HSC Mathematics Extension 2

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Mathematics Extension 2
Based on 1990 Syllabus

This summary has been written to be as short as possible, to cover everything if you already
have a good idea of the course contents, only need a quick revision and does not want to print
too many pages. The depth of coverage of a particular topic does not necessarily correspond to
its significance. Proofs have been given when they can be easily derived, in case you forget the
formulae. Important results have been boxed for convenience.
The majority of this work is based on the Cambridge Mathematics textbook. Sections are
numbered according to the syllabus. This document was last updated on 3 September 2010.

1. Graphs
Critical point
It is a point at which the derivative if not defined (remember that derivative is a two-sided
limit). This happens:
at any point of discontinuity
at an endpoint of a finite domain, eg point (0, 0) in x y =
at sharp edges, eg point (0, 0) in x y =
if the tangent is vertical

Addition and substraction of functions, ( ) ( ) x g x f y =
Sketch the two functions and add or subtract their heights.

Translations
( ) ( ) k x F h y = is y = F(x) translated h upwards and k to the right.

Reflection in coordinate axes
F(x) reflected in y-axis becomes F(-x). F(x) reflected in x-axis becomes -F(x).
Reflection in lines a x = or b y = : Replace x by x a 2 or y by y b 2 , respectively. Note
that successive reflections is the same as rotation of 180 about ( ) b a, .

Functions involving absolute values, ( ) x F y = , ( ) x F y = and ( ) x F y =
Inspect the sign of the thing inside || to break the functions.
For example, 1 3 + + = x x y .
For x = -1 and x = 3, we can use more than 1 sub-
function, since the thing inside || equals zero.

Multiplication of functions, ( ) ( ) x g x f y =
Draw the two functions, then examine them for things such as:
When f(x) lies below or above g(x), and when y lies below or above them, and when they
intersect. Particularly useful is the conditions when 1 1 < < x , 1 = x and 1 > x . Try to
multiply the heights of the two curves in your mind, eg when f(x) = 0.5, y will be under
g(x) as y = 0.5 * g(x).
What happens as x approaches positive and negative infinity (asymptotes) and as x
approaches zero for some curves. Which sub-function, f(x) or g(x), is dominant? Also, if
both y and f(x) has the same horizontal (or vertical) asymptote, which curve is below which
(which reaches the asymptote faster)?
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

> + +
< < + +
< +
=
3 , 1 3
3 1 , 1 3
1 , 1 3
x x x
x x x
x x x
y
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
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domain and vertical asymptotes
odd, even and other symmetries. ODD x ODD = EVEN. ODD x EVEN = ODD, etc. The
rule when multiplying (and dividing) functions is the same as that of positive and negative
numbers (treat odd like negative number). Other symmetry can include symmetry in the
line y = x (the function wont be affected by interchanging y and x in its equation) and
symmetry in x = a or y = a.
turning points and inflexion points: use calculus if they cant be easily determined
These steps apply to all sketches in general.

Division of functions
( )
( ) x g
x f
y =
same principles as above
x-intercepts of g(x) correspond to vertical asymptotes
Reciprocal Functions
( ) x g
y
1
=
g(x) and y have the same sign, intersect where ( ) 1 = x g
y decreases when g(x) increases, maximum point in g(x) becomes minimum point in y
Rational Functions
( )
( ) x Q
x P
y = (capital letters denote polynomials)
if deg P(x) is less than deg Q(x), divide top and bottom by the highest power of x. eg,
2
1
1
2
2
2
1 1
x
x
x
x
x
x
y
+
=
+
=
if deg P(x) is equal to deg Q(x), get y to the form
( ) x Q
c
k y + = , by rewriting P(x) so that a
part of it is divisible by Q(x). eg,
( )
1
3
2
1
3 1 2
1
1 2
2 2
2
2
2

+ =

+
=

+
=
x x
x
x
x
y
if deg P(x) exceeds deg Q(x) by 1, get y to the form ( )
( ) x Q
c
x F y + = , F(x) linear
Doing these transformation will enable us to look for asymptotes (as x gets large).

Graphs of ( ) | |
n
x f y = ( , 1 > n n integral) -- ( ) | | ( ) x f x f n
dx
dy
n
'
1
=


the x-intercepts and x-coordinates of stationary points of f(x) give the stationary points of y.
Their nature will depend on the signs of f and f and on whether n is odd or even.
Remember that when n is even, 0 > y .

Graphs of ( ) x f y = --
( )
( ) x f
x f
dx
dy
2
'
=
x-intercepts of f(x) give critical points of y, and the x-coordinates of stationary points of
f(x) give stationary points of y, provided ( ) 0 = x f
pay attention to domain, and where y lies below or above f(x)

Graphs of composite functions, ( ) ( ) x g u where u f y = = ,
sketch g(x) and f(x), and use the graphs to guess what y looks like
pay attention to things like domain and asymptotes and where the curve is increasing and
decreasing. Find the nature of f(x) then translates the conditions to g(x). For example,
consider the function ( ) x y cos ln = . f(x) = ln x increases as x increases. This means y
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increases when g(x) = cos x increases. Also, f(x) = ln x has vertical asymptote at x = 0, so y
has vertical asymptote(s) whenever cos x = 0, that is when t t
2
1
+ = n x , n integers. Note
the domain of y, too. This is where 0 cos > x .

I mplicit Differentiation
This technique is especially for relations and not functions. Take the derivatives of both sides
with respect to x, treating y is a function of x, and using the chain rule.

2. Complex Numbers
About the Number System
- Real numbers(R)Rational numbers(Q)Integers(Z or J)Cardinal numbers(N)
- Imaginary numbers (M)
Both R and M are part of the complex number system (C). Note that complex numbers are not
ordered. In particular, non-real numbers cannot be compared using the symbols > or < and
cant be designated positive or negative.

Notations (Algebraic and Geometrical)
- Any complex number z can be represented as 1 , , , = e + = i R y x iy x z . We should
write ib a + (i before pronumeral b) but i 3 2 + (i after actual number).
- x is called the real part of z, or Re z. y is called the imaginary part, or Im z.
- In an Argand diagram, iy x z + = is represented by the point P (x, y).
- This position can also be specified by polar coordinates (r, ) where r is the length of OP
( 0 > r ) and is the angle from the positive direction of the real axis (the x-axis) to the
ray OP ( in radians, t u t s < , positive is anticlockwise).
- r is called the modulus of z, mod z OR z .
2 2
y x z z z + = = .
- is the principal argument of z, t u t s s . The argument of z, arg z, is technically
Z n n e + , 2 t u , although the term usually refers to . To find , find its related angle,
x
y
1
tan

, then just adjust the quadrant.

- Drawing point P, we notice o o sin , cos r y r x = = . Hence iy x z + = can also be written
as ( ) 0 , sin cos > = + = r rcis i r z o o o . This is called the modulus-argument form. Note
that 0 0 0 = + = i z cant be written in this form.

Conjugates and Reciprocals and Divisions
The conjugate of iy x z + = is iy x , written as z (a dash denotes conjugate). It can be proven
that
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
z z z z and z z z z = + = + .
The product z z is real. Hence, the reciprocal and quotient (result of division) of complex
numbers can be found by realising the denominator, for example:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) form yi x in i i
i i
i
i
+ = =
+

=
+ 25
3
25
4
3 4
25
1
3 4 3 4
3 4 1
3 4
1
.
The conjugate of o rcis z = is ( ) o = rcis z .

Quadratic Equations with Real Coefficients and Negative Discriminants
Note that every negative real number has two complex square roots. For example, , 16 16
2
i =
-16 has square roots 4i and -4i. Similarly, this type of quadratics has solutions
a
i b
x
2
A
=
(notice, they are conjugates).
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Quadratics with Complex Coefficients and Square Roots of Complex Numbers
Quadratics with complex coefficients often have complex discriminants. Hence we must be
able to find the square roots of a complex number a + ib.
Let the roots be iy x z + = . ib a z + =
2
. ( ) ( ) ( ) ib a i xy y x iy x + = + = + 2
2 2 2
, then by equating
real and imaginary parts, b xy and a y x = = 2
2 2
. Both equations represent rectangular
hyperbolas. By examining their graphs for various values of a and b, we know that there are
always 2 values for z,
1 1
z and z + [can be assumed I think].

Products and Quotients in Modulus-Argument Form
( )
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
arg arg arg z z z z and z z z z + = =
2 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
arg arg arg z z
z
z
and
z
z
z
z
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Geometrical Relationships
Using the products result above, we can see that:
- z is the reflection of z in the real axis on an Argand diagram.
- iz is z rotated anticlockwise about O through
2
t
.
- cz, where c is a positive real number, is an enlargement (or reduction) of z about the origin
O by a factor of c.
- cz, where c is a positive real number, is z enlarged and then rotated anticlockwise by , or
equivalently, reflected in the origin. ( ) icz i cz = .

Geometrical Representation
iy x z + = represents the point P (x, y) on an Argand diagram, which can also be represented by
the position vector OP. Its magnitude is z and its direction is given by the principal arg z.
We can translate this vector. Hence we have infinitely many vectors representing z, and they
are called free vectors.
Addition and Substraction of Vectors
To add vectors, q p

+ , on an Argand diagram, translate q

so that its tail is at the tip of p

(tip
= the arrow end). Then join the tail of p

with the tip of the translated q

. The tip of q p

+ is
the tip of the translated q

.
To subtract vectors, q p

, translate q

as before, but reverse the arrow of q

. Join the two

vectors as before, the tip of q p

is the tip of the translated (and reversed) q

.
Addition and Substraction Using Parallelograms
If we let OA z =
1
and OB z =
2
and construct a parallelogram with the other vertex C,
2 1
z z +
will be the diagonal OC . Diagonal BA will be a translation of
2 1
z z (you can think of
1 2
z z + which starts at B and ends at A).
Using That Parallelogram to Show
2 1 2 1 2 1
z z z z z z + s + s (Triangle I nequality)
AC OA OC + s , with equality holding if O, A and C are collinear.
OB OA OC + s , since opposite sides of parallelogram are equal.
2 1 2 1
z z z z + s + , with equality if
1
z and
2
z are parallel, i.e.
+
e = R c cz z ,
2 1
and
2 1
z z +
has the greatest value. Also,
2 1 2 1
z z z z + s , with equality if
1
z and
2
z are parallel in
opposite directions, i.e.
2 1
z z + has the least value,
+
e = R c cz z ,
2 1
.

De Moivres Theorem
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- This theorem says that ( ) ( ) Z n n cis cis
n
e = , u u . This can be seen from the result that
( )
2 1 2 1
arg arg arg z z z z + = , or can be proven by mathematical induction for positive n (with
the help of compound-angle identity). To prove for negative integers n,
( ) ( ) | | ( ) | | ( ) u u u u n cis cis cis cis
n
n
n
= = =
1
. Also holds for n = 0.
- Further, if ( ) u u n cis r z rcis z
n n
= = , .
De Moives Theorem to Express Powers of u cos and u sin in Other Notations
Using this theorem when u cis z = gives u n z z
n n
cos 2 = +

and u n i z z
n n
sin 2 =

. This
enables us to express powers of cos and sin in terms of the cosine and sine ratios of
multiples of . Sample question: Show that ( ) u u u 3 sin sin 3
4
1
sin
3
= . Let u cis z = .
1
sin 2

= z z i u and ( ) ( ) ( ) u u u sin 6 3 sin 2 3 sin 8
1 3 3
3
1 3 3
i i z z z z z z i = = =

.
De Moivres Theorem to Find Roots of 1 and Other Numbers
Let z be the nth complex roots of unity (meaning, roots of 1). Then 0 1 cis z
n
= = . Let
( ) u u n cis r z rcis z
n n
= = , . Hence, 1 = r and ( ) 0 cis n cis = u . Z k k n e + = , 2 0 t u .
( ) 1 ..., , 2 , 1 , 0 ,
2
= = n k k
n
t
u . Similar method can be used to find roots of -1 and of any
complex number. Some properties of the roots of
n
z [
n
z is any complex number with modulus
1]:
- They are equally spaced around the unit circle (circle with a radius of 1) with centre O and
so form the vertices of a regular n-sided polygon
- The non-real roots occur in conjugate pairs [not true if 0 Im =
n
z ]
- All roots add up to zero
- All roots of +1 can be expressed as powers of the primitive non-real root (the root
when k = 1), i.e. as
1 1 0
,..., ,
n
e e e

Curves and Regions on Argand Diagram
Firstly, notice that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1
Im Re mod z z z z z z z z z z = + = = and that
it represents the distance from z to the point
1
z . Also, ( )
1
arg z z refers to the angle which a
vector joining point
1
z to point z makes with the positive direction of the real axis. Below are
some loci of P representing z you should remember.
- ( ) ( ) e = = R k k z z OR k z , Re Re
1
vertical line
- ( ) ( ) e = = R k k z z OR k z , Im Im
1
horizontal line
- =
2 1
z z z z line, perpendicularly bisects the line connecting
1
z and
2
z
- e = = R k k z z OR k z ,
1
circle with radius k, centre O or point
1
z
- ( ) = = u u
1
arg arg z z OR z ray originating from O or
1
z (which is not part of locus)
with gradient u tan
- Other loci: often the best approach is to substitute iy x z + = into the locus condition to get
the Cartesian equation. Some loci which may appear: a z ia z + = Im : parabola
ay x 4
2
= ; a z a z + = Re : parabola ax y 4
2
= ; a z z z z 2
2 1
= + : ellipse, major axis
2a, foci
1
z and
2
z ; a z z z z 2
2 1
= : hyperbola, transverse axis 2a, foci
1
z and
2
z ,
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only the branch in
2
z side; a z z 4
2 2
= : hyperbola a xy = ; u =

2
1
arg
z z
z z
: arc of a
circle; k
z z
z z
=

2
1
: circle.
You should be able to find maximum and minimum z and arg z in some loci, eg circles.
You should be able to sketch and describe regions involving inequalities of the above
curves and combination of inequalities ( = union / or; = and).

Questions
1. Use De Moivres theorem to find, in mod-arg form, the cube roots of i 32 32 .
SOLN: Z n n cis cis i e
|
.
|

\
|
+ = = , 2
4
3
8
4
3
8 32 32 t
t t
. Using De Moivres theorem,
|
|
.
|

\
|
)
`

+ =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ t
t
t
t
n cis n cis 2
4
3
3
1
8 2
4
3
8
3
1
3
1
1 , 0 , 1 ,
3
2
4
1
2 =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = n n cis t .
2. A complex number z is such that when it is divided by ( ) i 5 7 + , the real part is twice the
imaginary part. Find all possible values of z. SOLN:
74
7 5 5 7
5 7
5 7
5 7
iy ix y x
i
i
i
iy x + +
=

+
+
.
x y
y x y x
9
17
74
7 5
2
74
5 7
=
+
=
+
. ki k iy x z
9
17
+ = + = or ( ) i c 17 9 + , k and c real.
3. By mathematical induction, prove that
n
n
z z = and z n z
n
arg arg = , where u rcis z = and
+
eZ n . Extend this to prove for all integers n.
4. Sketch the locus 1 1 s + + i z and find the maximum and minimum values of z .
5. Find the locus of 2
3
3
=
+

z
z
. SOLN: Let iy x z + = . ( )
2 2
3 3 2 3 y x z z + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 4 3 3 2 y x y x y x + + = + + + = which gives ( ) 16 5
2 2
= + + y x .
6. iy x z + = is such that
1 +

=
z
i z
I is purely imaginary. Find the equation of the locus of point
P representing z and show this locus on an Argand diagram. If its imaginary, the real part
is zero.
iy x
iy x
iy x
i iy x
z
i z
+
+

+ +
+
=
+

1
1
1 1
. Real part will be
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
1
1 1
y x
y y x x
+ +
+ +
. To be zero,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 5 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0 0 1 1
2 2
= + + = + + y x y y x x which is a circle. The locus excludes
i z = (at which 0 = I ) and 1 = z (at which I is undefined).
Questions Requiring Algebraic Manipulation
7. If w is a complex cube root of unity, evaluate
2
2
aw cw b
cw bw a
+ +
+ +
where a, b and c are real
numbers. SOLN:
( ) ( )
w
a cw bw
cw bw a w
aw cw bw
cw bw a w
w
w
aw cw b
cw bw a
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
2
2
3 2
2
2
2
(note:
1
3
= w ).
8.
2
, , 1 w and w are the three cube roots of unity. State the values of
3
w and
2
1 w w+ + .
Hence simplify each of the expressions ( )
2
2
3 1 w w+ + and ( )
2
2
3 1 w w+ + and show that
their sum is 4 and their product is 16. SOLN: 1
3
= w ;
2
, , 1 w and w are the roots to
0 1 0 0
2 3
= + + z z z . Sum of roots =
2
1 w w+ + = 0 (using a theorem from the
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
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Polynomials topic). Now, ( ) | | ( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
2
2
4 2 0 2 1 3 1 w w w w w w w = + = + + + = + + and
( ) | | ( ) w w w w w w w w w 4 4 4 2 1 3 1
3 4
2
2 2
2
2
= = = + + + = + + . Sum = ( ) ( ) 1 4 4
2
= + w w
since 0 1
2
= + + w w . Product = 16 16
3
= w .
9. Show that ( ) ( )( )
2
sin
2
cos
2
cos 2 sin cos 1
u u u
u u n i n i
n n n
+ = + + ,
+
eZ n . SOLN: since
the RHS have
2
u
n as its argument, change the LHS to have
2
u
. In LHS, u u sin cos 1 i + +
|
.
|

\
|
+ = +
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
sin
2
cos
2
cos 2
2
cos
2
sin 2 1
2
cos 2 1
2
u u u u u u
i i . Now, De Moivres
theorem.
10. Show that the roots to ( ) ( ) 0 1 1
6 6
= + + z z are given by ( )
12
1 2 cot
t
= k i z ,
6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 = k . SOLN: The equation can be re-written as
( )
( )
1
1
1
6
6
=

+
z
z
. Let
1
1
1
6
=

+
= w
z
z
w . w u
t t
cis k cis =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
3 6
.
( )
( )
( ) u u
u u
u
u
u u
sin 1 cos
sin 1 cos
1
1
1 1
1
1
i
i
cis
cis
z cis z z cis
z
z
+
+ +
=

+
= = + =

+

( )
( ) ( ) 1 cos
sin
cos 1 2
sin 2
sin 1 cos
sin 1 cos

u
u
u
u
u u
u u
i
i
i
i

2
cot
2
cot
2
sin 2
2
cos
2
sin 2
2
u u
u
u u
= =

= i i i ,
( )
6
1 2
3 6
t t t
u + = + = k k . ( ) ( ) 6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ,
12
1 2 cot
12
1 2 cot = = = r r i k i z
t t
.
Questions Requiring Understanding of Vectors
11. Use the vector representation of
1
z and
2
z on an Argand diagram to show that if
2 1
z z = ,
2 1
2 1
z z
z z

+
is purely imaginary. SOLN: A number is purely imaginary if its argument is
2 t .
2 1
z z + and
2 1
z z are diagonals of a rhombus and bisect at right angles. Hence
( ) ( )
2
arg arg arg
2 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
t
= + =

+
z z z z
z z
z z
.
12. Show geometrically that all unique complex roots of any complex number add up to zero,
by using their representation on the Argand diagram. SOLN: In short, because those roots
are evenly spaced on the Argand diagram, they can be translated to form a regular polygon
with a vertex at the origin.
13. Prove that
( )( )
( )( )
4 1 2 3
4 3 2 1
z z z z
z z z z
K


= is real if
4 3 2 1
, , , z z z z
are concyclic. SOLN:
( ) ( ) green z z z z
z z
z z
= =

2 3 2 1
2 3
2 1
arg arg arg ,
pink
z z
z z
=

4 1
4 3
arg , = K arg green + pink = t
(property of cyclic quadrilateral), hence K is real.
14. Sketch the curve in the Argand diagram determined by
4 1
1
arg
t
=
+

z
z
and find its Cartesian equation. SOLN:
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 8 of 30
Draw P(z) on the Argand diagram such that ( ) ( )
4
1 arg 1 arg
t
= = + pink green z z . This
will be an arc of a circle with
4
t
= ZAPB as drawn in the diagram. We can also find that
the equation is ( ) 0 , 2 1
2 2
> = + y y x . Point A is excluded since at A we have
undefined
z
z
= =
+

0 arg
1
1
arg . Point B is excluded because at B we have
0
2
arg
1
1
arg

=
+

z
z
.
15. Sketch the curve determined by
4 1
1
arg
t
=
+

z
z
, then sketch
4 1
1
arg
t
=

+
z
z
. SOLN: The
two curves are identical, and will be similar to the previous question but flipped upside
down.
16. Sketch the curve in the Argand diagram determined by
4
3
1
1
arg
t
=
+

z
z
. SOLN: It will be
like in
4 1
1
arg
t
=
+

z
z
but its the minor arc instead of the major arc.

3. Conics
A conic section or simply conic is the locus of point P such that the
ratio of the distances from P to a fixed point S (the focus) and to a fixed
straight line m (the directrix) is a constant e (the eccentricity). In fact it
could have two pairs of focus and directrix. Three possible cases are
shown on the right.
Some terms to remember:
- extremities = farthest points, eg extremities of a chord is where it cuts the conic
- diameter = chord through the centre
- latus rectum = focal chord perpendicular to the major axis

Ellipse
Major axis is an axis of symmetry, perpendicular to the directrix (and hence passes the two
foci). Minor axis is also an axis of symmetry, but parallel to the directrix.
Cartesian Equation: 1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
Parametric Equation:
u
u
sin
cos
b y
a x
=
=
t u 2 0 < s
a = half the length of the axis parallel to x-axis [Using the definition above, the major axis is
the longest axis of symmetry and is vertical when a b > ]
b = half the length of the axis parallel to the y-axis
= the angle made by the line from O to P, a point on the auxiliary circle
2 2 2
a y x = + with
the same x-coordinate and in the same quadrant as P
Notice that an ellipse is formed by dilation of its auxiliary circle by a factor of a b
perpendicular to its major axis.
Translation:
( ) ( )
1
2
2
2
2
=

b
k y
a
h x
or
k b y
h a x
+ =
+ =
u
u
sin
cos
has centre (h, k).

Key Features
Comparison between the a b < and a b > type ellipses shows that the roles of x and y are
interchanged, as are the roles of a and b in determining e, S and m.
Ellipse Eccentricity Foci Directrices
hyperbola e
ellipse e
parabola e
>
< <
=
1
1 0
1
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 9 of 30
type a b <
( )
2 2 2
1 e a b =
2
2
1
a
b
e = ( ) k ae h ,
e
a
h x =
type a b >
( )
2 2 2
1 e b a =
2
2
1
b
a
e = ( ) be k h ,
e
b
k y =
Proofs of Key Features
Let P represents any point on the a b < ellipse with centre at origin which cuts the x-axis at A
and B. Let one focus be S and its corresponding directrix intersects the x-axis at N. From
definition, eBN BS and eAN AS = = .
Directrices: ( ) BN AN e BS AS + = + . Notice that ON BN AN and a BS AS 2 2 = + = + , since
the ellipse is symmetrical about y-axis. Finally,
e
a
x s directrice
e
a
ON = = : .
Foci: ( ) ( ) 0 , ... ae foci ae OA ON e a eAN a AS OA OS = = = = =
Relations between a, b and e: Draw a line from P perpendicular to the directrix, and call the
point of intersection M. By definition, ePM PS = then by substitution of values, we get a
Cartesian equation in which ( )
2 2 2
1 e a b = .

Relationships Between
a
b
, e and Shape
a b < : as
+
0 : 1
a
b
e more elongated (flat); as
+
1 : 0
a
b
e near-circle.
a b > : as
+
a
b
b
a
e 0 : 1 more vertically elongated (thin).

The following results are intended for ellipses with centre at origin. Simply replacing x with x-
h and y with y-k will not work. Its unlikely that you have a question with the centre at (h, k).
Tangent at ( ) ( ) u u sin , cos ,
1 1
b a y x P = = : 1
2
1
2
1
= +
b
yy
a
xx
OR 1 sin cos = + u u
b
y
a
x
[Hint: the
Cartesian form is similar to the ellipse equation, and we can put u u sin , cos
1 1
b y a x = = to get
the parametric form]
Proof: differentiate ellipse equation: implicitly (Cartesian), by chain rule (parametric).
Chord of Contact of Tangents from an External Point ( )
0 0
, y x P : 1
2
0
2
0
= +
b
yy
a
xx
[Hint: again,
this is similar to the ellipse equation 1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
]
Equation of Any Chord PQ, ( ) ( ) | | u u sin , cos , sin , cos b a Q b a P :
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
| +
+
|
.
|

\
| +
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
| u | u | u
b
y
a
x
[Proving hint: when finding the gradient of PQ, use
the sums to products formulae; in finding the equation of PQ, use the compound-angle
formula]

Hyperbola, Oblique Asymptotes
In a hyperbola, major axis is more correctly called transverse axis and minor axis should be
called conjugate axis. Their definitions are similar to those of the ellipse.
Cartesian Equation: 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
Parametric Equation:
u
u
tan
sec
b y
a x
=
=

2
,
2
t t
u
t u t
=
s <

Cartesian Equation: 1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
b
y
Parametric Equation: [Not Part Of This Course]
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 10 of 30
a = half the length of the axis parallel to x-axis [for the first type of hyperbola, it is the length
of the semi-transverse axis]
b = half the length of the axis parallel to the y-axis
= the angle made by the line from O to P on the auxiliary circle
2 2 2
a y x = + , whose
tangent at P cuts the x-axis and this becomes the x-coordinate of P. Right-hand branch: P and
P are in the same quadrant; left-hand branch: different quadrants.
Translation:
( ) ( )
1
2
2
2
2
=

b
k y
a
h x
or
k b y
h a x
+ =
+ =
u
u
tan
sec
has centre (h, k).

Key Features
Comparison between the hyperbolas 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
and 1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
b
y
shows that the roles of x
and y are interchanged, as are the roles of a and b in determining e, S and m.
Hyperbola Eccentricity Foci Directrices Asymptotes
type y x
2 2

( ) 1
2 2 2
= e a b
2
2
1
a
b
e + = ( ) k ae h ,
e
a
h x = ( ) k h x
a
b
y + =
which is the same as
( ) h k y
b
a
x + =
type x y
2 2

( ) 1
2 2 2
= e b a
2
2
1
b
a
e + = ( ) be k h ,
e
b
k y =

Relationships Between
a
b
, e and Shape (
2 2
y x and
2 2
x y types)
Notice that e affects the asymptotes since they are x
a
b
y = .
As ( )
+ +
type y x
a
b
e
2 2
0 : 1 more curvature and foci move closer ( ) types both
As ( ) type y x
a
b
e
2 2
: less curvature and foci move away ( ) types both
When ( ) types both
a
b
e 1 : 2 rectangular hyperbola ( ) types both

The following results are intended for the hyperbola 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
.
Tangent at ( ) ( ) u u tan , sec ,
1 1
b a y x P = = : 1
2
1
2
1
=
b
yy
a
xx
OR 1 tan sec = u u
b
y
a
x

Chord of Contact of Tangents from an External Point ( )
0 0
, y x P : 1
2
0
2
0
=
b
yy
a
xx

Equation of Any Chord PQ, ( ) ( ) | | u u tan , sec , tan , sec b a Q b a P :
|
.
|

\
| +
=
|
.
|

\
| +

|
.
|

\
|
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
| u | u | u
b
y
a
x

Proof: gradient =
( )
u |
| u
| u
| u
| u
| u
cos cos
sin
cos cos
cos cos
sec sec
tan tan

=
(

a
b
a
b

by double angle formula (for the numerator) and by sums to
products formula (for the denominator). Then we find the
equation of PQ. Manipulate the equation so that we can use a
rearranged compound-angle formula, eg
( ) o u o u o u cos cos sin sin cos = .

Rectangular Hyperbola, Asymptotes Coordinate Axes
|
.
|

\
| +
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
sin
2
sin 2
2
cos
2
sin 2
| u | u
| u | u
a
b
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 11 of 30
Rectangular means that its two asymptotes are at right angles. Hence, a b = ,
2 2 2
a y x = ,
2 = e and asymptotes x y = . Construct ( ) 0 , a A = .
If this hyperbola if rotated through
4
t
anticlockwise about the origin (or alternatively, rotate
the coordinate axes
4
t
clockwise), its equation will have the form 0 ,
2
= = c c xy . A will have
coordinate (c, c) and 2 c OA= . Note that rotation preserves distances.
The rotated hyperbola is then
2
2
1
a xy = . Asymptotes: the x-axis and y-axis. Foci: ( ) a a , .
Directrices: a y x = + . Vertices: |
.
|

\
|

2
,
2
a a
.
Cartesian Equation: 0 ,
2
= = c c xy Parametric Equation: 0 , , = = = t
t
c
y ct x
Let ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 2 2 1 1
, , , , , , y x T and q c cq y x Q p c cp y x P = = :
Tangent at P:
2
1 1
2c yx xy = + OR cp y p x 2
2
= +
Chord of Contact from an External Point T:
2
0 0
2c yx xy = +
Any Chord PQ: ( )
2 1
2
2 1
2
x x c y x x x c + = + OR ( ) q p c pqy x + = +
[Hint for derivations: remember
2
1 1
c y x = when finding equations of the lines]
[Hint for memorising: look for patterns, eg Cartesian tangent looks like
2
2 2 c xy = ]

Geometrical Properties of Ellipse and Hyperbola
- The chord of contact of tangents from a point on a directrix is a focal chord through the
corresponding focus.
Proof: Consider an ellipse with centre at origin, a b < . Suppose ( )
0 0
, y x T lies on directrix
e
a
x = . Then chord of contact PQ has equation 1
2
0
= +
b
yy
ae
x
. But ( ) 0 , ae S satisfies this
equation so PQ is a focal chord. Similarly, if T lies on the other directrix it will pass the
other focus. Since it is a purely geometric property, it is also true if the ellipse is translated /
rotated (true for any ellipse). The proof for hyperbola is similar.
- The segment of the tangent between the point of contact and the directrix subtends a right
angle at the corresponding focus.
Proof: Consider an ellipse with centre at origin, a b < . Let the tangent at P meet the
directrices at T and T. Firstly, prove for segment PT by noting that T lies on tangent PT
and on the directrix (i.e. constant x-coordinate), hence we can find T. Finally, use
( )
2 2 2
1 e a b = to simplify product of gradients of PS and ST to -1. The proof for segment
PT is similar. It is also true for any ellipse. Proof for hyperbola is similar.
- The tangent at a point P on the locus is equally inclined to the focal chords through P [the
reflection property].
Proof: Use the ellipse in the previous point. Let the feet of perpendiculars from P to the
directrices be M and M. Hence we have 2 similar right-angle triangles at M and M. Using
'
'
PM
PS
PM
PS
e = = and the previous property (right angles at foci), prove that the triangles
PST and PST are similar by the RHS similarity theorem.
- The sum of focal lengths is constant.
Proof: Use the ellipse in the previous point. By focus-directrix definition,
( ) a
e
a
e PM PM e P S SP 2
2
' ' = = + = + .
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 12 of 30
Properties Unique to Rectangular Hyperbola (
2
c xy = and thus its transformations)
- The area of the triangle bounded by a tangent and the asymptotes is a constant.
Proof: use the equation of tangent to find x and y intercepts, then find area.
- The length of the intercept cut off a tangent by the asymptotes is twice the distance from
the point of intersection of the asymptotes (i.e. the origin) to the point of contact of the
tangent.
Proof: as before, find x and y intercepts, then find the two lengths asked.

Physical Understanding of Conics
A conic section is the set of points on the intersection of a (double) cone and a plane. Any line
from the vertex to any point on the circumference of the base is called a generator (the
generators form the non-base part of a cone). A double cone is two identical cones placed on
top of each other with their vertices touching.
- Plane intersects all generators of one cone (hence wont touch the other cone): an ellipse. If
the plane is parallel to the base, a circle is formed.
- Plane is parallel to a generator (hence wont touch the other cone): a parabola.
- Neither of those conditions (hence the plane intersects both cones): a hyperbola
How the plane intersects is determined by its angle of intersection relative to the axis of the
cone and by the angle between (any) generator and that axis (in other words, the slope of the
cone).

4. Integration
Using the Reverse Chain Rule
} }
= du u dx
dx
du
u , the objective is to have u and its derivative
Examples: x u let dx
x
e
x
tan ,
cos
2
tan
=
}
;
} }
= dx
x
x
xdx
cos
sin
tan
We also look for similarity to the standard integrals:
x
x
x
e u let dx
e
e
=
+
}
,
1
2

Also pay attention to the natural domain: ( ) = + = =
} }
c x dx
x
x
x x
dx
ln ln
ln
1
ln

The domain of
}
x x
dx
ln
includes 1 0 < < x and so allows the x ln to be negative. Hence the
integral ( ) c x + ln ln must be written as c x + ln ln . Sometimes the || is not necessary
because there never will be negative values to be ln-ed. Remember that || actually means
modulus (in case the thing inside is a complex number).
Reminder: for indefinite integrals, dont forget to convert u back to its x expression.

Algebraic Manipulation to Reduce Fractional I ntegrand to Standard Form
- Expand and simplify:
( )
} }
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
+
dx
x
x dx
x
x
1
2
1
2
;
}
|
.
|

\
| +
dx
x
x
2
1

- Note: (1) each term in numerator is divided by denominator; (2) coefficients can be
manipulated:
} } }
+

+
=
+

+
=
+

dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x
dx
x
x
1
1
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
3
1
1 3
2 2 2 2 2

- Rewrite as partial fractions: this will often result in a series of ln functions, so revise the
log rules to combine them into one. Some special cases:
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 13 of 30
Both functions linear:
( )
} } }
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
+
=
+

dx
x
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
1 2
1
2
7
2
3
1 2
2
7
1 2
2
3
1 2
2 3

Not linear but can be rewritten:
( )
} } }
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
+
=
+
dx
x
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
2 2
2
2
2

- Denominator is an irreducible quadratic ( 0 < A ) or a quadratic in a square root, numerator
is linear or constant: complete the square of the quadratic, then you may need to
substitute u = (the thing in brackets) [if the quadratic is reducible, use partial fraction];
Example:
( )
1 ,
1 1
1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
+ =
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
} }
x u let dx
x
x
dx
x x
x

Using More Sophisticated Substitution to Reduce the I ntegrand
- Algebraic substitutions, often of squares:
( )
x u let dx
x x
=
+
}
,
4
1
;
1 1 ,
1
2 2 2
2
3
+ = + =
+
}
x u or x u let dx
x
x
(then do implicit differentiation)
- Trigonometric substitutions u u u tan sec , sin a or a a x = : especially when the integrand
contains
2 2
x a ,
2 2
a x or even
2 2
x a + [a can be 1] but is not in the table of
standard integrals; then use Pythagorean identity to write it differently
[Theres a restriction on the values of , as implied by the inverse trig functions.]
[The primitive may have c x +
1
sin part; this is the same as d x +
1
cos .]
An example illustrating algebraic manipulation OR trigonometric substitution [with recurrence
formula]: :
1
2 }
+
= dx
x
x
I
n
let u tan = x OR write as
( )
}
+
+

dx
x
x x x
n n
1
1
2
2 2 2


I ntegration of Trigonometric Functions
Rewrite the integrand so it can be easily integrated (for example, its in the table of standard
integrals or it has u and its derivative). Do this by trigonometric identities.
I ntegrals of the form
} }
u u u u d OR d
m m
cos sin [OR
}
u u d a
m
sin etc.], m +ve even
Write u
m
sin as ( )
2
2
sin
m
u etc. and ( ) ( ) u u u u 2 cos 1
2
1
cos ; 2 cos 1
2
1
sin
2 2
+ = =
I ntegrals of the form
} }
u u u u d OR d
m m
cos sin [OR
}
u u d a
m
sin etc.], m +ve odd
Use Pythagorean identity and substitution, for example:
( ) ( )
} } } }
= = = du u d d d
2 2 2 3
1 cos sin 1 cos cos cos u u u u u u u u , x u sin =
Pythagorean identities: 1 cos sin
2 2
= + u u , etc. [dividing 1 cos sin
2 2
= + u u by u
2
cos gives
u u
2 2
sec 1 tan = + ]
I ntegrals of the form
}
u u u d
n m
cos sin , where at least one of m and n is +ve odd
Suppose n is odd [so 1 n is even]. Note that the derivative of sin is cos. Rewrite the integral
as ( )
} }

= u u u u u u u u d d
n
m n m
cos sin 1 sin cos cos sin
2
1
2 1
.
I ntegrals of the form
} } }
u u u u u u u u u d n m d n m d n m sin sin , cos cos , cos sin
Use product to sum formulae: ( ) ( ), sin sin cos sin 2 q p q p q p + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) q p q p q p q p q p q p + = + + = cos cos sin sin 2 , cos cos cos cos 2 . Perhaps its
enough knowing any 1 formula because we can use the identity ( ) x x cos
2
sin =
t
.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 14 of 30
The substitution
2
tan
x
t = : will convert trigonometric functions into an algebraic function,
used e.g. in
}
+
dx
x sin 1
1
;
2 2
2
2
1
2
tan ,
1
1
cos ,
1
2
sin
t
t
x
t
t
x
t
t
x

=
+

=
+
=

I ntegration by Parts
Formula:
} }
= dx v
dx
du
v u dx
dx
dv
u
In words: int. of existing parts = parts without dx int. of the new parts
We want the new parts to be easily integrated. This is generally done by: choosing dv/dx as the
function which can be integrated, and often without raising the power; choosing u as the
function which can be easily differentiated, and hopefully looks simpler after its differentiated.
Some functions, such as e and sin, display a nice pattern when differentiated or integrated. If
your choice doesnt work, you can usually swap them.
LIATE (Log, Inverse trig, Algebra, Trig, Exponential): is a useful acronym for determining
which part should be u and which should be dv/dx. The function whose letter comes first in
LIATE is u. Example:
}

xdx x
1
sin , x is algebra so its dv/dx.
Sometimes we need to introduce 1. Example: x u dx x dx x ln ; ln 1 ln = =
} }
.
Sometimes integration by parts must be carried out more than once, the second of which
brings us back to the original integral. Example: let
}
= dx x e I
x
sin I x e
x
= = cos ;
moving I to LHS gives x e I
x
cos 2 = .
You may need to use simple substitutions to find out the integral of the new parts.
Note on Definite I ntegral
| |
}

}
=
k
c
k
c
k
c
dx v
dx
du
dx
dx
dv
u
v u


Recurrence or Reduction Formula
Sometimes the integral is so naughty that the integral of the new parts looks similar to the
original integral, except that it has a different power. The notation
n
I is used to denote the
original integral with power n,
1 n
I denotes the same integral but with power 1 n , etc. A
question usually gives the formula which you have to show.
Application: suppose we have shown that
1
= =
}
n
x n x n
n
nI e x dx e x I , find
3
I .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
2 3
1
2 3
1
2 3
2
3
3
1 6 3 6 3 2 3 3 I xe e x x I e x x I e x e x I e x I
x x x x x x
+ = + = = = But we
can find
0
I , which is
}
+ = C e dx e x
x x 0
.
Definite Integral: we can let ( )
}
=
k
c
n
dx x f I . A nice thing with this is that the recurrence
formula wont contain any x. Example: show
1
1
0
3 2
2
1

+
= =
}
n
n
n
I
n
n
dx x x I ; find
3
I .
0 1 2 3
5
2
7
4
9
6
7
4
9
6
9
6
I I I I = = = , and
3
2
0
= I .
We can also find expression for
n
I in factorial notation (without recurrence relation).
Example: referring to the previous question, show that
( )
( )
1
4
! 3 2
! 1 !
+
+
+
=
n
n
n
n n
I . To do this, spell out
1
3 2
2

+
=
n n
I
n
n
I ( )
0
. .
3
2
5
2
7
4
9
6
1 2
4 2
1 2
2 2
3 2
2
I e i
n
n
n
n
n
n

+
= = then proceed with your
skills
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 15 of 30

Recurrence Formula I nvolving Single Trigonometric Function Raised to a Power
Example:
}
=
2
0
cos
t
xdx I
n
n
. Show that
2
1

=
n n
I
n
n
I . Convert this expression into factorial
notations.
} }

= =
2
0
1
2
0
cos cos cos
t t
xdx x xdx I
n n
n
, we choose x
dx
dv
x u
n
cos , cos
1
= =

because theres
2 n
I in the question so we want
2
cos
n
in the new parts.
Because the expression
2
1

=
n n
I
n
n
I relates
n
I to
2 n
I , we need to consider separate cases
for odd and even n when finding the factorial notations.

Further Properties of Definite I ntegrals
Assumption: ( ) ( )
} }
=
b
a
b
a
du u f dx x f [proof: kinda common sense]
This idea can be used, for example, to evaluate
}

+
2
2
2
1
dx
e
x
x
using the substitution x u = . It is
also used to prove the following theorems.
Theorem #1: ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
} }
+ =

a a
a
dx x f x f dx x f
0
[proof: let x u = ]
Theorem #2: ( ) ( )
} }
=
a a
dx x a f dx x f
0 0
[proof: x a u = ]
I think questions should hint you if you need to use these theorems.

5. Volumes
Definite I ntegrals as Limiting Sums
Suppose that we have a curve ( ) x f y = . The area under the curve from a x = to b x = can be
approximated by making thin rectangular strips of width x o .
( )

=
~
b
a x
x x f A o
( )

=
b
a x
x x f
x
A o
o 0
lim
and by the thing called the fundamental theorem of calculus,
( )
}
=
b
a
dx x f A

Volumes of Solids of Revolutions
Any region bounded by curve(s) rotated about an axis will form a solid. Its cross-sections
(found by slicing it perpendicular to the axis of rotation) will look like a circular disc [how?
every point on the curve sweeps out a circle centred on the axis of rotation]. The disc may have
a hole in the middle or a hole around the circular track (but this course only concerns the hole
in the middle, and this kind of disc is called annulus or washer). There are two methods:
- Slices: Take strips perpendicular to the axis of rotation, rotate them to form circular slices
and sum their volumes
- Cylindrical Shells: Take strips parallel to the axis of rotation, rotate them to form
cylindrical shells and sum their volumes
The second method is often easier, especially for annulus; and some volumes cant be found by
the first method.
With this topic what you need is the ability to visualise and to regard curves as physical objects
(to find their dimensions).
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 16 of 30

Circle Slices
Question #1: The region bounded by the curve ( ) x x y = 4 and the x-axis is rotated through
180
o
about the line 2 = x . Find the volume of solid of revolution.
The typical slice is shown on the left. Since the parabola
is symmetrical about the axis of rotation, its volume is
the same as if only the shaded region is rotated. The
volume of a typical slice is denoted by V o . A o is the
area of either the upper or lower surface of the slice.
2
r A t o = ( )
2
2 = x t
y A V o o o = ( ) y x o t
2
2 =
Since we have y o , we will be integrating with dy, so we
want to replace x with something in y, using the equation
of the curve, ( ) x x y = 4 . We could do that but a more efficient way would be to note that
x x y 4
2
= so completing the square in the RHS would give
( ) ( ) 4 2 4
2 2
2
4
= = x y x y , which is exactly what we need. Continuing,
( ) y y V o t o = 4 .
( ) ( )
}

= = =

=
=
4
0
4
0
8 4 4
0
lim
t t o t
o
dy y y y
y
V
y
cubic units.

Annulus Slices
Any annulus has area ( ) ( )( ) r R r R r R A + = = t t o
2 2
. When you cant actually find R and r,
such as in question #2 below, you need the second expression.
Question #2: The region bounded by the curve ( ) x x y = 4 and the x-axis is rotated about the
y-axis. Find the volume of the solid generated.
The annulus has radii
2 1
, x x , where
2 1
, x x are the roots of ( ) x x y = 4
considered as a quadratic equation.
( )( )
1 2 1 2
x x x x A + = t o
( ) 0 4 4
2
= + = y x x x x y (this is the quadratic equation)
Sum of roots: ( ) 4
1 2
= + x x Product of roots: y x x =
2 1

Finding
1 2
x x : ( ) ( )
2 1
2
1 2
2
1 2
4 x x x x x x + =
( ) y y x x = = 4 2 4 16
1 2

y y V o t o = 4 8 ANS: 3 128t units
3
.
Question #3: Find the volume of solid obtained by rotating the region
( ) { }
4 2
6 0 , 6 0 : , x x y x y x s s s s about the y-axis.
From
4 2
6 x x y = , we can form a quadratic in
2
x : ( ) ( ) 0 6
2
2
2
= + y x x .
Using the quadratic formula we can find
2
1
x and
2
2
x . ANS: t 36 units
3
.
Question #4: The region bounded by the curve ( )
2
1 = x y and the x- and y-axes is rotated
about the line 5 . 0 = y . Find the volume of the solid. ANS: 15 8t units
3
.
Question #5: The area bounded by 2
2
+ = x y and 5 2 + = x y is rotated about the x-axis. Find
the volume of the solid so formed.
Notice one curve is always above the other (in the region we are concerned with).
5 2 + = x R and 2
2
+ = x r ANS: t 2 . 115 units
3
.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 17 of 30
Question #6: A hole of radius a is bored through the centre of a sphere of radius 2a. Find the
volume of the remaining solid by vertical slices.
The solid has circular cross-sections so it can be formed by rotating
curve(s). Because it asks to take vertical slices, you are rotating,
about the x-axis,
2 2 2
4a y x = + and a y = .
Notice that the solid begins from
1
x .
y R = and a r = and a x 3
1
=
( )
}
=
a
dx x a V
3
0
2 2
3 2 t
3
3 4 a t = = units
3
.

Cylindrical Shells
The following picture illustrates the process when the area under ( ) x f between a x = and
b x = is rotated about the y-axis, where ( ) 0 > x f and is continuous for b x a s s .

You can quote the result dx h r V = t o 2 provided that you draw the rectangular solid like
in the diagram before. A more formal treatment is given in the following example.
Question #7: The region bounded by the curve x y
1
sin

= , the x-axis and the ordinate 1 = x is

rotated about the line 1 = y . Find the volume of the solid formed.

Explanation: = V o volume of the bigger cylinder volume of the smaller one
= { }
2 2
r R height t , and y r R o + =
Volume, then, is ( )( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = = +

=

=
4
4
sin 1 1 2
0
lim
2 5 . 0
0
t
t
t o t
o
t

y
y y y
y
V units
3
.
Question #8: Find the volume of solid of rotation when the region bounded by
2
x y = and
2 + = x y is rotated about the line 3 = x . ANS: 2 45t units
3
.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 18 of 30
Question #9: Find the volume generated when the area between
2
4 x x y = and the x-axis is
rotated about the line 6 = y . [Hint: the parabola is symmetrical about a vertical axis, hence the
height of cylinder = x 2 4 .] ANS: 15 1408t units
3
.
Other Questions: try to do questions #1 to #6 by taking cylindrical shells.

When the Axis of Rotation is Oblique
Remember that you are taking strips perpendicular or parallel to the axis of rotation. You will
have two new oblique axes and you wont be integrating in terms of x or y. Questions should
have parts to guide you.

A Time-Saving Tip
You must show both the limiting sum and the definite integral. However I think it is safe to
write

t
o o
o
5 . 0
0
0
lim
y
y A
y
instead of ( )( )

=
+

t
o t
o
5 . 0
0
sin 1 1 2
0
lim
y
y y y
y
in question #7, and to then
write
}
t
o
5 . 0
0
dy A . Do it at your own risk.

Volumes of Solids with Cross-Sections of Similar Shapes
The process is similar to the slices method (i.e. summing up slices), except that the slice is
usually not circular. Some rather obvious tips:
- Read the question slowly and visualise the situation as you read
- Think of the best way to slice the object so all cross-sections are similar in shape (if its not
told, like in questions #11 and #12).
- Draw a picture (if its not given).
- Introduce some new variables and axes as necessary.
- When the question gives a curve as the base of solid (such as in questions #9 and #10
below), you may need to have a third axis.
- Find an expression for V o , in terms of the variable required for integration, often by using
geometry.
Question #9: The base of a solid is the segment of the parabola y x 4
2
= cut off by the line
2 = y . Cross-sections taken perpendicular to the axis of the parabola are right-angled isosceles
triangles with hypotenuse in the base of the solid. Find the volume of the solid. ANS: 8 cubic
units.
Question #10: A solid has an elliptical base with semi-axes
2 and 1. Cross-sections perpendicular to the major axis of
the ellipse are parabolic segments with axis passing
through the major axis of the ellipse. The height of each
such segment is determined by a bounding parabola of
height 4, as shown on the right. Find the volume of the
solid.
The slice is a parabolic segment with thickness x o . Its
height is given by point z on the bounding parabola (the
parabola facing you above, not the shaded one). By noting
values, the equation of the bounding parabola is
2
4 x z = . Now we
need to find the expression for A o . It can be found by Simpsons rule
with two strips (note: Simpsons rule gives exact result for a parabola,
just like trapezium rule gives exact value for linear functions).
( ) { } ( )
2
3
2 2
4
3
2
0 4 4 0
6
2
x x
y
A = + + = o . Now its a matter of
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 19 of 30
integrating. ANS: t 4 units
3
.
Question #11: The diagram is of a cake tin with a rectangular
base with sides of 16 cm and 10 cm. Its top is also rectangular,
with sides 20 cm and 12 cm. The tin has a depth of 4 cm and
each of its 4 side faces is a trapezium. Find its volume.
We take slices parallel to the base of the tin, with thickness y o ,
distant y units from the base, sides s and t. Express s and t in
terms of y. The process for s is done below.
Using similarity of triangles:
2 2
4 y
x
x
y
= =
But: y x s + = + = 16 2 16
ANS:
3
3
2
794 cm .
Question #12: Two cuts are made on a circular log of radius 8
cm, the first perpendicular to the axis of the log and the
second inclined at 60
o
with the first. If the two cuts meet on a
line through the centre, find the volume of the wood cut out.
The red stuff isnt shown in the question.
Name some axes. Slicing the shaded solid vertically, we have
rectangular slices of width x o , height h, length 2y. ANS: 5123 1024/3 cm
3
.

I ntegration Process
Keep in mind the option of integration by parts, substitutions, and partial fractions. Also look
for (i) odd integral like 0 1
1
1
2
=
}

dx x x and (ii) circular area like ( )

}

2
0
2
1
2
4 dx x =
4
1
area
of a circle of radius 2.

6. Mechanics
Simple Harmonic Motion
Sample typical question:
Today, low water for a harbour occurs at 3.30 am and high water at 9.45 am, the corresponding
depths being 5 m and 15 m. Find: (a) between what times during the morning a ship drawing
12.5 m of water can safely enter the harbour [hint: x = 0 is the centre of oscillation, at depth =
10] (b) the rate at which the level of water is rising or falling when the depth of water is 13 m.
Sample more creative question:
At ground level, where g = 9.81, a pendulum beats exact seconds (each half-oscillation takes
one second). If it is taken up a mountain where g = 9.80, find by how many seconds per day it
will be wrong. Assume that a pendulum of length L has period
g
L
t 2 . ANSWER: On the
ground, the period is 2 seconds
2
81 . 9
81 . 9
2 2
t
t = = L
L
. It makes G =
3600 24 5 . 0 oscillations per day. On the mountain, G oscillations are made in
80 . 9
2
L
G t seconds, but it should be in 3600 24 seconds if it was correct.

Resisted Motion in One Dimension (and Some Other Motion in One Dimension)
Questions on this topic will tell something about forces. Our process is essentially:
- Find an expression for the net force (the sum of all forces)
- Use a m F = (where if F is in Newton, m is in kg and a is in ms
-2
) to find the expression
for a
- Work from the acceleration expression
Another unit for force: 1 kg wt = 9.8 N [thats the gravitational force on a 1 kg object]
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 20 of 30

Working from the Acceleration Expression
Three important expressions for acceleration ( x ), and their proofs:
-
dt
dv
; very obvious but anyway Ill write
dt
dv
dt
dx
dt
d
dt
x d
x =
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2
for proof
-
dx
dv
v ;
dt
dx
dx
dv
dt
dv
= [chain rule, adding extra variables that get cancelled]
- |
.
|

\
|
2
2
1
v
dx
d
;
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2
1
v
dv
d
dx
dv
v
dx
dv
dt
dv
[integrate v and differentiate again] then cross
out the dvs
Which expression for acceleration to use?
- Find out what relation or function you want by interpreting the question. For example, if
the question asks find the velocity at the end of 4 s, then you need v as a function of t. If
it asks find the maximum height when the ball is thrown upwards, then you need x as a
function of v (maximum height is when v reaches zero). When you want a relation between
x and t, either (i) find two relations, between v and x and between v and t, then solve them
simultaneously OR (ii) find v as a function of t and integrate it using dt dx v = .
- If you want a relation involving v and x (i.e. v as a function of x OR the other way around),
the expression for acceleration needs to contain the letters v and x (note: dv contains the
letter v) thats all. If you want a relation between v and t then it needs to contain v and t.
- We can integrate the appropriate expression to get the relation. You may well need to
remember the technique of flipping the derivative. For example, we have
2
kv g x + = and
we need a relation between x and v.
v
kv g
dx
dv
kv g
dx
dv
v
2
2
+
= + = (notice I dont try to
write it as kv
v
g
+ )
}
+
=
+
= dv
kv g
v
x
kv g
v
dv
dx
2 2
.
- So, does it matter whether we choose
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
1
v
dx
d
x or
dx
dv
v x = ? It does, in a way. When
you have x in terms of v, using
dx
dv
v x = is generally quicker (think of
dx
dv
v x = likes
v). When you have x in terms of x, either one is fine. You just have to use different
process as illustrated in the following example with
2
x x = .
}
= =
|
.
|

\
|
dx x v x v
dx
d
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1

} }
= = = dx x dv v dx x dv v x
dx
dv
v
2 2 2

Things to revise on:
- Integration techniques. Also remember that if after integration you have the relation in the
wrong order (for example, you have C v x + = ln , but want v as a function of x), make sure
you find the constant first (dont think its D e v
x
+ = ).
- Properties of ln and e function, such as the fact that they can cancel each other, domain of
ln,
n
a a n log log = and ( ) b a b a log log log = .

Finding the Net Force
Some forces acting on a body or object (with their common symbols):
- Gravity (mg): always directed downwards
- Friction or resistance (R or F): acts in opposite direction to motion
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 21 of 30
- Tension (T): directed along a string, moving away from the body
- Normal or reaction (N): always exists when the body touches a surface or another body,
acts at right angles to the surface, is also called reaction force
The thing that governs acceleration is the sum of all forces the net or resultant force.
Three types of common resisted motion in one dimension: horizontal, upwards and downwards.
A fourth type is sliding down a rough surface. In all of them:
- The body has a non-zero initial speed but theres no engine in the body that pushes it
forwards after 0 = t
- Make 0 = x at 0 = t
- Take the direction of motion as positive (even when its downwards)
- Draw a diagram showing all forces, the positive direction, and initial conditions
( 0 = t , 0 = x , u v = )
The forces we are concerned with:
- Horizontal motion: friction (there are gravity and normal but they cancel out)
- (Vertically) upwards or downwards motion: gravity and air friction
- Sliding down on a surface: normal, friction and gravity (dont worry about this type until
youve read the General Information on Vectors section)
A fifth type is when an object is fired vertically upwards to very high altitudes and so is subject
to decreasing gravity. The object will escape the earth when 0 > v as x .

Doing Questions
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity experienced by a falling object. To find it, let
t or 0 = x (both conditions are basically equivalent).
Impact speed is the speed when a projectile hits the ground.
If a question involves both upwards and downwards motion, the upwards and downwards
sections need to be investigated separately (choose a new 0 = t , 0 = x and +ve direction).
Note: when an object is thrown upwards from 0 = x with speed V, with air resistance, it wont
have V speed at 0 = x when it comes down. The time taken wont be equal either.
Sample question: A particle of unit mass moves in a straight line against a resistance
proportional to
3
v v + . Initially, the particle is travelling at Q v = . Show that
(

=

Qv
v Q
c x
1
tan
1
for some constant c. HINT: ( )
3
v v mk F + = but mass is 1 unit. You will
then get v Q kx
1 1
tan tan

= . Notice some similarity in
Qv
v Q
+

1
with the compound angle
result. So, take tan of both sides of v Q kx
1 1
tan tan

= , treating Q
1
tan

and v
1
tan

as
angles and using compound angle formula to simplify RHS.

Projectile Motion
Many questions will rely on some idea of the path of the projectile. At this stage I think its
beneficial to commit to memory that o cos V x = and gt V y = o sin (I mean, dont waste
time drawing triangles).
Sample question: A particle is projected upwards over horizontal ground with velocity U,
inclined at an angle to the horizontal. A second particle is projected simultaneously from the
same point in the same direction with velocity U V > .
(a) Show that throughout the motion, the line joining the positions of the particles makes a
constant angle with the horizontal. HINT: naming the particles 1 and 2, find
2 2 1 1
, , , y x y x and
the gradient of the line. It will be u tan = m so the angle is .
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 22 of 30
(b) given that the range and time of flight of the first particle are respectively u 2 sin
1
2
U
g
and
u sin
2
U
g
, find the positions of the faster particle and the direction of its velocity vector when
the slower particle hits the ground. HINT: put u sin
2
U
g
t = into the expression for
2
x and
2
y .
Find
2
x and
2
y . Then youll get (if the velocity makes an angle o with the horizontal)
u o tan
2
tan
|
.
|

\
|
=
V
U V
. Note that
|
.
|

\
|
V
U V 2
can be positive or negative.
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

u o tan 2 1 tan
1
V
U
.
(c) If this velocity vector is directed upwards at an angle u o
2
1
= , find
V
U
in terms of and
deduce that
2
1
4
1
< <
V
U
. HINT: u u tan 2 1
2
1
tan
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
V
U
and use the t-formula. You will get
( )
|
.
|

\
|
= + = u
2
1
sec
4
1
1
4
1
2 2
T
V
U
but < < 90 0 u .

General I nformation on Vectors
Force, acceleration, velocity and displacement are all vector quantities.
Vector quantities can be numerically added when their directions are on the same line (e.g.
upwards and downwards are on the vertical line). Lets invent the term main line and define it
as the line on which the object is moving (or more correctly, to fit with the circular motion
topic, its the line associated with the net force). To be useful, force and acceleration are to be
expressed in terms of the main line and another line perpendicular to it. Any force that is on a
different line needs to be separated into two perpendicular components on those two lines. The
components are often horizontal and vertical but can be something else. For example, in the
case of sliding down on a surface, the main line is the sloping surface.
The force mg is out of line. You want a component
which is in line with the surface and another
component which is in line with the N. Using simple
geometry to determine the angles, youll find the two
components on the diagram. u sin mg F
net
= because
0 cos = u mg N (otherwise P floats or sinks).
Note on deciding whether a component has u sin or
u cos :
The side (of the triangle) opposite the angle always has u sin ; the other has u cos .

Circular Motion, Conical Pendulum and Movement on a Banked Track
The there are two ways to express velocity and acceleration: angular expression and linear
expression. Angular expressions use the symbol e and relate to radian in order for other
formulas to work.
Angular velocity: u
u
e

= =
dt
d

Linear velocity:
dt
dl
v = (l = arc length = u r ) e r v = , directed tangential to circle
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 23 of 30
Angular acceleration: u

= w , which can also be written as
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
1
e
u u
e
e
d
d
d
d

A body moving in circle is affected by two forces: one directed towards the centre (radial
force) and another directed at tangential to a particular point on the circle (tangential force).
The radial force maintains its orbit by changing the direction of velocity, while the tangential
force changes its speed. Linear acceleration consists of:
2
e r a
R
=
r
v
2
= (putting e r v = to the above)
e r a
T
=
Proving guideline:
- Drawing a circle on a number plane,
- u cos r x = and u sin r y =
- Use the chain rule to derive y x , : u e
u
u
sin r
dt
d
d
dx
x = = =
- To derive y x , , use the product rule then the chain rule (remembering e is a variable):
u e u e sin cos
2
r r x = and u e u e cos sin
2
r r y + =
- Add two like terms to form
R
a and the other two to form
T
a using triangles; for example:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) u u e u e u e
2 2 4 2
2
2
2
2 2
cos sin sin cos + = + = r r r a
R

- Why is it the two like terms? Consider a case when there is no tangential force (so the
angular speed is constant and 0 = e ):
R
a contains the two like terms above.
Uniform Circular Motion
Theres no tangential force and speed is constant. f
T
t
t
e 2
2
= = .
Doing Questions on Uniform Circular Motion (Including Pendulum and Motion around a
Banked Track)
Radial force is provided by the tension in the string attached to the body, by the friction force,
by the normal force, or a combination of them.
As the speed increases, normal and friction decrease, and become zero when the body leaves
the surface.
- Draw a dimension diagram, showing relevant data such as direction of motion, two +ve
directions (with inwards made +ve), masses, angles and relations between lengths.
- Identify all forces acting on each moving body (if there are more than one), draw them in a
separate force diagram if necessary.
- Resolve the forces into two perpendicular directions if theyre not so already. One
direction will be along the radius. Draw components in dotted lines to distinguish them
from the real forces. Draw separate force resolution diagrams if necessary.
- Always start with two equations: one summing the forces radially and the other summing
the forces on the other direction. Recognise that the radial net force is
R
a m .
- Label each new equation as you go. Keep in mind the relations between lengths (such as in
question #2). The key to some problems is to be able to cleverly select some equations to
be solved simultaneously.
Question #1: A car of mass 1 tonne passes over a bridge formed by the arc of a circle of radius
10 metres.
(i) Find the force exerted by the car on the road at the top of the bridge if the car is travelling at
8 m/s.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 24 of 30
ANS: We need to consider the conditions at topmost point on the bridge only. Let N be the
reaction or normal force of the bridge on the car, P be the tractive force of the engine, and F be
the friction. N is the force exerted by the road on the car, but its also the force exerted by the
car on the road (Newtons third law).
Horizontally: ( ) 1 0 : = F P Radially: ( ) 2
2 2
: = =
r
mv
mg N
r
mv
N mg
(ii) What speed would cause the car to be on the point of leaving the bridge?
ANS: This happens when 0 = N
Question #2: A particle P of mass m travels with constant speed in a horizontal circle around
the inside of a smooth hemispherical bowl of radius R, centre O. C is the centre of the circle of
motion and OP makes an angle with OC [note: O is directly on top of C]. Show that
u
e
cos
2
R
g
= and find the reaction force in terms of e . Describe what would happen if e
were increased.
ANS: Let N be the normal at P. Its
direction is perpendicular to (the
tangent of) the surface, so its towards
O (centre of the bowl).
Vertically: ( ) 1 0 cos : = mg N u
[because P is not moving up or down]
Radially (towards C):
( ) 2 sin
2
: = e u mr N
There are common variables in (1) and
(2). One of them is N. Lets make N the subject so we can equate the two equations.
From (1):
u cos
mg
N =
From (2):
u
e
sin
2
mr
N = , but we need something with R because we need
u
e
cos
2
R
g
= .
( )
( ) 3
sin
sin
2
2
: = = e
u
e u
mR
R m
N . Then, equate ( ) ( ) 3 1 = .
Now, if e were increased, from
u
e
cos
2
R
g
= we know that u cos would decrease and u
would increase, hence the particle moves up.

Conical Pendulum
It is formed by a bob and a string tied to a fixed point, with the bob moving on horizontal
circle. Question #2 above is essentially a conical pendulum with an invisible string. Often, you
need to eliminate either T or N from two equations.
Question #3: a string passing through a smooth hole in a smooth table connects a particle P of
mass m on the table to a particle Q of mass M suspended below the table. P and Q are both
performing uniform circular motion with angular velocity e , where Q moves in horizontal
circle at a depth h below the table. The lengths of the string above and below the table are l and
L respectively. Show that h depends only on e , and that
m
M
L
l
= .
ANS: The tension in L has equal magnitude with that in l.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 25 of 30

We dont want r in (4) but we want L, because u cos L h = . Use u sin L r = and we get:
( ) 5
2
: = e ML T . Eliminate T by division, ( ) ( ) 5 3 :
2 2
cos
e e
u
g
h
L
g
= = .
Equate (2) with (5) and we get
m
M
L
l
= .

Motion on a Banked Circular Track
When a car or train turns a corner circularly, theres a lateral force exerted on the car towards
the centre of the circle. On a banked track, this force is provided by the horizontal components
of friction and normal forces. With a particular car travelling with a particular radius, the
friction force may act either up or down the plane depending on the speed of the car. At a
particular speed, there would be no friction. This speed is called the optimum speed. By
considering a case where theres no friction, it can be shown that u tan Rg v
o
= (not to
memorise).
The conditions of the road (e.g. wet or not) and of the tyres influence how much friction can be
provided. If insufficient friction is provided, the car will slide. At the optimum speed, the car
wont slide whatsoever because no friction is needed. It can also be shown, by finding the
expression for F and combining it with
Rg
v
o
2
tan = u (also not to memorise), that when
o
v v < , the car will slide down and the friction acts up the slope, and when
o
v v > the friction
acts down the slope.
In our examples, the car and train have their centre of gravity on the surface of the track. In a
train, upwards friction is provided by the inner rail and downwards friction is given by the
outer rail.
d
h
= u sin .
For small angles, less than about 15 ,
u u tan sin ~ .
Multiplication by u sin or u cos is often
required to solve simultaneously.

Question #4: A railway line around a circular arc of radius 800 m is banked by raising the outer
rail h m above the inner rail, where the distance between the rails is 1.5 m. when the train
travels around the curve at 10 ms
-1
, the lateral thrust on the inner rail is equal to the lateral
thrust on the outer rail when the speed is 20 ms
-1
. Calculate (i) the value of h and (ii) the speed
of the train when no lateral thrust is exerted on the rails. (Take g = 9.8 ms
-2
.)
ANSWER:
When
1
10

= ms v (upwards friction):
Vertically: ( ) 1 sin cos
1 1
: = + mg F N u u
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 26 of 30
Radially (in this case horizontally): ( ) 2 cos sin
2
1 1
: =
r
mv
F N u u
We want to equate F values of the10 ms
-1
and 20 ms
-1
, so we want to eliminate
1
N .
( ) u sin 1 : u u u u sin sin cos sin
2
1 1
mg F N = +
( ) u cos 2 :

= u u u u cos cos cos sin

2
2
1 1
r
mv
F N
( ) ( ) A g m
r
v
g m magnitude F :
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= u u u u cos
8
1
sin cos sin
2
1

When
1
20

= ms v (downwards friction):
Without going through the derivation process but noting that
2
F is in the opposite direction of
1
F : ( ) ( ) B g m
r
v
g m magnitude F :
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= u u u u sin cos
2
1
cos sin
2
2
.
(i) Equate ( ) ( ) B A = and we get
g 16
5
tan = u . This means
d
h
g
= =
16
5
sinu ( 5 . 1 = d ).
(ii) Optimum speed is when 0 = F . Use either of the two F expressions above. Youll get
r
v
g
r
v
g
2 2
tan cos sin = = u u u (dividing by u cos ). We know 800 = r ,
g 16
5
tan = u .

7. Polynomials
Factors and Zeroes
They depend on the field we are concerned with. Example: ( ) 3 2
2 4
= x x x P
Over Q (rational): ( ) ( )( ) 1 3
2 2
+ = x x x P , zeroes are none
Over R (real): ( ) ( )( )( ) 1 3 3
2
+ + = x x x x P , zeroes are 3 , 3
Over C (complex): ( ) ( )( )( )( ) i x i x x x x P + + = 3 3 , zeroes are i i , , 3 , 3
Long Division I nvolving Complex Numbers
Example:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) i x
i
i x i
x i
ix x
x x i x
+ +
+
+ +
+ +

+ +
1
2
1 1
3 1
3
2
2

Factoring a Quadratic by Completing the Squares
Example: ( ) ( ) ( )( ) 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 9 6 7 6
2
2 2 2
+ = = + = + x x x x x x x

Multiplicity
- If is a zero of multiplicity (or order) r of ( ) x P , 1 > r , then is a zero of multiplicity
1 r of ( ) x P' . Proof: differentiate ( ) x P , then show that ( ) ( ) ( ) x A x x P
r 1
'

= o where
( ) 0 = o A .
- As an implication, is a zero of multiplicity r of ( ) x P if is a zero of
( )
( ) o
1 r
P , that is,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) 0 ' ' '
1
= = = = =

o o o o
r
P P P P .

The Division Transformation
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 27 of 30
This refers to the writing of ( ) x P as ( ) ( ) ( ) x R x Q x D + , where D R deg deg < .

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
It states that every polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one has at least one zero over
C. Implication: by mathematical induction, every polynomial of degree n has n zeroes over C
(not necessarily distinct); it can be factorised into n linear factors.

Polynomial with I nteger Coefficients
- Any integer zero o of the polynomial is a divisor of the constant term.
Proof: let ( ) ( )
0 1
2
1
1
0 1
1
1
a a x a x a x a x a x a x a x P
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
+ + + + = + + + + =

Since ( ) 0 = o P , ( )
0 1
2
1
1
0 a a a a
n
n
n
n
+ + + + =

o o o
Rearranging, ( )
1
2
1
1
0
a a a a
n
n
n
n
=

o o o
But: s a all and ' o are integral, so ( )
1
2
1
1
a a a
n
n
n
n

o o is integral.
Hence, o is a divisor of the constant term
0
a .
- The numerator of any rational zero is a divisor of the constant term, and its denominator is
a divisor of the leading coefficient.
- Any non-rational zeroes occur in pairs of conjugate surds.

Polynomial with Real Coefficients (note: real includes integers)
- If ( ) x P has odd degree, then it has at least one real zero.
- For any ( ) x P , the non-real zeroes occur in complex conjugate pairs.
Hence, any ( ) x P can be factorised into real linear and real quadratic factors. Note:
( )( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
Re 2 o o o o o o o o + = + + = x x x x x x , which is a real quadratic.

Polynomial with Non-Real Coefficients
No pattern; zeroes need not be conjugate pairs. Example: ( )( ) i x i x ix x 2 2
2
+ = + + .

Sum of the Products of Roots
For ( )
0 1
1
1
a x a x a x a x P
n
n
n
n
+ + + + =

,
Sum of the products of roots taken r at a time = ( )
n
r n
r
a
a

1
Notations for the sums: lets take ( ) x P of degree 4: o|o o| o| o , , ,



Some Questions
1. Suppose ( ) ( ) 3 2 2
2 3
+ + + x Q x a x x where ( ) x Q is a polynomial. Find the value of a.
SOLN: Since LHS has
3
x , Q(x) must have
2
x . ( )( ) 3 2 2
2 2 3
+ + + + + c bx x x a x x .
Equating coefficient of
2
x , 4 2 2 = = + b b . Equating coefficient of x,
8 0 2 = = + c b c . 19 = a .
2. a and b are real numbers such that the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation
( ) 0 3
2
= + + + i x ib a x is 8. Find all possible pairs of a and b. SOLN: Let the roots be
| o, . ( ) ( ) | | | | ( ) 8 6 2 3 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
= + = + = + = + i ab b a i ib a o| | o | o .
b a ab 3 0 6 2 = = and ( ) 8 3
2 2 2 2
= = b b b a . Pairs (a,b): (3,1) and (-3,-1).
3. i + 1 is a root of the equation ( ) ( ) 0 5 2
2
= + + + + ib x i a x , where a and b are real. Find the
values of a and b. SOLN: Put i x + =1 into the equation and expand.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 28 of 30

Changing the Variable to Find a New Polynomial
Let 0
2 3
= + + + d cx bx ax has three roots represented by o , that is, 0
2 3
= + + + d c b a o o o .
To find an equation with roots o 3 , we can replace x with 3 x so that when o 3 is substituted
as x, we still get 0
2 3
= + + + d c b a o o o . By writing the new equation in y instead of x, we
can find the substitution systematically. Examples:
1. 0 3 2
2 3
= + x x x has roots | o , , . Find the equation with roots
2 2 2
, , o| o| | o .
SOLN: 3 = o| . New roots are | o 3 , 3 , 3 . Let 3 3 y x x y = = . New equation in y:
0 3
3
2
3 3
2 3
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
| y y y
or 0 81 18 3
2 3
= + y y y .
2. 0 1 2 4
2 3
= + + x x x has roots | o , , . Find the equation with roots
2 2 2
, , | o . SOLN:
Let y x x y = =
2
. The equation in y with roots
2 2 2
, , | o is given by:
( ) ( ) 1 4 2 0 1 2 4
2 3
= + = + + y y y y y y (separate the terms with y ).
Squaring, ( ) ( ) 0 1 12 12 1 4 2
2 3 2 2
= + = + y y y y y y .
Not everything can be done by directly letting y = x and x = y. For example, to find the
equation with roots
4 4 4
, , | o in the above two examples, we need to first find those with
roots
2 2 2
, , | o , and after making it a cubic, repeat the process for ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
, , | o .
Evaluating
3 3 3
| o + +
We dont have to find the new cubic by replacing x with its cube root. We use the fact that
0
2 3
= + + + d c b a o o o , 0
2 3
= + + + d c b a | | | and 0
2 3
= + + + d c b a , and then sum
them to get: ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 3
2 2 2 3 3 3
= + + + + + + + + + d c b a | o | o | o [ ( )
2 2 2
| o + +
( ) ( ) | o o| | o + + + + = 2
2
if you havent found the equation with roots
2 2 2
, , | o ].

A quartic with symmetric coefficients ( ) a bx cx bx ax x P + + + =
2 3 4
can be converted to
quadratic in ( )
x
x
1
. Method: write it as ( )
2 1 2 2
+ + + ax bx c bx ax x
( ) ( ) | | c x x b x x a x + + + =
1 2 2 2
, then use the fact that ( ) ( ) 2
2 2
2
1
+ + = +

x x x x . Also note
that 0 = x wont be a zero because then
1
x is not defined.

Solving Equations over C Using Complex Number Technique
Solving 0 1=
n
x : find the complex nth roots of 1 . Use De Moivres theorem to find the
roots in modulus-argument form. Alternatively: even n x
n
, 0 1= can be solved by treating it
as a difference of two squares; ( )
2 2 4 4
2 1 2 1 0 x x x x + + = + = then complete the square and
treat the result as a difference of two squares; etc.
Solving 0 1
2 1
= + + + +

x x x
n n
: multiply by ( ) 1 x to give 0 1=
n
x , 1 = x
Solving ( ) 0 1
1 2 1
= + +
n n n
x x : multiply by ( ) 1 + x to give 0 1=
n
x , 1 = x
Solving c x
n
= : use De Moivres theorem
Solving 0 = + cx x
n
: write it as ( ) 0
1
= +

c x x
n
; etc.

New Expressions for u u n and n cos sin
Let u u sin cos i z + = . We can equate the imaginary and real parts of the expressions of
n
z
using De Moivres theorem and Binomial expansion. From the imaginary part, we get u n sin
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 29 of 30
equals some summation of products in the form of u u
b a
cos sin ; similarly we get an
alternative expression for u n cos from the real part.
Sample questions with answers:
(i) Express u 5 tan in terms of powers of u tan , hence show that 0 5 10
2 4
= + x x has roots
5
2
tan ,
5
tan
t t
. SOLN:
u 5 tan
u u u u u
u u u u u
u
u
cos sin 5 cos sin 10 cos
sin cos sin 10 cos sin 5
5 cos
5 sin
4 3 2 5
5 2 3 4
+
+
= =

u u
u u u
4 2
5 3
tan 5 tan 10 1
tan tan 10 tan 5
+
+
=
, after
dividing top and bottom by u
5
cos .
Then, let u tan = x . Pay attention to the top part of the fraction above and notice that it
resembles ( ) 5 10
2 4
+ x x x , hence 0 5 tan = u if x is a root of 0 5 10
2 4
= + x x .
(ii) Deduce that 5
5
4
tan
5
3
tan
5
2
tan
5
tan =
t t t t
. SOLN:
Notice that
5
3
tan
5
2
tan ,
5
4
tan
5
tan
t t t t
= = . From 0 5 10
2 4
= + x x , the product of
the four roots is 5.
(iii) By solving 0 5 10
2 4
= + x x another way, find the value of
5
tan
t
as a surd. SOLN:
Consider 0 5 10
2 4
= + x x as a quadratic in
2
x and use the quadratic formula.

Partial Fractions
Method: Set up an identity,
( )
( )
n
n
x
c
x
c
x
c
x Q
x P
o o o
+ +

2
2
1
1
, where
( ) ( )( )( )( )
n
x x x k x Q o o o =
2 1
, all zeroes of Q(x) distinct, and Q P deg deg < .
We can then rearrange this identity so that the fractions disappear by multiplying both sides by
Q(x). Now, substitute selected values of x by which we can equate coefficients of the x-terms
to determine the constants, cs. Useful values to substitute are , ,
2 1
o o , and if the factors are
irreducible quadratics, zero and i k (for factors like
2 2 2
, 1 k x x + + ) [ 1 = i ]
An alternative approach to equating coefficients in the identity:
[Note: This approach is mentioned in the syllabus but is very rarely asked.]
( )
( )
i
i
i
Q
P
c
o
o
'
= , where n i , , 3 , 2 , 1 =
Proof:
( )
( )
n
n
x
c
x
c
x
c
x Q
x P
o o o
+ +

2
2
1
1
; lets investigate the case when 1 = i
( )
i
x o , i.e. ( )
1
o x in this case: ( )
( )
n
n
x
x
c
x
x
c c
x Q
x
x P
o
o
o
o o

+ +

1
2
1
2 1
1

If we take the limit of the RHS as
1
o x : RHS =
1
c
Taking the same limit of the LHS will give
( )
( )
1
1
' o
o
Q
P
; how does it work?
Notice, in the LHS, that
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 1
o
o o
Q x Q
x
x Q
x

, since ( ) 0
1
= o Q
Also,
1
lim
o x
( ) ( )
( )
1
1
1
' o
o
o
Q
x
Q x Q
=

by the first principle of differentiation

A Case Where Q P deg deg >
Perform division transformation with ( ) ( ) x Q x D = before setting up the identity. For example,
express
3 2
1 2 2
2
2 3


x x
x x x
as a sum of partial fractions.
HSC Mathematics Extension 2
Page 30 of 30
Using division transformation, ( ) ( ) 1 3 2 1 2 2
2 2 3
+ = x x x x x x x . Hence,
3 2
1
3 2
1 2 2
2 2
2 3


+ =


x x
x
x
x x
x x x
, then
3 1 3 2
1
2 1
2

+
+

x
c
x
c
x x
x
and so on.
A Case Where Q(x) Has I rreducible Quadratic Factor(s) Over Real
Example:
( )( )( ) 1 1 2 1 1 2
1
2
2 1
2
2
+ +
+
+

+
+

+ + +
+
x x
b ax
x
c
x
c
x x x x
x

[Notice: either a or b may turn out to equal zero.]
[Remember that zeroes, factors and partial fractions depend on the number field asked. For
example, theres no such thing as irreducible cubic factor over R, but there is over Q or Z. In
that case, let the denominator be that cubic.]
[In general, let the degree of the numerator (of each fraction on the RHS of the identity) be one
less than that of the corresponding denominator.]
A Case Where Q(x) Has Multiple Zero(es)
Example:
( )( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
1
1 1
4 7

+
+
+

+
+
x
c bx
x
a
x x
x x
(same zeroes must be grouped together) which then
gives
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1 2 2
1
3
1
1 2
1
3

+
+
=

+
+
+
=

+
+
+
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
.
Generally,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
1
2
1
1
2 1
o
o o
o
o o

+

+ +

x
a
x
b
x
d
x
c
x x
x P
n n

[The syllabus says not to discuss this case but there have been related questions on it.]

8. Harder 3U Topics
There is no summary for the harder 3U topics, but we have compiled a set of typical questions
from previous HSC examinations, along with the solutions.