Definition of Psychology

The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (, psukh, meaning "breath", "spirit", or
"soul"; and - -logos, translated as "study of" or "research"). Latin word psychologia was first used
by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulid in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae
humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. The earliest known reference to the word
psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to
"Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions
and behaviors. Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both
establishing general principles and researching specific cases, and by many accounts it ultimately aims to
benefit society. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be
classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of
mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and
neurobiological processes that underlie certain cognitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology,
motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists of
diverse stripes also consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer
causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to
employing empirical and deductive methods, someespecially clinical and counseling psychologistsat
times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described
as a "hub science",with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social
sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health
problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of
human activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in
clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to
mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in
other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and
organizational settings, or in other areas such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the
media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.
Common misconceptions about psychology
AND WHY PSYCHOLOGY DIDNT FAIL
Most people think of talk therapy or counselling when they hear the word psychology. But the discipline
consist of a wide range of professional activities and interests of which talk therapy is just a small part.
The diversity of the discipline is often not recognised, or maybe not obvious to many. This creates a
number of misconceptions to do with what is psychology. This article discusses some of the most
common misconceptions.
ONE: Psychology equals therapy (therefore psychology failed as a discipline because therapy has not
been very helpful). Not quite. While one to one intervention is part of the discipline, there is much more
to psychology than therapy. Only a small number of people studying psychology end up in their own
therapy practice. Most clinical psychologists, rather than running a private practice, work for mental
health agencies helping people with mental illness to assume a more normal life.
But there is much more to psychology than clinical work and therapy. Broadly speaking psychology is a
discipline that deals with human behaviour. To understand more about human behaviour, research
psychologists are involved in studying people and testing theories of behaviour. They are most often
employed by the universities and colleges and sometimes by non-academic agencies focused on specific
research (the army, health agencies etc). Often, these research agencies are funded or partly funded by
governments. The research undertaken by psychologists is not only to advance our understanding of
human behaviour but also to inform clinical work of therapists. Whether or not this is the case is
doubtful, in my view it is more of a wishful thinking that a reality. Most of the research is quite
disconnected from therapy and vice versa.
There are also some areas of work for psychologists that have nothing to do with either research nor
therapy. For example, some psychologists work with justice system and the police (forensic
psychologists or criminal investigators) as expert witnesses or using their skills and knowledge to aid
investigations. Others work as government advisors, giving recommendation on social and health
policies. And, as you can expect, psychologists can also be found in the secret services.
Other areas of specialisation for psychologists include organizational psychology (for example advising
big corporation on how to create better working environment, attract more clients and increase
productivity) or educational psychologists (working within education system). Some psychologists work
for the media, advising and educating the public.
As you can see there are endless opportunities for psychologists to serve others with what they know.
Majority of students undertaking a psychology degree will end up doing things other than the therapy.
Even though, ironically, many of students are drawn to psychology because they do want to work with
people.
TWO: psychology equals Freud (therefore psychology failed because Freudian theory is outdated). This
assumption follows from the previous one. Freuds theories are a part of psychological history and not
its current reality.
Sure, some psychiatrists still use Freuds model as their tool however, psychiatry is not psychology but
a medical specialisation. How medicine trains their doctors has nothing to do with psychology and its
practices. Psychiatry deals with mental illness using limited therapy but they mainly use drug
interventions, as all other medical doctors do. That brings us to the misconception number three.
THREE: psychology is the same as psychiatry(therefore psychology failed because it just feeds people
drugs). Psychology is separate from psychiatry but because they both deal with mental health issues,
they are often seen as interchangeable. I would like to say that there is nothing further from the truth
but I would not be completely honest with you in saying that. Recently, clinical psychology have been
aligning itself with psychiatry and its focus on pathology and mental illness. While both psychiatrists and
psychologists
However, psychology has become very attached to psychiatry lately and most of the clinical training
today is centred on diagnosis and finding a category that a patient can be labelled with.
his alliance creates a huge problem for psychology for several reasons. If clinical psychologist is trained
in looking for a category of mental illness, but unlike psychiatrists, they cant administer drugs, they
have very little tools to rely on.
Moreover, this type of training creates a bias in clinical psychologists to look for pathology rather than
practical solutions. It makes problems seem bigger, more difficult to resolve and much more persistent
that they need to be. This is especially problematic for those therapists working in private practice as
they tend to see patients/clients as deficient/ill/abnormal/deviant rather than people unable to resolve
some life problems.
This tendency to translate everything as mental illness or a category in peoples heads makes
problems appear more serious. As a result we believe mental problems are extremely difficult to
overcome. This is not the case as confirmed by therapists that had courage to look outside of what a
regular clinical course taught them. There are therapists around who, because their own desire to find
ways of effectively helping people, are actually working wonders with their clients, but they were not
given any of their tools in a typical clinical psychology course.
Three Misconceptions About Psychologists: Part 1 - We Fix What is Broken
Now Im going to defend my profession! I could restate that, and say that I will clarify some things about
psychology. But the truth is, as a profession, we tend to be a bit defensive about what we do. It comes
from years of seeing that look sweep across the face of the friend of a friend, who, in casually chatting
at a social gathering, learns what we do for a living. It comes from years of hearing psychiatrist jokes and
rude comments about anyone who goes to counseling. And in fact, it comes from within our profession
as well, from a traditional focus on what is wrong with our patients, instead of a balanced
perspective on the whole person who wants to make improvements in the quality of their life.
And this is the first misconception about psychologists. That we fix what is broken. That people who
come to us are different from people who dont. That only folks who are weak, or in a real bind, seek out
our services. That going to a psychotherapist is a last resort. And that certainly it is something you dont
talk about.
Heres the truth: Psychotherapy is about many things. Its about coaching people to reach new goals. Its
about supporting folks while they take new risks and make changes in their lives. Its about helping
people become more confident. More energetic and enthused about life. More skilled at getting along
with others. Its about building and sustaining healthy intimate relationships. And its about coping with
loss and stress effectively.
And yes, its about helping people take an objective look at their internal world. And sometimes we find
that there are serious, impairing problems. Problems that used to be called mental illness. Its an
archaic term in my opinion. We now know that the brain chemistry is a fickle system, prone to all
degrees of dysfunction. None of us have perfect brain chemistry. And in any case, our brain chemistry
is not a fixed, unchanging thing. It reacts rather wildly in fact. To chemicals, to the food we ingest, to
illness in other parts of our body, and definitely to stress.
And its been reacting all of our lives. Even in utter, it was reacting, probably at its most intense level, to
our mothers state. Her health, her diet, her stress. Definitely to any drugs, alcohol, nicotine, even
caffeine she put into her body. And the ghosts of our ancestors visited our newly developing brain
circuits as well through not quite understood genetic paths.
So some people who come to psychotherapists have to contend with neurobiological/chemical states
that, mildly put, are a pain. They, due to no actions on their part, may be vulnerable to cycling into
depression. Or of having panic attacks. Or of reacting with rage to the slightest obstacle. Or they may
have compulsions or obsessions that even to them make no sense. Or their brains may conjure up any
variety of illogical lines of thinking.
And of course, some people come to psychotherapy to heal old wounds. To bravely look in the face a
past of abuse, degradation, or emotional humiliation. To confront emotional neglect due not necessarily
to malice, but much more frequently to ignorance, young parents, and perhaps the problems of
alcoholism, depression, and toxic marriages.
If youre getting the impression that the pool of people who use the services of psychologists is large
and in fact encompasses humanity, youre absolutely right. Psychology is about understanding human
psychological nature. Thats a vast area, one in which all of us can benefit from informed opinion.
Its ridiculous when you really think about it. Were a nation proud of the traditions of self improvement,
of being the best we can be. We proudly and publicly announce our intentions to improve our bodies.
We flock to exercise and diet and even yield our bodies to knives in the quest of improvement of our
external self.
Whos crazy here? Folks who see psychologists? Or just maybe its a culture that ignores the benefits
of internal self improvement.
The Scope, Importance and Objectives of Psychology
Generally, the definition of psychology emphasizes the study of human behavior. This meaning can be
expounded as to the scope and objectives in relation to following sequence of academic study as to
understand ,describe, predict and control of certain behavioral phenomenon along the conditions and
situations within a given environment.
1. It provides understanding of the behavioral actions through the cause - effect relationship in order
to gain specific insight of the situation
This is a subjective analysis as to the observable relations derived from the specific cause of behavioral
actions that may respond to certain degree of effect to stimuli. The reason why we study psychology is
at least we learn to understand the response of an individual when expose to certain behavioral action
and act accordingly in rational manner. The psychological implication here is to know and discover the
behavioral action on certain situations and conditions. Let us take as an example in the understanding
the behavioral facts of the negative response of the stimuli that may deprive your human dignity and
integrity.
For example, the behavioral responses on the human stimuli on conditions that deprive the esteem and
self-concept such embarrassment, humiliation, indignation, disgrace and other negative feedback
mechanisms. Of course you understand that the response may not be positive response to the
psychological reflexes. But supposing in that situation they are smiling, laughing, , smirking, and sneering
instead they are crying, weeping and other forms of negative behavior.
Beyond that line you may say they are insane but the behavioral projection to understand the reversible
side of psychology to show a positive response. This is done to professional who would counter act on
the insult and dont mind at all the humiliation and embarrassmentbeing done to them. Obviously, this
behavior action is a defense mechanism to sustain the human dignity and integrity.
However, there are worst scenarios beyond the rational explanation of man about those who are really
mentally ill that would not respond to the sane action in the society. These are the result of
psychological imbalances for the mentally ill patient. So psychology has the basis to understand a given
behavioral action that can be predicted for the sanity level of the individual.
2. It describes the human behavior on given situation or condition
The human condition and situation may be described according to behavioral qualities on specific
actions in the environment. These are even the examples on the importance of Psychology along the
description of human behavior :
a) The descriptive measurement on the intelligence level of the individual that can be tested through
psychological measurement to classify the level of intelligence particularly the students. This is to find
out the mental activity and the intelligence quotient of the student.
b) The mental state and emotional stability in relation to the psychological disorders affected by the
individual whether hereditary or environmental factors. Of course, the most common environmental
factors are the financial problems, work-related problems, family problems, and others. This may cause
stress and depression or may possibly cause major emotional problems that need the assistance of
psychiatrist.
c) The physical pain and abuse as may lead to inferiority human deprivation of dignity, esteem and
integrity which would result to abnormal psychological behavior. It may cause compulsive behavior,
erratic behavior, anti-social behavior, split personality, psycho-maniacs and other psychological
problems. The environmental situation arising the consequence of juvenile delinquency, child abuse,
battered children including women, sexual experiences such as rape, sexual harassment and
molestation, constant embarrassment and humiliation, and even being poor may have profound effect
to the socially accepted behavior of the society.
d) The dilemma on personal vices that may lead to drug and alcoholic dependence may cause so much
trouble in the society. The psychological imbalance as to the effect of constant use of drug triggers
psychological hallucinations no longer in touch with the rational way to think in the environment. While
alcoholic dependence may lead to psychological depression and stress, easily irritated and behaviorally
irresponsive to certain standard action in the society.
3. It provides mechanism to facilitate the prediction of the behavior of individual in the cause-effect
relationship as to the standard action on a given response of the individual
What is exciting in the study of psychology is the ability to predict the future events once understood by
the cause-effect relationship of the behavioral action. The personal action and commitment is the best
predictor to understand the future action and path in the society. Let us take the case on social stature
as trying to predict the kind of human behavior that can be predicted in the society.
The social interaction of the human society can be predicted by certain behavioral action as to the
psychological response of the basic needs such as education, health, clothing, shelter and other
biological needs. The psychological response for those with high income group is particularly interested
to study in elite schools, high class hospitals, fashioned clothing with signature brand, shopping, luxury
residential houses and other secondary vices.
The high income group has the psychological tendency to be autocrat, elitist, business minded, ego-
centric, materially conscious and act according to stature. Certainly, there is great effect to children
pampered by wealth and fashion to follow the same psychological desires and wants. There are some
instances, these might be true because of the intervening set of variables on their human experiences to
be humane, humble, compassionate, loving and always share the resources to the poor.
There is usually a connection of student behavior on the ability to pass the examination, high grades, top
in the class, and respected by the teachers. So this case applies the predictability of human behavior
through the concept of diligence, commitment to study and learn in the class. While you can predict that
those students who are frequently absent in the class, not doing the assignment, not interested in class
discussion, always late in the class, and never committed to do about learning activities in the school
may result to failed exams and grades, retention of class, low grades , drop out and expulsion in the
school.
4. It provides the control mechanism to change the behavioral of the individual.
In this behavioral process of understanding, describing and predicting the cause-effect relationship may
find solution to control the behavior as you can already predict the condition and situation. There are
varied forms to study psychology to prevent certain emotional imbalances and remedy positive action to
the occurrences on a given situation. Of course, we have to classify the psychological disorders whether
it is hereditary or environmental in nature to provide the best way to control the behavioral
occurrences.
After understanding and predicting a certain complex behavior, the next thing to know is how to control
or change a given behavior from the situation being presented. From aforementioned situations and
examples such as psychological disorders and treatments to other forms of insanity may now treat
specific psychological disorders. It can be in form of psychological therapy and medication which is given
to patient. This will reduce and control the psychological imbalances. It is in this reason that we need
psychiatrist and psychologist to treat related psychological disorders that we get whether it is hereditary
or environmental in nature.
Branches of Psychology
Overview of the Major Branches of Psychology
There are a number of unique and distinctive branches of psychology. Each branch looks at questions
and problems from a different perspective. While each branch has its own focus on psychological
problems or concerns, all areas share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and
behavior. The following are some of the major branches of psychology within the field today.
1. Abnormal Psychology
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Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of
disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists and
psychotherapists often work directly in this field.
2. Behavioral Psychology
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Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the first part of the twentieth century, it
became less prominent during the 1950s. However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education and many
other areas.
3. Biopsychology
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The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the braininfluences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it
has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology.
4. Cognitive Psychology
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Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-
making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s.
5. Comparative Psychology
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Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior
can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology.
6. Cross-Cultural Psychology
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Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. The
International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has
continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs
among various cultures throughout the world.
7. Developmental Psychology
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This branch of psychology looks at development throughout the lifespan, from childhood to adulthood. The scientific study of
human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of
human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual and personality development. Topics studied in this
field include everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease.
8. Educational Psychology
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Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues and student
concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers and
administrators to improve student outcomes.
9. Experimental Psychology
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Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of
these techniques are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood development to
social issues.
10. Forensic Psychology
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Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law. Forensic psychologists perform a
wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing
children to give testimony and evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.
11. Health Psychology
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Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and social factors influence health and
illness. Other terms including medical psychology and behavioral medicine are sometimes used interchangeably with the term
health psychology. The field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of
disease and illness.
12. Personality Psychology
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This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the
best-known theories in psychology have arisen from this field, including Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
13. Social Psychology
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Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics including group behavior, social
interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication and social influences on decision-making.

10 Branches of Psychology
Psychology is the study of mind. Psychology can be broadly classified into 10 main branches. Psychology
is known as the Study of Mind. Its also called dynamic science because no one can ever perceive or
predict the behavior or nature of minds. Each individuals actions, reactions and emotions tend to differ
from one another.
The subject psychology itself is vast like an ocean. When broadly classified, psychology falls into 10 main
branches. Let us briefly define and go through each one of them.
Behavioral Psychology
As the name indicates, its the study of behavioral science such as mental process and human behavioral
patterns. Behavioral Psychology is based on study of the functions of brain cells.
Clinical Psychology
Clinical Psychology is a treatment oriented branch of psychology which deals with scientific ways of
handling psychological problems. It is also called counseling psychology. This includes prevention,
understanding and cure of psychological issues by counseling and psychotherapy.
Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal Psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with the abnormalities in a persons
behavior and psyche. This is a branch of study which is commonly found in Human Resources
Management courses and Criminal Law courses.
Educational Psychology
Educational Psychology is often taught in educational institutions like schools and colleges. This field of
study basically focuses on student life. It deals with shyness, learning disorders, adolescence, sex
education in children and so on. These studies and awareness comes in handy in the different
developmental stages of children.
Developmental Psychology
As the name suggests, Developmental Psychology deals with the changes that occurs in a human being
over course of time. It deals with early childhood developmental stages. This helps in identifying the
causes, treatment and effects of any psychological disorders better.
Personality Psychology
Personality Psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with the IQ and personality of an
individual. Different IQ tests and personality tests allow individuals to gauge themselves for better
understanding. These are commonly found in interview tests and performance analysis.
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology deals with the study of psychological stimuli in human beings. psychological
stimuli include ability for developing linguistic skills, identifying a persons state of mind, recognizing a
kin from another and so on. We have noticed that babies, however small they are, easily get the cue of
the above mentioned psychological stimuli.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology deals with the mental processes like thoughts, memory and problem solving. It
basically deals with the perception and problem solving capability of the brain.
Legal Psychology
Legal Psychology is almost similar to cognitive and clinical psychology. Its just that it has got a legal
point of view. The legal psychologist assists the crime investigation by assessing the testimonies and
statements of the witnesses and the victims.
Community Psychology
Community Psychology is the study of the psychological aspects of the individuals in a community. This
is based on characteristics like interdependence, adaptation, diplomacy and so on.
Psychology History and Schools of Thought
While people have always been fascinated by human behavior, it wasnt until the late 19th century that
psychology began to be considered an actual science. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology
lab in Germany. He believed in a school of thought called structuralism-believing that certain structures
in the mind caused behavior. Over the course of psychologys history, different schools of thought have
competed for prominence. Here are the major schools of thought in psychology:
Structuralism. The belief that there is a connection between sensation and emotion and
behavior.
Functionalism. The idea that the human brain is much like a computer, designed to carry out
specific functions.
Psychoanalysis. Created by Sigmund Freud, this school of thought believes in the rigorous
probing of an individuals personal problems, motives, goals and attitudes as a way to heal the
mind.
Behaviorism. Proponents of this theory essentially hold that all human behavior is learned from
ones surrounding context and environment.
Humanism. This much more recent school of thought came as a reaction to behaviorism and
Psychoanalysis, and emphasizes the importance of values, intentions, and meaning in the
individual. The concept of the self is a central focus for most humanistic psychologists.
Cognitivism. This branch of psychology believes that psychology should be concerned with a
persons internal representations of the world and with the internal or functional organization
of the mind.
As psychology moved away from its philosophical roots, psychologists began to employ more and more
scientific methods to study human behavior. Today, researchers employ a variety of scientific methods,
including experiments, correlational studies, longitudinal studies, and others to test, explain, and predict
behavior.
Areas of Psychology
Students of psychology soon realize that the subject covers a huge range of material. The diverse topics
students might study include social behavior, personality, research methods, therapeutic techniques,
and much more. Because its such a broad and diverse field, a number of different subfields and
specialty areas have emerged. The following are some of the major areas of research and application
within psychology:
Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behavior. This specialty area is focused on
research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and is linked to psychotherapy and
clinical psychology.
Biological Psychology studies how biological processes influence the mind and behavior. This
area is closely linked to neuroscience and utilizes tools such as MRI and PET scans to look at
brain injury or brain abnormalities.
Clinical Psychology is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders.
Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive
psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making, problem
solving, and language acquisition.
Comparative Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal
behavior.
Developmental Psychology is the branch of psychology that looks at human growth and
development over the lifespan.
Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research and principles in
the legal and criminal justice system.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology is the area of psychology that uses psychological research
to enhance work performance, select employee, improve product design, and enhance usability.
Personality Psychology looks at the various elements that make up individual personalities.
School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works within the educational system to help
children with emotional, social, and academic issues.
Social Psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence, social
perception, and social interaction. Social psychology studies diverse subjects including group
behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and
prejudice.
Rationalism
This school of thought takes on various philosophical positions that rely on the function
of reason when searching for truth. It can be contrasted with empiricism, which believes that
experience is necessary to acquire knowledge. For rationalists, ideas are innate. For empiricists,
ideas are acquired. Concepts of rationalism can be traced back to early Greece where Plato
believed reason was something internal, one of the four faculties of the soul.
Rene Descartes

1596-1650
Descartes has been a major influence on philosophical psychology in several ways. He
was known for focusing on the self and its cognitive powers. Often, he was found
stating "cogito, ergo sum or I think, therefore I am. Next he focused on his theory that the
mind and body are separate substances, stating that thoughts and emotion are to be studied apart
from the bodily mechanisms. He felt each perform their own tasks. Finally, Descartes paved the
way for the psycho physiological approach we know today by accepting that mind acts on body
as well as body on mind. Descartes would emphasize on the individual thinker, unlike Plato and
Aristotle. Instead of wondering what men as a whole knew, he wondered what a particular man
may know. As a rationalist, he defined knowledge as judgments or statements that can be said
to be certain, and denied that sensory experience can lead to knowledge.
Structuralism
This school of thought was based on the notion that the object of psychology is to analyze
consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are
related. Structuralism explores many aspects of the mind, though research is mainly concerned
with sensation and perception in vision, hearing and touch. Through the method of
introspection, or the systematic observation of one's own conscious experience, subjects were
trained and the exposed to different visual stimuli, optical illusions and auditory tones. They
were then asked to analyze what they experienced. During the first two or three decades of
psychology, structural psychology was the psychology. It provided psychology with a strong
scientific identity within the academic community. .Structuralism was the dominant school of
psychology in Germany and the U.S. between 1890-1920, and was led by Wundt and
Titchener.
Edward Bradford Titchener
1867-1927
Titchener studied under Wundt in Leipzig then took his teachings to America. In 1895 he
became a professor of psychology at Cornell University. He had great admiration for Wundt's
work, but brought his own version of Wundt's psychology to America. Titchener liked
to emphasize the use of introspection to uncover the elements of experience, such as sensations,
images, and feelings. He also developed experimental techniques that were more fully accepted
than his atomistic approach.
Wilhelm Wundt

1832-1920
Wundt became the founder of experimental psychology* when he established the first official
psychological laboratory in Leipzig, in which introspective and psychophysical methods were
applied to a wide range of subjects. Wundt felt that psychology should be a science modeled
after fields such as physics and chemistry. What would be the subject matter of this new
science? Well, consciousness, of course, or the awareness of immediate experience. In 1881,
Wundt established the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology. Wundt is
known for thinking that there are three main tasks of psychology; one, to analyze the conscious
processes into basic elements; two, to discover how these elements become connected; finally to
determine the laws of connection.
*Experimental psychology is the scientific study of behavior, motives or cognition in a
laboratory setting in order to predict, explain or control behavior.
Functionalism
According to functionalism the subject matter of psychology is mental processes or in other
words, functions. Functionalism was a protest against structuralism. Structuralism was the
study of the contents of consciousness. Functionalism was utilitarian and concerned with
commonsense issues. Structuralists said that mental functions were not subject to introspective
analysis, it was the make up of the mind that could be analyzed. Functionalists disagreed, saying
they could study mental function if correct methods were used. There were many men
responsible for the development of functionalism. Here are just a few important contributors.
John Dewey
1859-1952
John Dewey is the main person credited as the founder of functionalism. He was both a
psychologist and philosopher. He was chair of philosophy at the University of Chicago. He was
also a pragmatist. He was the first functionalist to apply functionalism to social problems and
education. He was responsible for, The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology, ~ 1896. This
explained the processes of natural continuous flow. First there is a sensory perception then a
process fallows and then that is preceded by a response.For example, a flame is the sensor and
then reach is a response. After that burning is a sensor and moving away is another response.
James Rowland Angell
1869-1949
James Angell was a student under John Dewey. He never got his Ph.D. but did manage
to get two M.A.s. He was interested in what the mind was doing. He was interested in how
mental functions of the mind help for survival. He thought the body and the mind worked
together to survive.

Harvey Carr
1873-1954
Harvey Carr studied under James Angell. His main focus was on learning. He thought
learning happened when needs for survival were accomplished . He demonstrated this through
something called the, adaptive act. There are three interrelated parts. First, there was a
motivating stimulus, which would stick around until there was an act to satisfy it. Second, a
sensory stimulus, which was the goal. Lastly there was an activity which lasted until the
motivating stimulus was satisfied. The adaptive act was a function of the situation as a whole. It
is like saying there would be different reactions to seeing a grizzly bear in a zoo compared to the
wild.
Mary Calkins
Mary Calkins was one of the few females involved with Psychology. She attended
seminars even though she was discriminated against. She invented the paired-associate
technique. She was also interested in short-term memory. Another area she pursued was Self-
Psychology, which then led her into personality theory.
Behaviorism
According to behaviorism the subject matter of psychology is behavior including how
and why is happens. Psychology through a behaviorists eye is an experimental extension of
natural science. The goal of behaviorism is the prediction and control of behavior. The
behaviorist uses animals responses and compares them to man. The behavior of man is only part
of the total investigation of behaviorism. There are also many individuals responsible for the
development a behaviorism. Here are just a few important contributors.
Pavlov and Watson
These psychologists studied behaviorism experimentally.
Darwin

1809-1882
Darwin studied animals and behavior. He was interested in how they adapted to the
environment. He wanted to know the sorts of behaviors that survived and the kinds that did not
survive. His studies in animals can be related to humans and their survival behaviors.
Freud

1856-1939
Freud looked at the individual and the outcomes of their behaviors. He was interested in
behavior that could be predicted.
B.F. Skinner
1904-1990
Skinner thought all animal and human behavior was linked to rewards or reinforcers. He
came up with the S-R-C (Stimulus- Response- Consequence) model. He thought all behavior
was guided by consequences. He thought behavior was objective and could be chosen by the
individual. He also thought rewarding someone when they acted in a favorable manner that was
close to the desired act could shape behavior. A way to achieve this is through positive
reinforcers and punishment. A positive reinforcer would be telling someone thank you or
perhaps a hug or kiss when a child does a desirable behavior. Punishment would be given when
a child misbehaves. The negative reinforcer maybe cleaning their room or doing the dishes.
Psychoanalysis
This school of psychology was rejected by many as a true science. It was thought of as a
kind of technique in psychotherapy. It is a general psychology of human behavior. There are six
assumptions that show the main ideas of psychoanalytic theory. One is that unconscious mental
processes exist. The second is all human behavior is motivated and purposeful. Third, past
experiences influence current changes and reactions. Forth, personality functioning is very
complex and can be understood through the Id, Ego, and Superego. Fifth, thinking processes
involve energy, strength and force. Finally human behavior is influenced by interaction with the
environment.
One of the main people involved with the development of psychoanalysis was Sigmund
Freud.
Freud
1856-1939
Freud discovered that a lot of the thoughts and feelings that influenced personality were
operating in the unconscious. He started recording his dreams at a very young age. He even did
psychoanalysis on himself at one point in his life. He discovered the talking treatment, after
meeting a troubled young woman named Ana. She traced back her problems to childhood abuse,
as did many of his patients. This is where he came up with a lot of his ideas about sexuality and
the Oedipus complex.
Psychology Research Methods
by Saul McLeod published 2007
Lab Experiment Field Experiment
This type of experiment is conducted
in a well-controlled environment
not necessarily a laboratory and
therefore accurate measurements are
possible.
These are conducted in the everyday
(i.e. natural) environment of the
participants but the situations are
still artificially set up.
The experimenter still manipulates
The researcher decides where the
experiment will take place, at what
time, with which participants, in
what circumstances and using a
standardized procedure.



See also - Experimental Design



See also - Independent and
Dependent Variable
the IV, but in a real-life setting (so
cannot really control extraneous
variables).
Case Study Correlation
Case studies are in-depth
investigations of a single person,
group, event or community.
Case studies are widely used in
psychology and amongst the best-
known ones carried out were by
Sigmund Freud. He conducted very
detailed investigations into the
private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help
them overcome their illnesses.
Case studies provide rich qualitative
data and have high levels of
ecological validity.
Correlation means association -
more precisely it is a measure of the
extent to which two variables are
related.
If an increase in one variable tends
to be associated with an increase in
the other then this is known as a
positive correlation.
If an increase in one variable tends
to be associated with a decrease in
the other then this is known as a
negative correlation.
A zero correlation occurs when there
is no relationship between variables.
Interview Questionnaire
Unstructured (informal) interviews
are like a casual conversation. There
are no set questions and the
participant is given the opportunity
Questionnaires can be thought of as
a kind of written interview. They can
be carried out face to face, by
to raise whatever topics he/she feels
are relevant and ask them in their
own way. In this kind of interview
much qualitative (i.e. descriptive)
data is likely to be collected.
Structured (formal) interviews are
like a job interview. There is a fixed,
predetermined set of questions that
are put to every participant in the
same order and in the same way. The
interviewer stays within their role
and maintains social distance from
the interviewee.
telephone or post.
The questions asked can be open
ended, allowing flexibility in the
respondent's answers, or they can be
more tightly structured requiring
short answers or a choice of answers
from given alternatives.
The choice of questions is important
because of the need to avoid bias or
ambiguity in the questions, leading
the respondent, or causing offence.
Observations Observations
Covert observations are when
the researcher pretends to be an
ordinary member of the group
and observes in secret. There
could be ethical problems or
deception and consent with this
particular method of observation.
Overt observations are when the
researcher tells the group he or
she is conducting research (i.e.
they know they are being
observed).
Natural: Here spontaneous behavior
is recorded in a natural setting.
Controlled: behavior is observed
under controlled laboratory
conditions (e.g. Bandura Bobo doll).
Participant: Here the observer has
direct contact with the group of
people they are observing.
Non-participant (aka "fly on the
wall): The researcher does not have
direct contact with the people being
observed.
Content Analysis Pilot Study
Content analysis is a research tool
used to indirectly observe the
presence of certain words, images
or concepts within the media (e.g.
advertisements, books films etc.).
For example, content analysis
A pilot study is an initial run-
through of the procedures to be used
in an investigation; it involves
selecting a few people and trying out
the study on them. It is possible to
save time, and in some cases,
could be used to study sex-role
stereotyping.
Researchers quantify (i.e. count)
and analyze (i.e. examine) the
presence, meanings and
relationships of words and
concepts, then make inferences
about the messages within the
media, the writer(s), the audience,
and even the culture and time of
which these are a part.
To conduct a content analysis on
any such media, the media is
coded or broken down, into
manageable categories on a
variety of levels - word, word
sense, phrase, sentence, or theme
- and then examined.
money, by identifying any flaws in
the procedures designed by the
researcher.
A pilot study can help the researcher
spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual
things) or confusion in the
information given to participants or
problems with the task devised.


Sometimes the task is too hard, and
the researcher may get a floor effect,
because none of the participants can
score at all or can complete the task
all performances are low. The
opposite effect is a ceiling effect,
when the task is so easy that all
achieve virtually full marks or top
performances and are hitting the
ceiling.