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CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Physical Quantities measured
3. What Is Spectroscopy
4. Nature of light
5. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
6. General Types of Spectra
7. Continuous Spectra
8. Emission spectra
9. Asorption Spectra
10. Types of Spectroscopy
11. !o" Spectrometer "or#$
12. Types of Spectroscopy
13. E%amples of Spectroscopy in Astronomy
14. Proing the &ormation of Stars in Colliding
Gala%ies in the uni'erse(
15. )nco'ering the mystery of *uasar
16. Spectroscopy in Astronomy camp
17. Stars li#e our o"n Sun
18. +iliography
2
1. Introduction
Spectroscopy
,PIC- E%tremely high resolution spectrum of the Sun
sho"ing thousands of elemental asorption lines
,fraunhofer lines..
Spectroscopy is the study of
matter and its properties y
in'estigating light/ sound/ or
particles that are emitted/
asored or scattered y the
matter under in'estigation(
Spectroscopy may also e
de0ned as the study of the
interaction et"een
light and matter( !istorically/ spectroscopy referred to a ranch of
science in "hich 'isile light "as used for theoretical studies on the
structure of matter and for *ualitati'e and *uantitati'e analyses(
1ecently/ ho"e'er/ the de0nition has roadened as ne" techni*ues
ha'e een de'eloped that utili2e not only 'isile light/ ut many other
forms of electromagnetic and non3electromagnetic radiation-
micro"a'es/ radio"a'es/ %3rays/ electrons/ phonons ,sound "a'es. and
others( Impedance spectroscopy is a study of fre*uency response in
alternating current(
Spectroscopy is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the
identi0cation of sustances through the spectrum emitted from them
or asored in them( A de'ice for recording a spectrum is a
spectrometer( Spectroscopy can e classi0ed according to the physical
*uantity "hich is measured or calculated or the measurement process(
Spectroscopy is also hea'ily used in astronomy and remote sensing(
4ost large telescopes ha'e spectrographs/ "hich are used either to
measure the chemical composition and physical properties of
astronomical o5ects or to measure their 'elocities from the 6oppler
shift of spectral lines(
Physical Quantity Measured
The type of spectroscopy depends on the physical quantity measured.
Normally, the quantity that is measured is an amount or intensity of something.
1 The intensity of emitted electromagnetic radiation and the amount of
absorbed electromagnetic radiation are studied by electromagnetic
spectroscopy (see also cross section).
2 The amplitude of macroscopic vibrations is studied by acoustic
spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical spectroscopy.
3
1 inetic energy of particles is studied by electron energy loss
spectroscopy and !uger electron spectroscopy (see also cross section).
2 The mass"to"charge ratios of molecules and atoms are studied in mass
spectrometry, sometimes called mass spectroscopy. Mass spectrometry
is more of a measuring technique (metric) than an observation (scopic)
technique but can produce a spectrum of masses, a mass spectrum,
similar in appearance to other spectroscopy techniques.
3 The number of molecules or atoms or quantum-mechanical states to which the
frequency or energy parameter applies. In this case the spectrum is usually
called cross section.
What is Spectroscopy$
Spectroscopy pertains to the dispersion of an o5ect7s light into its
component colors ,i(e( energies.( +y performing this dissection and
analysis of an o5ect7s light/ astronomers can infer the physical
properties of that o5ect ,such as temperature/ mass/ luminosity and
composition.(
+ut efore "e hurtle headlong into the "ild and "oolly 0eld of
spectroscopy/ "e need to try to ans"er some seemingly simple
*uestions/ such as "hat is light$ And ho" does it eha'e$ These
*uestions may seem simple to you/ ut they ha'e presented some of
the most di8cult conceptual challenges in the long history of physics(
It has only een in this century/ "ith the creation of *uantum
mechanics that "e ha'e gained a *uantitati'e understanding of ho"
light and atoms "or#( 9ou see/ the *uestions "e pose are not al"ays
easy/ ut to understand and sol'e them "ill unloc# a ne" "ay of
loo#ing at our )ni'erse(
The Nature of :ight
To understand the processes in astronomy that generate light/ "e must
reali2e 0rst that light acts li#e a "a'e( :ight has particle3li#e properties
too/ so it7s actually *uite a t"isted east ,"hich is "hy it too# so many
years to 0gure out.( +ut right no"/ let7s 5ust e%plore light as a "a'e(
Picture yourself "ading around on an ocean each for a moment/ and
"atch the many "ater "a'es s"eeping past you( Wa'es are
disturances/ ripples on the "ater/ and they possess a certain height
,amplitude./ "ith a certain numer of "a'es rushing past you e'ery
minute ,the fre*uency. and all mo'ing at a characteristic speed across
the "ater ,the "a'e speed.( Notice the distance et"een successi'e
"a'es$ That7s called the "a'elength(
4
;eeping this analogy in mind/ let7s lea'e the ocean each for a "hile
and thin# aout light li#e a "a'e( The "a'e speed of a light "a'e is
simply the speed of light/ and di<erent "a'elengths of light manifest
themsel'es as di<erent colors= The energy of a light "a'e is in'ersely3
proportional to its "a'elength> in other "ords/ lo"3energy "a'es ha'e
long "a'elengths/ and high3energy light "a'es ha'e short
"a'elengths(
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Physicists classify light "a'es y their energies ,"a'elengths.( :aeled
in increasing energy/ "e might dra" the entire electromagnetic
spectrum as sho"n in the 0gure elo"-
,The Electromagnetic Spectrum( Notice ho" small the 'isile region of the spectrum is/
compared to the entire range of "a'elengths(.
5
Notice that radio/ T?/ and micro"a'e signals are all light "a'es/ they
simply lie at "a'elengths ,energies. that your eye doesn7t respond to(
On the other end of the scale/ e"are the high energy )?/ %3ray/ and
gamma3ray photons= Each one carries a lot of energy compared to
their 'isile3 and radio3"a'e rethren( They7re the reasons you should
"ear sunloc#/ for e%ample(
When "e loo# at the )ni'erse in a di<erent @light@/ i(e( at @non3'isile@
"a'elengths/ "e proe di<erent #inds of physical conditions 33 and "e
can see ne" #inds of o5ects= &or e%ample/ high3energy gamma3ray
and A3ray telescopes tend to see the most energetic dynamos in the
cosmos/ such as acti'e gala%ies/ the remnants from massi'e dying
stars/ accretion of matter around lac# holes/ and so forth( ?isile light
telescopes est proe light produced y stars( :onger3"a'elength
telescopes est proe dar#/ cool/ oscured structures in the )ni'erse-
dusty star3forming regions/ dar# cold molecular clouds/ the primordial
radiation emitted y the formation of the )ni'erse shortly after the +ig
+ang( Only through studying astronomical o5ects at many di<erent
"a'elengths are astronomers ale to piece together a coherent/
comprehensi'e picture of ho" the )ni'erse "or#s=
General Types of Spectra
Typically one can oser'e t"o distincti'e classes of spectra- continous
and discrete( &or a continuous spectrum/ the light is composed of a
"ide/ continuous range of colors ,energies.( With discrete spectra/ one
sees only right or dar# lines at 'ery distinct and sharply3de0ned
colors ,energies.( As "e7ll disco'er shortly/ discrete spectra "ith right
lines are called emission spectra/ those "ith dar# lines are termed
asorption spectra(
Continuous Spectra
Continuous spectra arise from dense gases or solid o5ects "hich
radiate their heat a"ay through the production of light( Such o5ects
emit light o'er a road range of "a'elengths/ thus the apparent
spectrum seems smooth and continuous( Stars emit light in a
predominantly ,ut not completely=. continuous spectrum( Other
e%amples of such o5ects are incandescent light uls/ electric coo#ing
sto'e urners/ Bames/ cooling 0re emers and((( you( 9es/ you/ right
this minute/ are emitting a continuous spectrum 33 ut the light "a'es
you7re emitting are not 'isile 33 they lie at infrared "a'elengths ,i(e(
lo"er energies/ and longer "a'elengths than e'en red light.( If you had
infrared3sensiti'e eyes/ you could see people y the continuous
radiation they emit=
6
6iscrete Spectra
6iscrete spectra are the oser'ale result of the physics of atoms(
There are t"o types of discrete spectra/ emission ,right line spectra.
and asorption ,dar# line spectra.( :et7s try to understand "here these
t"o types of discrete spectra(
Emission :ine Spectra
)nli#e a continuous spectrum source/ "hich can ha'e any energy it
"ants ,all you ha'e to do is change the temperature./ the electron
clouds surrounding the nuclei of atoms can ha'e only 'ery speci0c
energies dictated y *uantum mechanics( Each element on the
periodic tale has its o"n set of possile energy le'els/ and "ith fe"
e%ceptions the le'els are distinct and identi0ale( Atoms "ill also tend
to settle to the lo"est energy le'el ,in spectroscopist7s lingo/ this is
called the ground state.( This means that an e%cited atom in a higher
energy le'el must Cdump7 some energy( The "ay an atom Cdumps7 that
energy is y emitting a "a'e of light "ith that e%act energy(
In the diagram elo"/ a hydrogen atom drops from the Dnd energy
le'el to the Est/ gi'ing o< a "a'e of light "ith an energy e*ual to the
di<erence of energy et"een le'els D and E( This energy corresponds
to a speci0c color/ or "a'elength of light 3 3 and thus "e see a right
line at that e%act "a'elength= (((an emission spectrum is orn/ as
sho"n elo"-
An e%cited !ydrogen atom rela%es from le'el D to le'el E/ yielding a photon( This
results in a right emission line(
Tiny changes of energy in an atom generate photons "ith small
energies and long "a'elengths/ such as radio "a'es= Similarly/ large
changes of energy in an atom "ill mean that high3energy/ short3
"a'elength photons ,)?/ %3ray/ gamma3rays. are emitted(
Asorption :ine Spectra
On the other hand/ "hat "ould happen if "e tried to re'erse this
process$ That is/ "hat "ould happen if "e 0red this special photon
ac# into a ground state
7
atom$ That7s right/ the atom could asor that Cspecially3energetic7
photon and "ould ecome e%cited/ 5umping from the ground state to a
higher energy le'el( If a star "ith a Ccontinuous7 spectrum is shining
upon an atom/ the "a'elengths corresponding to possile energy
transitions "ithin that atom "ill e asored and therefore an oser'er
"ill not see them( In this "ay/ a dar#3line asorption spectrum is orn/
as sho"n elo"-
!o" does a spectrometer "or#$
4any people #no" ho" a telescope "or#s/ ut relati'ely fe"
ha'e much e%perience "ith the innards of a spectrometer( So
let7s ta#e apart the Astronomy Camp spectrometer to see ho"
it "or#s= ;eep in mind that there are as many optical designs
for spectrometers as there are optical designs for telescopes/
and that this is ut one e%ample( Ne'ertheless/ it points out
the salient features of most optical spectrometers(
It all starts "ith the
telescope light eam
entering the
spectrometer( The focal
point of the telescope
eam is rought to the slit
of the spectrometer( This
slit is "hat is ultimately
imaged on the detector( In
the case of the Camp
spectrometer/ the slit is
arranged at an angle and
the slit surroundings are
sil'ered so that the
portion of the telescope
eam not passing through
the slit can e routed
instead to an eyepiece for
8
easy telescope guiding(
The light passing through
the slit then is reBected
o< a collimating mirror/
"hich paralleli2es the
eam of light/ efore
sending it o<(((
((( to the di<raction
grating= This optical
element disperses the
parallel eams of light
into their component
colorsF"a'elengthsFenergi
es( Each di<erent
"a'elength comes o< of
the grating at a slightly
di<erent angle( So no"/
"e ha'e an image of the
slit that is spread out li#e
a raino" y color(
This ne" color3dispersed
eam of light is then
focused and imaged on
the detector y the
camera lens( A GH mm
camera is the detector in
this diagram/ ut at
Camp/ "e typically use an
eyepiece or a CC6 array(
So/ no" let7s put all of this together to ma#e a spectrometer=
9
There is something interesting to note here 33 in spectroscopy/
"e are not loo#ing at A:: of the light from an o5ect/ 5ust a
certain @and@ of "a'elengths or colors( &urthermore/ e'en
that and is dispersed ,@smeared out@. o'er the entire
detector( This means that the e<ecti'e rightness/ or surface
rightness of an o5ect on the detector is much lo"er than
"hen simply ta#ing images of an o5ect( This means that it
ta#es a igger telescope andFor more integration time to get a
good spectrum of a gi'en o5ect than an image(
The roader you disperse the light and the narro"er you ma#e the slit/
the etter your spectral resolution> you can see 0ner and more sutle
features in the spectrum( !o"e'er/ there is a sti< price to pay- the
emergent spectrum ecomes much dimmer and more di<use( !igh
resolution spectroscopy therefore re*uires large telescopes and fairly
right o5ects( &or 'ery faint o5ects/ some spectral resolution often
must e compromised to e'en SEE the o5ect(
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0
T9PES O& SPECT1OSCOP9
In general there are three main types of spectroscopy( They are
as listed elo"-
1. Asorption Spectroscopy
2. Emission Spectroscopy
3. Scattering Spectroscopy
Asorption spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in
"hich a sustance asors( In atomic asorption spectroscopy/ the
sample is atomi2ed and then light of a particular fre*uency is passed
through the 'apour( After caliration/ the amount of asorption can e
related to the concentrations of 'arious metal ions through the +eer3
:amert la"( The method can e automated and is "idely used to
measure concentrations of ions such as sodium and calcium in lood(
Other types of spectroscopy may not re*uire sample atomi2ation( &or
e%ample/ ultra'ioletF'isile ,)?F ?is. asorption spectroscopy is most
often performed on li*uid samples to detect molecular content and
infrared ,I1. spectroscopy is most often performed on li*uid/ semi3
li*uid ,paste or grease./ dried/ or solid samples to determine molecular
information/ including structural information(
Emission spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in
"hich a sustance radiates( The sustance 0rst asors energy and
then radiates this energy as light( This energy can e from a 'ariety of
sources/ including collision ,either due to high temperatures or
other"ise./ and chemical reactions(
Scattering spectroscopy measures certain physical properties y
measuring the amount of light that a sustance scatters at certain
"a'elengths/ incident angles/ and polari2ation angles( Scattering
spectroscopy di<ers from emission spectroscopy due to the fact that
the scattering process is much faster than the asorptionFemission
process( One of the most useful applications of light scattering
spectroscopy is 1aman spectroscopy(
1
1
N41 SPECT1OSCOP9
Nuclear 4agnetic 1esonance spectroscopy is a po"erful and
theoretically comple% analytical tool( On this page/ "e "ill co'er the
asic theory ehind the techni*ue( It is important to rememer that/
"ith N41/ "e are performing e%periments on the nuclei of atoms/ not
the electrons( The chemical en'ironment of speci0c nuclei is deduced
from information otained aout the nuclei(
1
2
E%amples of Spectroscopy in
Astronomy
Spectroscopy is a po"erful tool in astronomy 33 from it/ "e can
often get information aout the temperature/ density/
composition/ and important physical processes of an
astronomical o5ect( This information can help us ans"er the
*uestions-
1 What is it$
2 What is it li#e$
3 What is it made out of$
4 !o" did it get there$ What "ill happen to it$
5 6oes it gi'e us clues as to ho" WE got here$
A fe" e%amples of astronomical spectra are highlighted here(
Some cool Astronomy Camp spectra also li'e in these pages(
4olecular Spectroscopy and Comets
Comets consist of almost pristine material from the early
formation of our solar system/ unprocessed y harsh solar
sunlight( Studying the chemistry of these @dirty sno"alls@
gi'es us a clue as to the composition and nature of our solar
system in its infancy and constrains theories of ho" life may
ha'e formed on Earth(
A lin# to radio3"a'elength spectroscopy of comets may e
found here(
1
3
Proing the &ormation of Stars in Colliding
Gala%ies
+illions of years ago/ "hen our gala%y too# form/ it is thought
that there must ha'e een an epoch of rapid star3forming
acti'ity that has since susided( We can get clues to ho" this
may ha'e loo#ed y oser'ing gala%ies currently e%hiiting
'iolent/ e%treme star3formation( Such @starurst@ gala%ies are
studied est in the infrared and at radio "a'elengths/ since
star3forming gala%ies often haror so much dust and gas that
'isile light cannot penetrate to the centers "here the ma5ority
of the star formation is ta#ing place( +elo" is an infrared ,D(I 3
D(H microns "a'elength/ or DI/III 3 DH/III Angstroms.
spectrum of t"o such starurst gala%ies( 4ost of the features
you see are from molecular hydrogen/ !D/ the stu< from "hich
stars are made= These molecular hydrogen emission lines tell
us that the molecular gas "e see is 'ery "arm> in the top
gala%y/ the gas is e%cited y shoc#3heated gas( The ottom
gala%y has molecular hydrogen e%cited y ultra'iolet light
emitted from recently3formed young/ hot stars(
1
4
)nco'ering the mystery of Quasars
The distant nature of *uasars "ere disco'ered in the early
EJKI7s/ "hen spectral lines "ere noted to e sustantially3
shifted redder than they should normally e( This redshift can
e attriuted to the recession ,speeding a"ay. of *uasars from
us( In the standard +ig +ang model of cosmology ,the faster
it7s speeding a"ay from you/ the more distant it is./ this rapid
motion implies that *uasars are the most distant o5ects
#no"n( +elo" is a typical spectrum of a *uasar( The
"a'elength scale has een rescaled to the @appropriate@ rest
"a'elengths for the spectral lines( The most noticeale feature
is the road emission line at EDEK Angstroms due to hydrogen
atoms ma#ing the transition from the 0rst e%cited state to the
ground state( Although EDEK Angstroms lies deep in the
ultra'iolet/ "here the Earth7s atmosphere is opa*ue/ many
*uasars are receding from us so fast/ this line is redshifted into
the 'isile part of the spectrum ,LIII3MIII Angstroms.(
1
5
Spectroscopy at Astronomy
Camp=
Spectroscopy at Astronomy Camp is done "ith a spectrograph from
Optomechanics 1esearch Inc/ coupled "ith the 4ount :emmon LI@ or
KI@ telescopes and the Camp7s S+IG STK CC6 detector array( With
relati'ely short e%posure times/ good *uality spectra can e ta#en of
most catalogued stars and high surface3rightness deep3s#y o5ects( A
fe" e%amples of Astronomy Campers7 handi"or# are sho"n elo"(
Planetary Neulae/ Or 7Why :ight Pollution &ilters Wor#7=
!ere7s an image of 4HM ,a(#(a( the
1ing Neula./ "ith a crude
representation of the spectrometer slit
superimposed( This image is a ENI
second e%posure using the Camp7s
STK CC6 on a EI@ 4eade Schmidt3
Cassagrain telescope( Astronomy
Camp7s spectrograph "as mounted on
the 4ount :emmon KI@ telescope "ith
the same STK CC6( The slit length is
aout N arcminutes long and E
arcsecond "ide> the representation of
the slit "idth in the diagram is
e%aggerated(
We comined four H3minute e%posures on the 1ing Neula using the
KI@ and the STK camera( We sutracted an appropriate H minute dar#
frame from each image and then comined the images using I1A&( The
resulting STK image follo"s- the dispersion ,"a'elength. a%is is
hori2ontal/ and the spatial a%is ,along the 1ing Neula. is 'ertical( The
central lines are 4HM/ the upper and lo"er spi#es are the caliration
lamp spectra ,!gO!e.(
We ma#e a E36 spectrum from the D36 image y summing o'er the
aperture of the slit co'ering 4HM( )sing the "ell3characteri2ed
"a'elengths of the caliration lamps/ "e can use I1A& to register our
spectrum to pro'ide a nice
1
6
"a'elength scale( !ere7s "hat our spectrum loo#s li#e once plotted as
intensity 'ersus "a'elength(
The emission line at LNKE Angstroms
comes from hot/ e%cited atomic
hydrogen( !ighly3e%cited hydrogen
atoms in 4HM7s gaseous shell/ starting
in energy le'el L/ may e'entually de3
e%cite to le'el D/ gi'ing up the energy
di<erence in "a'es of light at that
particular energy ,and((( they ha'e a
"a'elength of LNKE Angstroms=.(
The rightest t"o lines at LJHJ and HIIM Angstroms come from t"ice3
ioni2ed o%ygen ,laeled OOO/ or O III in spectroscopic notation.( This
means that t"o of o%ygen7s eight electrons ha'e een ripped a"ay(
This is a also clue that conditions in this neula must e harsh( In fact/
these lines can only e e%cited to emit light in temperatures of se'eral
thousand ;el'ins and rather thin densities of E3EII atoms per cuic
centimeter( There is no continuous spectrum here 33 this points out the
important fact that planetary neulae are hot rari0ed gases 33 you see
a :INE spectrum( This also points out ho" astronomers can get
'aluale information aout the physical conditions and important
processes in distant astronomical o5ects(
1
7
This spectrum also demonstrates "hy you can use light3pollution 0lters
,li#e those made y :umicon or Orion. to get great contrast from
reBectionFemission neulae= These 0lters pass light "a'es that lie at
"a'elengths co'ered y these three lines/ ut loc# light at all other
"a'elengths( &or neulae/ this is 'ery ene0cial since they only emit
'isile light in this "a'elength range( 9ou can remo'e all that ugly
s#yglo" and light pollution "ithout reducing the righness of the
neula you7re loo#ing for(
Would such a narro"3and 0lter e good for loo#ing at stars or
gala%ies$ !mm$
Stellar Spectroscopy
A loo# at Sirius
No"/ onto stellar spectroscopy( This EFD second e%posure of Sirius is
centered near LIII Angstroms ,lue/ near3ultra'iolet. and clearly
sho"s a series of deep asorption lines( These lines are due to the
hydrogen atom( :et7s e%plore ho"(
In the cooler outer @atmosphere@ around Sirius/ mildly e%cited
hydrogen atoms in the Dnd energy le'el ,the Est e%cited state. are
72apped7 y photons ,light "a'es. "ith 5ust the right energy to send
them to e'en higher e%cited states( In this 0gure/ "e match the dar#
asorption line that results from each transition up"ard in the
hydrogen atom( Notice that the higher3energy transitions on the left
result in higher energy asorption lines out in the ultra'iolet( This
series of lines/ starting from le'el D/ is called the +almer series after
their disco'erer(
1
8
Stars are classi0ed y their temperatures/ "hich can e determined y
the star7s spectral features( The hottest stars are termed O3stars/ the
ne%t cooler are + stars/ then A/ &/ G/ ;/ and 0nally 43stars( Sirius is a
relati'ely hot A3type star at aout EI/III degrees ;el'in( Such stars
ha'e the strongest hydrogen3features ,simply due to temperature 33
cooler stars can7t 72ap7 the hydrogen atoms as e<ecti'ely/ and hotter
stars "ill destroyFioni2e the hydrogen atoms that create the spectral
lines=.(
4olecules in Cool Stars=
On the other end of the scale 33 here is 6elta ?irgo> a cool 4G3type
giant star at aout G/HII ; and 'ie"ed at aout KIII Angstroms ,in
red light.( Note a right continuum at far left/ "hich suddenly dims into
a series of striations ,ands.(
These don7t loo# li#e the sharp asorption lines of the hydrogen atom/
do they$ In fact/ these ands are due to 4O:EC):ES that can li'e in
the atmospheres of these cool stars=
This particular molecule is TiO ,titanium o%ide.( 4olecules ha'e a
di22ying numer of lines ecause they not only ha'e the electron
energy le'els li#e atoms/ ut also ha'e energy sule'els due to the
rotation and 'iration of the molecule=
At the modest resolution of our spectrometer/ these hundreds of lines
are lended into asorption ands li#e "hat "e see here(
1
9
STA1S :I;E O)1 S)N
Some"here et"een hotter A3type stars and cool 43class stars are
stars li#e our sun/ around HHII degrees ;el'in( !ere7s +eta3+ootes/ a
GN giant star ,roughly "hat our sun "ill e "hen it egins dying in
aout H illion years.( The 0rst spectrum is at HHII Angstroms ,yello"
light./ 5ust li#e the 43star spectrum ao'e( Notice that molecules don7t
form here ,it7s too hot for molecules to readily form "ithout eing
*uic#ly destroyed./ ut there are still an a"ful lot of lines around( 4ost
of these features are due to hea'y elements 33 things li#e caron ,in
se'eral ioni2ation stages./ iron/ o%ygen/ magnesium/ calcium etc(
This is a spectrum of the same star/ ut no" ta#en at LIII Angstroms
,deep lue3'iolet light.( The deep asorption lines at left are due to the
ion Calcium II ,the di<erence et"een this and normal/ neutral calcium
is that one electron has een stripped o< here.( The small dip in the
middle is due to a lend of metallic features and hydrogen( Notice that
the hydrogen lines are 'ery "ea# here 33 nothing at all li#e Sirius ,a
hotter A3class star.(
2
0
This pro5ect is made using the analytical data pro'ided y the
follo"ing reference oo#s and "esites-
1. SchaumPs Outlines Organic Chemistry/ Third Edition/
Chapter Spectroscopy/ Page numer DGI3DLL(
2. The Science of Spectroscopy - supported by NASA, includes Open Spectrum, a
Wiki-based learning tool.
3. Wikipedia (Encyclopedia)
4. Professors Lectures University of Arizona (Semester II)
WebLinks:
1 www.Askjeeves.com
2 """(icse(com
3 http-FFlo#e(as(ari2ona(eduFQc#ulesaFcampFcampRspectrosc
opy(
html
1 http-FF"""(nanonet(go(5pFenglishFinfoFnanopro5ectF#itagu
chi RD(5pg
2 """(lo#e(as(ari2ona(edu
2
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