International Journal of Computer Science Trends and Technology (IJCST) Volume 2 Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2014

ISSN: 2347-8578 www.ijcstjournal.org Page 75

Survey on Efficient Routing Methods via Geographical Routing
With Connectivity Holes in WSNs
Feba Elizabeth Abraham
1
, Kavitha Margret
2

ME, PG Scholar
1
, Assistant professor
2

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
SVS College of Engineering, Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu - India

ABSTRACT
ALBA-R, a protocol for convergecasting in wireless sensor networks. The cross-layer integration of geographic is routing with
contention-based MAC for relay selection and load balancing as well as a mechanism to detect and route around connectivity
holes (Rainbow). The performance of routing protocols are also evaluated solve the problem of routing around a dead end
without overhead intensive techniques such as graph planarization and face routing. Our results show that ALBA-R is an energy
efficient protocol that achieves remarkable performance in terms of packet delivery ratio and end-to-end latency. Location
information to provide more reliable as well as efficient routing for certain applications. An algorithm named Adaptive load
balancing with rainbow is proposed, which removes some of the cons of the existing GPSR (Greedy perimeter stateless routing)
position based routing algorithm. New principle of update message bandwidth. Finally the algorithm is fully distributed,
provides, efficient routing, collision avoidance, back to back data transmission, active-inactive nodes.
Keywords:- Cross-Layer Routing, Connectivity Holes, Geographic Routing, Localization Errors, Adhoc Networks, Ad Hoc On
Demand DVR, DSDV, Zone Routing Protocol.

I. INTRODUCTION
Distributed sensing environment and seamless wireless data
gathering are key ingredients of several monitoring
applications implemented through the dissemination of
wireless sensor networks (WSNs). There are various routing
techniques that have been proposed and several of these have
been already explicitly implemented well. The sensor nodes
perform their data collection duties with the Unattended, and
the corresponding packets are then transmitted to the sink via
multihop wireless routes (WSN routing or convergecasting).
The widest range of the research on protocol design for
WSNs has focused on MAC and routing solutions [1]. Mobile
ad-hoc networks (MANETs) are infrastructurefree networks
of mobile nodes that communicate with each other in wireless
mode. The important one application of such networks have
been in disaster relief operations, military surveillance,
conferencing and environment capturing. There are several ad
hoc routing algorithms at present that utilize topology
information to make routing decisions at each node in the
network. An important class of protocols is mentioned by
geographic or location-based routing schemes, in which path
is chosen via greedy approach it provides toward the sink.
Being almost stateless, distributed and localized, geographic
routing requires little computation and storage resources at
the nodes and is therefore very attractive for WSN attractive
some applications.

The aim of this work is entails location Information to
provide more reliable as well as efficient routing for certain
applications. Thus extensions to existing Location based
routing algorithm have been invoked to work more efficiently


even in cases where they are not working in Presently
implemented algorithms for implemented applications. In this
work an algorithm is proposed, which erase the drawbacks of
the existing GPSR (Greedy perimeter stateless routing)
position position based routing algorithm. Connectivity holes
are inherently related to the way greedy forwarding works.In
a fully connected topology, there may exist nodes known as
dead ends that have no neighbors that provide packet
transmission toward the sink. Dead ends are, therefore,
unable to forward the packets they generate or receive. These
packets will never reach their destination and will rapidly lose
their performance. Many more solutions have been proposed
to alleviate the impact of dead ends. In particular, those that
offer packet delivery guarantees are usually based on making
the network topology planarized graph, and on the use of face
routing, greedy approach reduced packet delivery ratio. The
validity of the proposed algorithm is verified and it works in
those cases where existing RNG algorithm for planarization
fails. This algorithm is aggregated with GPSR and is pretend
for quantitative evaluation. Herewith different algorithms
have been used for graph planarization so that it will not
disconnect the route in case of location inaccuracy in
perimeter mode In this paper, we propose an technique to the
problem of routing around connectivity holes that works in
any fully connected topology without the overhead and
inaccuracies based on topology planarization [2].
Specifically, we define protocol, named ALBA for Adaptive
Load-Balancing Algorithm, whos satisfied with geographic
routing, load balancing, randomized delay selection. These
are binded with a mechanism to route packets around dead
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
International Journal of Computer Science Trends and Technology (IJCST) Volume 2 Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2014

ISSN: 2347-8578 www.ijcstjournal.org Page 76

ends. The combination of the adaptive load balancing
algorithm and rainbow mechanism called ALBA-R,
integrated solution for convergecasting in WSNs. Adhere we
describe how we have mentioned ALBA parameters. The
quality of services of ALBA in terms of packet delivery ratio
and end-to-end latency when varying NQ 2 {2, 4, 8}.The
energy quality is not displayed since varying NQ has a very
limited impact on ALBA throughput. The results shown here
consider only simulations in networks with n = 300 and n =
600 nodes. We enhanced similar trends in networks with
higher number of nodes [1].

Some contributions provides to the WSNs are given
below,
Greedy geographic transmission by congestion and
packet delivery jointly when making decision. The
new Path selection scheme, implements MAC and
routing functions in a cross-layer fashion, in terms
of energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio (PDR),
and latency.
The Rainbow mechanism allows ALBA R to
efficiently route packets out of and around dead
ends. It does not need the network topology to be
planar, unlike previous routing protocols.
We show that Rainbow is an effective distributed
scheme for how to route packets around
connectivity holes, achieving better delivery ratio
and latency performance [1], [2].
II. RELATED WORKS
According to its first and simplest formulation, geographic
routing considers transmitting a packet in the direction of its
particular destination by giving maximum per-hop
advancement. Geographic routing over planarized WSNs is
obtained by employing greedy routing as possible, resorting
to planar routing only when required, to get around
connectivity holes. a spanner graph of the network topology
needs to be built and this incurs nonnegligible overhead.
Planar routing may then require the exploration of large
spanners before being able to switch back to the more
efficient greedy forwarding, thus importing higher latencies
[3]. A different approach for handling dead ends is based on
embedding the network topology into coordinate spaces that
decrease the probability of connectivity holes. Greedy
forwarding is typically performed over the virtual
coordinates space. This reduces the appearance of dead ends,
but does not removing them. Topology warping schemes are
depends on iteratively updating the coordinates of each node
based on the coordinates of its neighbors, so that greedy paths
are more exist. These approaches are known as geographic
routing without location information, as they do not require
accurate initial position estimates [3], [4].

A. Classification of Routing Protocols
Routing protocols are mainly classified into topology
based and position based routing protocols.Topology based
further categorized into reactive and proactive. Ad hoc On
demand Distance Vector routing (AODV) is an on demand or
reactive protocol since no protocol information is transmitted
before an application decides to send data and no data is sent
upto a route is formed, whereas Destination Sequenced
Distance Vector protocol (DSDV) is a more proactive
protocol in which routes are discovered and stored even
before they are needed. Proactive protocols generally
generate much more traffic than on-demand protocols [2], [3].
B. Position Based Routing Basics
A. One way of characterizing MANET routing protocols is
whether they utilize position information or not. AODV for
instance does not use position information whereas protocols
like GPSR, GRID and LAR do use position information. The
position of each node is used as the structure for most routing
decisions. It is assumed that individual nodes are aware of
their own positions in exact or relative terms as well as their
velocity and the direction in which they are propagating [1],
[2], [3].
III. LITERATURE SURVEY
Routing is the efficient way for transmitting packets
across the networks.Better routing techniques are presents in
the world. Geographical routing which entails message
transmission from source to destination instead of using the
network address. Thereby established greedy approach and
face routing beyond the overall network. Herewith adaptive
load balancing algorithm exploits the limitations of routing
for making convergecasting among the cross layer network
manner.
Ad hoc network provide several routing algorithms, which
utilize topology information to make routing decisions at each
and every node. The aim of this paper is to utilize position
information to provide more efficient and reliable routing for
particular applications. Extensions seems that existing
position based routing algorithm have been established to
work more efficiently where they are not working at present.
Herewith an algorithm is proposed, that removes some of the
drawbacks of the existing GPSR (Greedy perimeter stateless
routing) position based routing algorithm. In proposed
method different algorithm has been used to planarize the
graph so that it will not disconnect the route when there will
have location inaccuracies.In perimeter mode it will
disconnect the graph and hence the packets will not be routed
thereby reducing packet delivery ratio[2].
A forwarding strategy can be like;
Greedy forwarding
Restricted directional flooding and
Hierarchical routing
International Journal of Computer Science Trends and Technology (IJCST) Volume 2 Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2014

ISSN: 2347-8578 www.ijcstjournal.org Page 77

Before removing an edge (u.v), a node, u, sends a message
to its neighbor, v, to search whether v sees the witness w.
Node u must not remove the edge until and unless it gets a
reply from v, indicating that v indeed sees w. This message
exchange is local between neighbors and it is required only
during planarization and so will not consume much overhead
and inaccuracies [1], [3]. This supposed that the planar graph
is always connected if the topology is connected. The GPSR
algorithm the forwarding will start as greedy forwarding and
when it fails the graph is to be planarized first using the above
method. In this method the neighbors of both u and v are
considered. In this algorithm a set of all the neighbors of v is
taken and now when u sees any witness w in between u and v
it will first check that whether w is a neighbor of v or not. If
w is not a neighbor of v then no need to delete the edge
between u and v and it can continue as normally but if w is a
neighbor of v then the condition is to be checked as specified
in the given algorithm. If the condition is true, w is in shaded
line between u and v then the edge is deleted. Then after
planarizing the graph it gets switch over to perimeter routing
and the packets are forwarded in the perimeter mode till a
point is reached where it can switch back to greedy
forwarding, at this point packets will be forwarded in the
greedy way. sensor networks deployment are expected to be
of high density, the operational node density could be much
less.


Fig 1 Estimated Inaccurate Graph

Many routing protocols have been proposed for mobile
networks. Among them geographical forwarding, being a
simple and scalable routing scheme, has attracted a lot of
interests in recent years. The nodes can obtain their location
information by either global positioning system (GPS) or
localization algorithms. In mobile adhoc network, any two
nodes within a certain distance of each other can
communicate directly. There is no centralized node. Each and
every mobile node can operate as a router, transmitting
packets for other nodes. The nodes may move continuously
and turn themselves on/off alternatively. The constantly
changing network topology makes routing in ad hoc networks
difficult. Two planar sub graphs, the relative neighborhood
graph (RNG) and the Gabriel graph (GG), were proposed to
solve the local minima problem in geographical routing. In
particular, the GG and RNG are not good spanners: nodes
that can be reached via a path with few hops might become
far apart in the GG or RNG. This fact limits the quality of
paths even if we use globally optimum routing methods on
these sub graphs. While we use the stretch factor to capture
this aspect of path quality. We present a new routing graph,
the restricted Delaunay graph (RDG), that has nice
theoretical guarantees on the stretch factor of routing paths. In
particular, the RDG has paths with Euclidean and topological
length only a constant factor longer than the length of the
optimal path [3].


Fig 2 voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation of a set of points
C. Voronoi Diagram, Delaunay Triangulation, and
RDG:
In a plane, for a set of point sites the Voronoi diagram
partitions the plane into convex polygonal faces such that all
points inside a face are closest to only a particular site. The
Delaunay triangulation is the dual graph of the Voronoi
diagram, which is obtained by connecting the sites whose
faces are adjacent in the Voronoi diagram. For an edge, there
is an empty-circle rule to discover whether a Delaunay edge
is: is a Delaunay edge if and only if there exists a circle that
contains no other points. Fig 2 shows an example of a
Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation of a set of
points. Delaunay triangulation is known to be a good spanner
of the complete graph, measured by the Euclidean distance.
Thus, we cannot use this graph directly in our techniques
because:
The Delaunay triangulation may have long edges,
while we are only allowed to connect points within
distance
International Journal of Computer Science Trends and Technology (IJCST) Volume 2 Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2014

ISSN: 2347-8578 www.ijcstjournal.org Page 78

The empty-circle rule is a global rule which is not
suitable for local computation.
To deal with above two problems, we define the RDG and
show that it has good spanning properties and is easy to
maintain locally [3], [4].
D. Quality analysis of routing graphs
One problem with maintaining a sparse graph of the
undergoing topology is that we may have to traverse many
short edges when the density of the point set is high. In
GPSR, the problem can erase by using the sparse graph only
for getting out of local minimum. At the time of greedy
geographic forwarding, the protocol considers all the visible
nodes but not just adjacent nodes in the graph [4].
E. Geographic Random Forwarding (GeRaF)
GeRaF is one of the most popular algorithms for
convergecasting in cross-layer integration manner. In this
nodes are alternatively awake/asleep according to schedule
with fixed duty cycle so as to this can reduce energy
consumption. Packet transmissions are occurred earlier by the
contention to identify the relay among awakening nodes.
F. An Integrated Routing and Interest dissemination
System (IRIS)
IRIS [6] is a framework for convergecasting in WSNs
based on Hop Count (HC) routing. The scheme pairs up with
an interest dissemination algorithm based on optimized
probabilistic forwarding [7]. Convergecasting is performed
by exploiting the knowledge of the HC of a node, stating its
distance, in hops, from the sink. A node with HC n that has a
packet to transmit starts a relay search procedure with a REQ
packet triggering neighbors with HC n 1. Every awake node
with this HC computes its own probability of replying with a
REP packet based on a cost function, which captures how
suitable the node is to serve as a relay.

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
At moderate and high traffic ( > 2) GeRaF experiences
significant packet loss. Its delivery ratio is from 70 to 90%
when = 4, and decreases to 50/60% when = 6, depending
on node density. Conversely, ALBA correctly delivers all
packets for <=4 and more than 90% of the packets at very
high traffic ( = 6). This is due to the different behavior of
ALBA and GeRaF when a node searches for a relay. While
waiting for the end of a backoff interval, in ALBA nodes
continue to follow the regular duty cycle and keep
participating in contentions. In GeRaF, instead, a node
currently handling a packet stops volunteering as a relay and
therefore, as traffic grows it becomes harder to find relays.
When at n = 300 and = 4 ( = 6), the average number of
times each node backs off before finding a relay is 7.23
(8.68). With ALBA, this value decreases to 2.8 (4.15). The
lower the number of potential relays of a node (i.e., the lower
the density) the more pronounced this effect. Not only does
ALBA rely on a higher average number of potential relays,
but it is also able to more effectively forward traffic at high
load.
The first set concerns moderately high-density network
scenarios, where dead ends do not occur. We compare
Rainbow with Rotational Sweep, the dead end handling
mechanisms presented in [6]. We implemented both delay
functions: Sweep Circle and Twisting Triangle. Finally,
Section discusses the performance of ALBA-R in networks affected
by localization errors.



Fig 3 Per packet energy consumption


Fig 4 packet delivery ratio
International Journal of Computer Science Trends and Technology (IJCST) Volume 2 Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2014

ISSN: 2347-8578 www.ijcstjournal.org Page 79

V. CONCLUSION
As per the analysis, the routing techniques are most
relevant in the networking based methodologies. Each and
every routing strategies are allowed different types of routing
protocols based on topology planarization and greedy
forwarding approach [1]. A cross-layer relay selection
mechanism favoring nodes that can forward traffic more
effectively and reliably, depending on traffic and link quality
[2]. The scheme designed to handle dead ends, Rainbow, is
fully distributed, has low overhead, and makes it possible to
route packets around connectivity holes without resorting to
the creation and maintenance of planar topology graphs.
Rainbow is shown to guarantee packet delivery under
arbitrary localization errors, at the sole cost of a limited
increase of the route length. a new algorithm has been
proposed to fight with the problem of location accuracy in the
existing GPSR algorithm. GPSR is causing failures in such
location inaccuracy scenarios. The problem was mainly due to
the flaw in the planarization algorithm used in the existing
GPSR algorithm. In case of location inaccuracy due to RNG
the graph is disconnected and the packets are not delivered
thereby decreasing the packet delivery ratio. Moreover it is
clear from the quantitative comparison with the GPSR [4].
The proposed solution can be used to minimize the amount of
bandwidth and transmission power used to maintain routing
tables without peptizing the accuracy of the routing tables.
The DREAM protocol provides loop free routes, and is robust
in providing multiple routes to a given destination. In a fully
connectivity graph. We have assumed that all nodes have
equal and circular communications ranges. Here this
assumption is often violated due to fading and multipath
effects. Even when equal and circular communication ranges
are possible, there may be energy advantages to using shorter
ranges in areas of higher node density, so as to conserve
energy [5].
REFERENCES
[1]. Chiara Petrioli, ALBA-R: Load-Balancing
Geographic Routing Around Connectivity Holes in
Wireless Sensor Networks, IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON PARALLEL AND
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS, VOL. 25, NO. 3,
MARCH 2014
[2]. Stojmenovic, Position Based Routing in Ad Hoc
Networks, IEEE Comm. Magazine, vol. 40, no. 7,
pp. 128-134, July 2002.
[3]. J. Gao, L.J. Guibas, J. Hershberger, L. Zhang, and A.
Zhu,Geometric Spanners for Mobile Networks,
IEEE J. Selected Areas in Comm., vol. 23, no. 1, pp.
174-185, Jan. 2005.
[4]. H. Frey, S. Ru hrup, and I. Stojmenovic, Routing in
Wireless
Sensor Networks, Guide to Wireless Sensor
Networks, S. Misra, I.Woungang, and S. C. Misra,
eds., ch. 4, pp. 81-112, Springer-Verlag, May 2009.
[5]. S. Basagni, I. Chlamtac, V.R. Syrotiuk, and B.A.
Woodward, A Distance Routing Effect Algorithm
for Mobility (DREAM), Proc. ACM MobiCom, pp.
76-84, Oct. 1998.
[6]. A. Camill `o, M. Nati, C. Petrioli, M. Rossi, and M.
Zorzi, IRIS: Integrated data gathering and interest
dissemination system for wireless sensor networks,
Ad Hoc Networks, Special Issue on Cross- Layer
Design in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks, L.
Galluccio, K. Nahrstedt, and V. R. Syrotiuk, eds.,
2012.
[7]. D. Dubhashi, O. Haggstr om, L. Orecchia, A.
Panconesi, C. Petrioli, and A. Vitaletti, Localized
techniques for broadcasting in wireless sensor
networks, Algorithmica, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 412446,
2007.