151

Over the years, electrical circuits have become

increasingly complex, with more and more
components combining to achieve very precise
results (Figure 14.1). Such circuits typically include
power supplies, sensing devices, potential dividers
and output devices. At one time, circuit designers
would start with a simple circuit and gradually
modify it until the desired result was achieved. This
is impossible today when circuits include many
hundreds or thousands of components.
Instead, electronic engineers (Figure 14.2)
rely on computer-based design software which
Circuit design
Figure 14.1 A complex electronic circuit this
is the circuit board which controls a computers
hard drive.
Figure 14.2 A computer engineer in California
uses a computer-aided design (CAD) software
tool to design a circuit which will form part of a
microprocessor, the device at the heart of
every computer.
can work out the effect of any combination
of components. This is only possible because
computers can be programmed with the equations
which describe how current and voltage behave in
a circuit. These equations, which include Ohms
law and Kirchhoffs two laws, were established
in the 18th century, but they have come into
their own in the 21st century through their use in
computer-aided design (CAD) systems.
Revisiting Kirchhoffs frst law
This law has already been considered in Chapter 9.
It relates to currents at a point in a circuit, and stems
from the fact that electric charge is conserved.
Kirchhoffs frst law states that:
The sum of the currents entering any point (or
junction) in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that same point.
As an equation, we can write Kirchhoffs frst law as:
I
in
= I
out
Here, the symbol (Greek letter sigma) means the
sum of all, so I
in
means the sum of all currents
entering into a point and I
out
means the sum
of all currents leaving that point. This is the sort
of equation which a computer program can use to
predict the behaviour of a complex circuit.
Kirchhoffs laws
Chapter 14
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e-Learning
Objectives
Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
152
10
I I
30
6.0 V
+ +
2.0 V
loop
Figure 14.6 A circuit with two opposing batteries.
Kirchhoffs second law
This law deals with e.m.f.s and voltages in a circuit.
We will start by considering a simple circuit which
contains a cell and two resistors of resistances R
1
and
R
2
(Figure 14.5). Since this is a simple series circuit,
the current I must be the same all the way around,
and we need not concern ourselves further with
Kirchhoffs frst law. For this circuit, we can write
the following equation:
E = IR
1
+ IR
2
e.m.f. of battery = sum of p.d.s across the resistors
SAQ
1 Calculate I
in
and I
out
in Figure 14.3. Is
Kirchhoffs frst law satisfed?
You should not fnd these equations surprising.
However, you may not realise that they are a
consequence of applying Kirchhoffs second law to
the circuit. This law states that:
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3.0 A
4.0 A
2.5 A
0.5 A
1.0 A 2.0 A
Figure 14.3 For SAQ 1.
2 Use Kirchhoffs frst law to deduce the value
and direction of the current I
x
in
Figure 14.4.
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3.0 A
7.0 A
P
2.0 A
Ix
Figure 14.4 For SAQ 2.
R
1
R
2
I I
E
loop
Figure 14.5 A simple series circuit.
The sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit
is equal to the sum of the p.d.s around the loop.
You will see later (page 155) that Kirchhoffs second
law is an expression of the conservation of energy.
We shall look at another example of how this law
can be applied, and then look at how it can be applied
in general.
Figure 14.6 shows a circuit with two batteries
(connected back-to-front) and two resistors. Again,
the current is the same all the way round the circuit.
Using Kirchhoffs second law, we can fnd the
value of the current I. First, we calculate the sum
of the e.m.f.s, taking account of the way that the
batteries are connected together:
sum of e.m.f.s = 6.0 V 2.0 V = 4.0 V
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Answer
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Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
153
Second, we calculate the sum of the p.d.s:
sum of p.d.s = (I 10) + (I 30) = 40 I
Equating these gives:
4.0 = 40 I
and so I = 0.1 A. No doubt, you could have solved
this problem without formally applying Kirchhoffs
second law.
SAQ
3 Use Kirchhoffs second law to
deduce the p.d. across the resistor
of resistance R in the circuit shown in Figure 14.7,
and hence fnd the value of R. (Assume the
battery of e.m.f. 10 V has
negligible internal resistance.)
20
10 V
0.1 A
R
Figure 14.7 Circuit for SAQ 3.
Applying Kirchhoffs laws
Figure 14.8 shows a more complex circuit, with more
than one loop. Again there are two batteries and
two resistors. The problem is to fnd the current in
the resistors. There are several steps in this; Worked
example 1 shows how such a problem is solved.
6.0 V
30
2.0 V
I
3
I
2
I
2
I
1
P
I
1
10
Figure 14.8 Kirchhoffs laws are needed to
determine the currents in this circuit.
Calculate the current in each of the resistors in the
circuit shown in Figure 14.8.
Step 1 Mark the currents fowing. The diagram
shows I
1
, I
2
and I
3
; note that it does not matter if
we mark these fowing in the wrong directions, as
they will simply appear as negative quantities in
the solutions.
Step 2 Apply Kirchhoffs frst law. At point P,
this gives:
I
1
+ I
2
= I
3
(1)
Step 3 Choose a loop and apply Kirchhoffs
second law. Around the upper loop, this gives:
6.0 = (I
3
30) + (I
1
10) (2)
Step 4 Repeat step 3 around other loops until there
are the same number of equations as unknown
currents. Around the lower loop, this gives:
2.0 = I
3
30 (3)
We now have three equations with three
unknowns (the three currents).
Worked example 1
continued
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Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
154
SAQ
4 You can use Kirchhoffs second law to fnd the
current I in the circuit shown in Figure 14.10.
Choosing the best loop can simplify the problem.
a Which loop in the circuit should you
choose?
b Calculate the current I.
Signs and directions
Caution is necessary when applying Kirchhoffs second
law. You need to take account of the ways in which the
sources of e.m.f. are connected and the directions of the
currents. Figure 14.9 shows a loop from a complicated
circuit to illustrate this point. Only the components and
currents within the loop are shown.
Step 5 Solve these equations as simultaneous
equations. In this case, the situation has been
chosen to give simple solutions. Equation 3
gives I
3
= 0.067 A, and substituting this value in
equation 2 gives I
1
= 0.400 A. We can now fnd I
2

by substituting in equation 1:
I
2
= I
3
I
1
= 0.067 0.400 = 0.333 A 0.33 A
Thus I
2
is negative it is in the opposite direction
to the arrow shown in Figure 14.7.
Note that there is a third loop in this circuit; we
could have applied Kirchhoffs second law to the
outermost loop of the circuit. This gives a fourth
equation:
6 2 = I
1
10
However, this is not an independent equation; we
could have arrived at it by subtracting equation 3
from equation 2.
e.m.f.s
Starting with the cell of e.m.f. E
1
and working
anticlockwise around the loop (because E
1
is
pushing current anticlockwise):
sum of e.m.f.s = E
1
+ E
2
E
3
Note that E
3
is opposing the other two e.m.f.s.
p.d.s
Starting from the same point, and working
anticlockwise again:
sum of p.d.s = I
1
R
1
I
2
R
2
I
2
R
3
+ I
1
R
4
Note that the direction of current I
2
is clockwise, so
the p.d.s that involve I
2
are negative.
I
1
R
4
I
2
R
3
R
2
I
2
I
1
R
1
E
2
E
1
E
3
Figure 14.9 A loop extracted from a complicated
circuit.
5.0 V
5.0 V
5.0 V
20
10
I
2.0 V
10
Figure 14.10 Careful choice of a suitable loop
can make it easier to solve problems like this.
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Extension
Answer
Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
155
5 Use Kirchhoffs second law to
deduce the resistance R of the
resistor shown in the circuit loop
of Figure 14.11.
10
R
10 V
10
20
30 V
0.5 A
0.2 A
Conservation of energy
Kirchhoffs second law is a consequence of the
principle of conservation of energy. If a charge, say
1 C, moves around the circuit, it gains energy as it
moves through each source of e.m.f. and loses energy
as it passes through each p.d. If the charge moves all
the way round the circuit, so that it ends up where
it started, it must have the same energy at the end
as at the beginning. (Otherwise we would be able to
create energy from nothing simply by moving charges
around circuits.) So:
energy gained passing through sources of e.m.f.
= energy lost passing through components with p.d.s
You should recall that an e.m.f. in volts is simply the
energy gained per 1 C of charge as it passes through a
source. Similarly, a p.d. is the energy lost per 1 C as it
passes through a component.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb
Figure 14.11 For SAQ 5.
Hence we can think of Kirchhoffs second law as:
energy gained per coulomb around loop
= energy lost per coulomb around loop
Here is another way to think of the meaning of e.m.f.
A 1.5 V cell gives 1.5 J of energy to each coulomb of
charge which passes through it. The charge then moves
round the circuit, transferring the energy to components
in the circuit. The consequence is that, by driving 1 C
of charge around the circuit, the cell transfers 1.5 J of
energy. Hence the e.m.f. of a source simply tells us the
amount of energy (in J) transferred by the source in
driving unit charge (1 C) around a circuit.
SAQ
6 Use the idea of the energy gained and lost by a 1 C
charge to explain why two 6 V batteries connected
together in series can give an e.m.f. of 12 V or 0 V,
but connected in parallel they
give an e.m.f. of 6 V.
7 Apply Kirchhoffs laws to the
circuit shown in Figure 14.12
to determine the current that will
be shown by the ammeters A
1
,
A
2
and A
3
.
20
10 V
20 5.0 V
A
3
A
1
A
2
Figure 14.12 Kirchhoffs laws make it possible to
deduce the ammeter readings.
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Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
156
If we apply Kirchhoffs second law to the loop that
contains the two resistors, we have:
I
1
R
1
I
2
R
2
= 0 V
(because there is no source of e.m.f. in the loop). This
equation states that the two resistors have the same
p.d. V across them. Hence we can write:
I =
V
R
I
1
=
V
R
1
I
2
=
V
R
2
Substituting in I = I
1
+ I
2
and cancelling the common
factor V gives:
1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
For three or more resistors, the equation for total
resistance R becomes:
1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+
R
1
R
2
I I
V
1
V
2
V
Figure 14.13 Resistors in series.
Resistors in parallel
For two resistors of resistances R
1
and R
2
connected
in parallel (Figure 14.14), we have a situation where
the current divides between them. Hence, using
Kirchhoffs frst law, we can write:
I = I
1
+ I
2
R
1
R
2
I
2
I
1
I
V
I
Figure 14.14 Resistors connected in parallel.
Resistor combinations
You are already familiar with the formulae used to
calculate the combined resistance R

of two or more
resistors connected in series or in parallel. To
derive these formulae we have to make use of
Kirchhoffs laws.
Resistors in series
Take two resistors of resistances R
1
and R
2
connected
in series (Figure 14.13). According to Kirchhoffs
frst law, the current in each resistor is the same. The
p.d. V across the combination is equal to the sum of
the p.d.s across the two resistors:
V = V
1
+ V
2
Since V = IR, V
1
= IR
1
and V
2
= IR
2
, we can write:
IR = IR
1
+ IR
2
Cancelling the common factor of current I gives:
R = R
1
+ R
2
For three or more resistors, the equation for total
resistance R becomes:
R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+
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Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
157
9 Apply Kirchhoffs laws to fnd the current at point
X in the circuit shown in Figure 14.16.
What is the direction of the
current?
Figure 14.15 For SAQ 8.
4.0 V
X
10 V
20
80
20
Figure 14.16 For SAQ 9.
A
5.0 V
30
I
60
SAQ
8 There are two ways to calculate the current I in
the ammeter in Figure 14.15. Both should give the
same answer.
a Apply Kirchhoffs laws to determine the
current I.
b Calculate the total resistance R

of the two
parallel resistors, and hence
determine the current I.
Summary

Kirchhoffs frst law represents the conservation of charge at a point in a circuit:

sum of currents entering a point = sum of currents leaving that point

Kirchhoffs second law represents the conservation of energy in an electric circuit:

sum of all the e.m.f.s around a circuit loop = sum of all the p.d.s around that loop
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Answer
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Glossary
Chapter 14: Kirchhoffs laws
158
Questions
1 a The statement of Kirchhoffs second law is based on which conservation law? [1]
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15 V
0.08 A
X
b In the circuit above, determine:
i the p.d. across the resistor X in the circuit [3]
ii the resistance R of the resistor labelled X. [2]
[Total 6]
2 a State Kirchhoffs frst law. [2]
b Apply Kirchhoffs laws to the circuit below to determine the current I at point A in
milliamperes (mA). [4]
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30 10
3.0 V
A
9.0 V
[Total 6]
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