a Kipp and Zonen pyranometer. Data on
fortnightly means of maximum water temperature
reached in the water heater, i.e. recorded at 4:00 p.m.
167
168 H. P . GARG
Fig. 1. Phot o of t wo units of built in storage type solar water heater suitable for urban use.
Fig. 2. Photo of built-in storage-type solar wat er heat er suitable for rural use.
Performance studies on a built-in storage-type solar water heater
al ong wi t h t he t ot al solar r adi at i on on hori zont al surface,
is shown in Tabl e 1. Thi s t abl e demonst r at es t hat in wi nt er
mont hs ( December , Januar y and Febr uar y) hot wat er
f r om 50 t o 60C can be obt ai ned, and in summer and
monsoon mont hs (except on few rai ny days) hot wat er
f r om 50 t o 75C can be obt ai ned.
.uS o
Table 1. Fortnightly means of maximum water temperature
reached in the solar water heater and total solar radiation on
horizontal surface at Jodhpur
First fortnight Second fortnight
Total solar Total solar
Temp. radiation Temp. radiation
Month (C) (cal/cm 2 day) (C) (cal/crn 2 day)
January 51.9 356 55.6 383
February 59.7 422 60.5 436
March 62.2 465 65.7 501
April 65.9 506 66.7 594
May 67.5 490 65.3 551
June 56. I 467 56.3 327
July 61.6 437 48.0 413
August 55.7 299 52.4 351
September 57.5 379 68.6 440
October 69.7 459 72.0 459
November 68.5 375 65.1 358
December 60.8 321 60.3 365
Mean hourl y st orage wat er t emper at ur e was recorded
by i nsert i ng a cal i brat ed t her mi st er i nt o t he cent re of t ank
for one compl et e wi nt er mont h. The hour l y vari at i ons of
st orage wat er t emper at ur es r ecor ded on a typical wi nt er
day are shown in Fig. 3, al ong wi t h t he ambi ent
t emper at ur e and t ap wat er t emper at ur e. The maxi mum
wat er t emper at ur e is r eached at about 5:00 p.m., and t he
average wat er t emper at ur e at t hi s time is 51.5C. Aft er
ni ght cooling t he st orage wat er t emper at ur e r emai ns at
27C at 8:00 a.m. whi ch is about 12C hi gher t han t he t ap
wat er t emperat ure. In Fig. 4, t he t emper at ur e of t he wat er
wi t h a quant i t y drawn off at 5: 00p. m. is shown for a
typical wi nt er day. The average t emper at ur e of t he wat er
(901) dr awn off is about 48C. Thi s demonst r at es t hat this
heat er , as such, cannot give sufficient hot wat er for
mor ni ng use.
60
5O
I-- ~'0
I O
0
c---o OBSEIRVEO WATER TEMPERATU~
PREDICTED WATER TEMPERATURE
SHADE AIR TEMPERATURE
RATURE
T, . E O. , A, ( . o u . )
Fig. 3. Comparison of observed and predicted storage water
temperature for various hours of the day.
169
i
50
~ 4 o
~ 3 o
a.
o-2 C
, , L . . . . , , ,
I0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0
No. OF LITRES ORAWN AT 5 P.M.
Fig. 4. Temperature variation of water with quantity drawn off at
5:00 p.m.
In order to assess t he per f or mance or efficiency of t he
heat er a t est i ng programme was devi sed in whi ch a
number of pract i cal domest i c condi t i ons were si mul at ed
by drawi ng off vari ous quant i t i es of wat er at di fferent
t i mes duri ng t he day. The t est programme is summar i sed
in Tabl e 2.
Table 2. Performance test programme for built in storage type
solar water heater (901)
Test Time
No. (hr) Nature of test
1 08:0
08:0 (next day)
2 08:0
16:0
08:0 (next day)
3 08:0
16:0
08:0 (next day)
08:0
16:0
08:0
14:0
16:0
08:0
10:0
12:0
14:0
16:0
08:0
09:0
10:0
I1:0
12:0
13:0
14:0
15:0
16:0
Fresh water filled
Run off all hot water
Fresh water filled
Cover glass with insulation
Run off all hot water
Fresh water filled
Drained all hot water in
an insulated drum
Run off all hot water from drum
Fresh water filled
Run off all hot water
Fresh water filled
Run off 30 litres hot water
Run off all hot water
Fresh water filled
Run off 5 litres hot water
Run off 10 litres hot water
Run off 15 litres hot water
Run off all hot water
Fresh water filled
Run off all hot water above 30C
Every hour
Run off all hot water
From measur ement s of wat er t emper at ur e drawn off
and total solar radi at i on i nci dent on t he absor ber face, t he
efficiency was calculated as t he rat i o of total energy
cont ent (absorbed) of wat er drawn off to t he total heat
energy i nci dent on t he absor ber face.
It is quite obvi ous t hat t he nat ure of t he t est will have a
significant effect on t he efficiency of a solar wat er heat i ng
syst em. Maxi mum efficiency will be obt ai ned if t he wat er
is drawn off at short i nt erval s wi t hout allowing t he
t emper at ur e of t he wat er to rise much in excess of t he
out door air t emperat ure, i.e. heat losses are rest ri ct ed to a
mi ni mum. Typical resul t s for vari ous t est s are depi ct ed in
Fig. 5.
170 H. P. GARG
The influence of the type of test can be seen from the
results obtained in two extreme cases in tests 1 and 7. A
difference in efficiency of about 57 per cent was obtained.
In test 1 the water was allowed to heat up undisturbed
throughout the day and was left in the heater overnight
before it was drawn off the following morning. This
allowed substantial heat losses to take place in the late
afternoon and overnight, and thereby reduced the
efficiency. In test 7, on the other hand, water was drawn
off at hourly intervals throughout the day in such a way
that the water temperature did not fall below 30C and all
the remaining hot water was drawn off at 4:00 p.m, Heat
losses from the absorber and storage tank during the day
were reduced considerably. Here, though the efficiency
was higher in comparison with the previous test, the rise in
temperature of water was restricted.
As mentioned earlier, the heater as such cannot be used
for providing hot water in the early mornings. The
simplest method for improving this would be to cover the
glass overnight with an insulated material. This was
studied for one complete winter mont h using one of the
heaters. The water was allowed to heat up undisturbed
during the day, and at about 4:00p.m. the glass was
covered with a 5.0 cm layer of fibre glass insulation mat.
The water was then left undisturbed overnight and was
found to be reasonably hot, i.e. an average temperature of
about 33C, in the mornings. The average efficiency in this
case is about 26.5 per cent (see Fig. 5).
Another means for providing hot water in the morning
is by storing the hot water in an insulated drum overnight.
This possibility was studied on one heater placed by the
side of the above heater. The water was allowed to heat
up undisturbed during the day, and at about 4:00 p.m. the
hot was drained into a double-walled specially-designed
insulated drum (capacity 901) completely insulated with
7.5 cm fibre glass. The water was then left undisturbed
overnight, and in the mornings temperatures averaging
about 40C were recorded. The average efficiency in this
case is about 35.5 per cent as is seen in Fig. 5.
DEVELOPMENT OF PERFORMANCE EQUATION
The performance prediction equation for the built-in
storage-type solar water heater, as developed by
Garg[16], is discussed here in detail.
~ . ASS COVER
A m
TANK FRONT $10C
TANK REAR SlOE
INSULATK)N ( F I DI ~ ~ . A ~ )
- - M. $ . T RAY
, p , , , ~ ~ O N , ~ . ? . ~ t l l l l l
~l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l / t Q ~ 1 1 ] / ~ t
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of built-in storage-type solar water
heater.
The instantaneous heat balance equation as shown in
Fig. 6 may be written as:
(Insolation absorbed = (Heat absorbed by water)
by the absorber) + (Heat absorbed by container)
+ (Heat Joss from the absorber)
This can be written as
[Tt(rOt)eAc = W~ ( dt W] + Wc { d t c )
\dO ] \ dO/
f dtc dta-]
+(UL + U.)A~ t c - t a ) +- ~ - ~ - J . (1)
For practical purposes it can be assumed (under
steady-state conditions) that the water temperature is
equal to the absorber temperature, i.e. tw = tc and
dtw/dO = dtc/dO.
Thus Eq. (1) can be written as
x dtw
~ - + Ytw = Z (2)
where
X= Ww + W~+ (UL + UB)Ac/2 ( 3 )
Y= (UL + U~)Ac (4)
and
7O
6 0
k-
~o
4 o
gO
I 2
I
v
$ 4
TYlalE OF TEST
'5 "
g tj
C ~
:: S
,p
-) p,
6 7
Fig. 5. Variation of efficiency with type of test.
. Ac[ dt a 2ta]
Z = ITt('ra)~A~ + (Uz + U. ) T [ ~ - + - - J . (5)
The solution of Eq. (2) gives
Z ( t w , - f ) E X P [ - Y ( o - 0 1 ) l (6) t w = ~ +
where tw~ is initial water temperature at time 0, when
fresh water is added.
The total solar radiation recorded in the plane of the
heater and shown in Fig. 7 was expressed as a Fourier [17]
series to be incorporated into the model as follows:
N
IT, = Ao + ~ (An cos nwO + Bn sin nwO). (7)
n=I
Performance studies on a built-in storage-type solar water heater
171
.oo
~ 6 0 0
~ 5 0 0
4
u 4 0 0
~ Z O 0
IOC
8 iO 12 14 16 18
TIME O F DAY ( H O U R S )
computed and are plotted in Fig. 8. It is seen that for a
fixed absorber area, i.e. 0.9 m 2, if the depth (i.e. distance
bet ween upper and lower plate of storage tank) increases,
the water capacity also increases, and hence the storage
water temperature decreases and vice versa. It is
interesting to note that as the depth increases the
collection efficiency increases since the thermal losses to
the outside air decreases. From the efficiency curve it can
be seen that up to a depth of 10.0 cm the rise in efficiency
is very fast, but above this the rise in efficiency is
negligible. It can be concluded that a 10 cm depth gives
the optimum performance.
Fig. 7. Measured insolation rate on the horizontal and absorber
surface.
The ambient air temperature was also expressed as a
Fourier series as follows:
N
ta = Co + ~ (Cn cos nwO + Dn sin nwO).
n = l
( 8 )
To make the model more realistic, the transmissivity
absorptivity product (ra)e was also assumed to be
variable and is expressed[15] as:
0"115
(ra)e = 0' 95 (9)
cos Ot
9 O
8O
* ?o
~ 50
~ 4 o
~ ae
2 0
tO
0
9 0
8 0
6 0
5o~
I n tu
, i O
2'.5 5 . 0 7 . 5 IO.O~ 12.5 ~ , 0 17.8 s'O.O
D E P T H O F T A N K ( c m s )
Fig. 8. Effect of storage tank depth on the storage temperature
and efficiency.
where cos Ot is the cosine of the angle of incidence on the
inclined surface and is given as
cos Ot = cos (L - B) cos 8 cos w + sin (L - B) sin 8.
(10)
Equations (2) and (7-10) can be used for predicting the
average water temperature in the heater at any time of
day.
C O L L E C T I O N E F F I C I E NC Y
The daily collection efficiency is defined as:
o qu dO
" q- - o
Ac fo lrt dO
( i i )
DE S I GN O P T I MI S A T I O N
Using the above equations and the measured values of
total solar radiation and ambient temperature for the test
day, hourly values of storage water temperatures were
predicted. These are compared in Fig. 3 with the
measured values. A good agreement bet ween the meas-
ured and predicted temperatures can be observed.
The performance equation so tested can be used for
optimizing the design of the heater. Using the perfor-
mance equation, the average storage water temperatures
and the corresponding efficiencies for various depths of
the storage tank, i.e. from 2.5 to 20. 0cm, have been
*$U.S. 1.00 = Rs. 7.50.
E C O N O MI C S O F S OL AR WA T E R H E A T E R
There is no universally accepted method for expressing
the cost-effectiveness of solar devices, but the use of cost-
per-unit of thermal energy may demonstrate the economi c
viability of a system.
The total cost of built-in storage-type solar water
heaters is Rs. 350-.* By assuming the life of the heater to
be 10 yr, interest at 7 per cent and maintenance at 5 per
cent of the capital cost, the cost per unit of thermal energy
obtained with this heater is 8 paisa per kWh.
C O N C L U S I O N S
The built-in storage-type solar water heater can be used
for providing hot water for daytime use. With this heater
sufficient hot water can be obtained in the morning if the
heater is covered overnight with an insulation blanket or if
the hot water is stored in an insulated tank. This heater
can supply 901 of water at a mean temperature of 50-60C
in winter and 50-70C in summer and monsoon seasons
(4:00 p.m. at Jodhpur).
This solar water heater supplies heat energy at rate of
only 8 paisa per kWh, which is about 5 times less
expensi ve than the prevailing electric rates in India.
Reliable performance prediction can be made with the
performance equation developed here. For optimum
performance the gap depth should be 10.0 cm.
Acknowledgements--The author is grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann,
Director, and Dr. A. Krishnan, Head of Division IV, Central Arid
Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, for their constant encourage-
ment and interest in this work.
172 H. P . GAnG
NOMENCLATURE
It, total solar radiation on the glass surface, kcal/m2hr
( r a) , effective transmittance absorptance product
Ac exposed area of the storage tank (m2), 0.9 m 2
Ww weight of water in storage tank (kg m), 90 kg m
Wc water equivalent of tank (kg m), 2.28 kg m
UL overall heat loss coefficient from the front side of the
absorber to outside air, 6.0 kcal/m 2 hrC
Us overall heat loss coefficient from the absorber-cum-tank
surface rearwards through insulation to outside air,
0.64 kcal/m ~ hrC
dtw
rate of rise of average water temperature, C/hr
dO
dtc
- - rate of rise of average absorber temperature, C/hr
dO
dt..~a
rate of rise of ambient temperature, C/hr
dO
L latitude of the place, deg.
B tilt of the absorber from horizontal, deg.
W hour angle from solar noon, deg.
q~ rate of heat absorption by water
period of test
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