DISCUSSION

Deformation of segmental
postltensioned precast bridges as a
result of corrosion of the tendons
Proc. Instn Civ.
Engrs Structs &
Bldgs, 1994, 104,
Aug., 335-342
Paper 95 79
R. J. Woodward and D. L. S. Wi l son
P. J. Andrews, Northamptonshire County
Council
When I first read the Paper, I was quite
concerned that there was an inference that the
deflection derived from the corrosion of
structures, the corrosion of tendons, could be
related to the risk that still remained in
structures. As I am a practising highway
structural engineer, risk is of great importance
to me, as it is to all chartered engineers, and I
actually wrote down four headings, namely risk
identification, examination investigation, cost
and solution. I put cost before solution because
I believe we need to look at the bridges which
we have. This Paper actually identifies a
number of areas to which we do not know the
answer. We therefore have two kinds of cost:
the cost of undertaking all the work and the
cost of developing the solutions. Paragraph 61
of the Paper actually caused me some concern.
This says : Current practice to BS 54009
requires that for segmental bridges there is
always compression across resin mortar joints
and at least 1.5 N/mm2 compression under
service loads for mortar joints. This should
reduce the risk of water penetration at joints. I
accept this totally. Unfortunately, however, this
condition does not exist in bridges built before
BS 5400, and although this is current practice, I
am concerned that we do not lose sight of the
fact that there are many pre-BS 5400 bridges
around. What are the Authors views on the
risk that we actually are running with these
sorts of structures?
74. The ICE, in conjunction with the
Institution of Structural Engineers, has, in fact,
at the response of the Standing Committee on
Structural Safety, set up a small working party
to write a guidance note on how post-tensioned
structures should be designed to prevent this
kind of thing from happening. This is useful for
how one designs in the future. The difficult
part-and I can assure you it is the difficult
part-is how one deals with the existing
structures, because although the Authors have
assumed linear corrosion in many cases-and I
think in fairness to them that is all they can do
because if you try to find out where the
corrosion is you have destroyed the ability to
test the structure-it does not corrode like
that. It corrodes in bits here and there. This is
an area which needs to be looked at further.
75. Do the Authors consider that this
post-tensioning problem seems to occur with
structures which are somewhat unusual in
design? By unusual , I mean not normal
in-situ sections, but a series of small concrete
sections which go together. Paragraph 67 states
that: The degree of corrosion at the joints did
not alter the shape of the curves but influenced
the load at which complete failure occurred ,
which I believe is a very important statement. I
believe that a certain amount of redistribution
occurs, and that one cannot actually attribute
any known level of risk to the deflection and
indeed to the elements of corrosion that are
obtained.
F. W. Williams, West Glamorgan
County Council
First of all, could the Authors give an
explanation regarding the results displayed in
Figs 4 and 7 of the Paper? Bearing in mind the
jacking and anchoring details, how is the loop
displayed in the moment deflection graph in
Fig. 4 possible? Do I presume that the jacks
were released and then retracted fully in order
to allow the beam to recover, and were then
reloaded? This is rather a minor point, but
there was apparently a 50 mm recovery in the
deflection.
77. A much more salient point I think is
displayed in Fig. 7, bearing in mind what the
purpose of the study was. With reference to
Beam A, it is stated in the Paper that the
eventual failure occurred at joints 3/4. Could
the Authors explain why the crack widths
within the range displayed in Fig. 7 were
greater at joints 5/6 and 7/ 8? Beam B raises a
similar problem, even though the graphs are
somewhat different, and the mode of failure
was different. I can understand the recovery of
the crack width within the segments once the
yielding has taken place, say, at the joints, but
again why does the crack width continue to .
increase at joint 5/6 and not follow the pattern
of joint 3/4 on the concrete section? Do I
presume that these are a function of the amount
of debonding that was taking place at the
joints?
corrosion of prestressing tendons, even in
segmental structures such as Ynys-y-Gwas,
Paperpublished:
cannot be detected by external visual
Proc. Instn Civ.
Engrs, Part 1,
inspections, and this was proven beyond any 1991, go, Apr.,
doubt in the investigation that followed the 397-419
78. It has been clearly established that the
335
DISCUSSION
dramatic collapse of the Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge.
Regrettably, therefore, the findings of the tests
and analytical studies reported in this Paper
have drawn a complete blank from say, another
avenue: i.e. it has been found that the moni-
toring of the structural deformation of these
post-tensioned structures is clearly not a
feasible method of detecting potential or
impending tendon failure in segmental
structures. This is extremely disappointing, as
bridge managers are still looking for a reliable
inspection and/or non-destructive testing
procedure to assist in the inspection and
assessment of segmental bridges.
to is risk assessment. The method that we
adopt is as follows. Firstly, the risk of
corrosion is assessed by studying the
constructional details of a bridge, and by
considering the bridge siting and the
environment in which it has to survive.
Thereafter, local areas of potential risk are
identified and analytical tests, such as chloride
tests, are carried out on the immediate
environment of the tendons within those risk
areas. Finally, there is no option but to gain a
direct viewing of the tendons at these critical
areas by coring of the cover concrete by drilling
and using endoscopes, or by simply chipping
away at the cover concrete to the tendons.
80. In the light of the current state of the
art, how has the development of non-
destructive tests, such as electrode potential,
resistivity surveys and so on, which are used
quite commonly in reinforced concrete
elements, been developed in recent years in the
context of post-tensioned structures?
81. As the Department of Transport are the
funders of the research into the management of
highway structures, is any special funding
going to be made available for this essential
development work? I ask this as a local
authority man who has to manage both local
authority bridges and bridges in Wales on
behalf of the Welsh Office. This is fundamental
development work and one can hardly rely on
the resources of the local authority. We are
talking about a national asset, and a substantial
asset at that, and my view is that a substantial
investment is necessary in the development of
new methods.
79. As I see it, the process we have to resort
A. McC. Low, Ove Arup & Partners
This Paper is very significant. I have been
designing bridges in post-tensioned concrete
believing that it is an inherently ductile
material, and that under an extreme situation,
distress would become apparent before
collapse ; this Paper, however, indicates
otherwise.
in hidden cables, designers are turning to
external prestressing systems in which the
83. To avoid the uncertainties of corrosion
cables are not bonded to the concrete. From Fig.
14 of the Paper, it will be seen that the Author's
computer program does not support what I
believe to be the normal understanding of the
way that unbonded cables behave. It shows
results for several models with different
degrees of bond, and for the unbonded one it
shows that, although it deflects a long way, it
carries a larger moment than the fully bonded
one. I find this extraordinary. Either there must
be a mistake in the computer model or there is a
mistake in the conventional understanding of
how unbonded prestressing behaves.
84. The usually assumed lack of ultimate
moment capacity is a significant factor which is
holding back the use of externally prestressed
concrete. There are penalties associated with
the additional prestressing required to
overcome it which may be as much as an extra
40%. With some systems, this extra can be
reduced because many of the losses can be
overcome in a restressing operation at the end
of the maintenance period. If the Authors'
model is correct, no extra is required.
Dr P. Lindsell, Gifford and Partners
One of the primary objectives of this Paper was
to look at means of detecting impending failure
in post-tensioned segmental bridges. Previous
research" into the demolition of post-tensioned
structures has provided the opportunity to
observe the behaviour of post-tensioned beams
up to and including the point of failure.
86. During the controlled demolition of
selected segmental beams from five post-
tensioned three-span continuous bridges in
1970, two 400 t tendons were severed at four
critical points in a predetermined sequence.
The tendons were initially severed over the
intermediate piers, but more than 90% of the
strands had to be burnt before the beams
collapsed on to the temporary supports. Even
under these extreme conditions, there was no
warning deflection before collapse, However,
obvious signs of impending failure were
apparent where the severed strands had
debonded and produced longitudinal cracks on
either side of the cut position up to 10 m from
the cut points.
87. The Authors produced a theoretical
model to examine the breakdown in bond where
a tendon is broken. The demolition trials"
carried out during the period 1983-87 showed
clearly that the extent of debonding depended
very much on the amount of local shear
reinforcement in addition to the condition of the
grout. The segmental bridges described above
were designed to CP115 principles, so the shear
reinforcement consisted of nominal amounts
near the cut positions. Subsequent tests on
bridge beams designed to BS 54001' indicated
that the local shear reinforcement acted like
end anchorage steel and it was the controlling
9.579
factor in limiting the longitudinal cracking and
debonding length. Modelling the breakdown in
bond represents only a small part of the story,
as the transverse bursting stresses become very
significant as tendon diameters increase.
88. In 1983, demolition trials on four post-
tensioned concrete beams at Basingstoke'O
confirmed both the deflection behaviour before
collapse and the parameters controlling
debonding of a severed tendon. A video film
was produced at the time to illustrate the brittle
failure that occurs as bonded tendons are
gradually severed at a single point. No prior
visible deflection occurred and the collapse of
each beam took only a fraction of a second.
89. The controlled demolition of Taf Fawr
Bridge,13 a three-span segmental structure,
began in 1985, just before the collapse of
Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge. Simple deflection
calculations for a cantilever beam were based
on the standard formula from strain energy
principles
90. These calculations quickly showed that
the monitoring of deflections would be quite
inappropriate. Therefore, the procedure
adopted to detect impending failure was to
monitor the in-situ joints between precast
segments with vibrating wire strain gauges.
Advance warning of non-linear behaviour at
joints was obtained more than a week before
conditions became critical at the section.
91. One of the important results arising
from the monitoring of Taf Fawr Bridge was
that non-linear behaviour at the joints is likely
to occur when the residual compressive stress
lies in the range 1-2 N/mm2. Subsequent
laboratory tests and numerous large-scale load
tests on existing segmental post-tensioned
bridge decks have since confirmed that this is a
general rule for various forms of segmental
construction. Therefore, the Authors' theoret-
ical assumption that non-linear behaviour
occurs when zero compressive stress is created
in the soffit of the Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge beams
is likely to represent a significant departure
from reality. An assessment of prestress losses
on this basis could be clearly prone to serious
error.
Dr S . Jefferis, Golder Associates ( UK) Ltd
(formerly Queen Mary and Westfield College,
University of London)
There are a number of significant problems in
ensuring that ducts are completely filled with
grout and therefore that prestressing tendons
are properly protected from corrosion. In
particular, it is necessary to address the issues
of grout rheology and bleeding. I report here
some of the results of work on grout flow
carried out at Queen Mary and Westfield
College, University of London, under a contract
from the Transport Research Laboratory, with
Dr Woodward and later Dr Pate1 as the
supervising officer, and work on bleeding
supported by the Marine Technology
Directorate of the Science and Engineering
Research Council.14
93. The aim of the flow work was to
develop a rheological test (or tests) so as to be
able to ensure that a grout has the optimum
flow characteristics (rheology) to fill a duct. To
investigate the effects of grout rheology, a test
rig was constructed in which undulating ducts
of length up to 8 m and containing prestressing
strands could be grouted. The grouts were
prepared in a site-type grout mixer, and about
17 duct simulations were injected.
94. From this work, it was concluded that
grout rheology is not the prime control on duct
filling. Grouting procedure and, in particular,
duct venting were found to be of much greater
significance. In the simulations, grout was
injected from one end of the ducts, as would be
the usual practice on site. It was found that as
the grout was injected, it would satisfactorily
fill sections of the duct where the flow was
upwards. However, where the flow was
downwards, the grout flow would no longer
occupy the full cross-section of the duct but
would break away and run down to the next
low point where it would build up and trap a
void, as shown in Fig. 20. Clearly, break-away
from full duct flow will be more likely to occur
with thin grouts; and it had been hoped that if
a sufficiently stiff grout were used, it could be
squeezed along the duct rather like toothpaste,
and that the flow would continue to fill the full
duct cross-section even in the downward flow
limbs. However, break-away was found to occur
with all the grouts tested, including the stiffest
grout that could be pumped. It was concluded
that if there is injection from one end only and
if there is no intermediate venting system, then
there is no possibility of filling the whole of an
undulating duct.
95. If vents are not used, the grouting may
be improved by injection from both ends so that
all sections of the duct are subjected to upward
flow at some stage of the injection process.
Substantial quantities of grout must be passed
through the duct to ensure that all trapped air
is discharged. This may seem wasteful but the
cost of this grout will be trivial in comparison
to the cost of the structure. Grouting from both
ends may require a grout mixing plant at each
end of the duct.
96. Gas expansive admixtures are often
suggested as a means of preventing voids in
ducts. However, we never managed successfully
to fill a duct using a gas expansive agent.
During injection, one gets exactly the same
voids in the downward flow limbs as with
337
DISCUSSION
Fig. 20. Duct injected
with 0.45
waterlcement ratio
grout ; no venting
(Note bleed channel
shown in Detail 2)
1 2 3 4
4
\
normal grouts and there are further
complications in that the gas expansion can
blow channels in the grout as the gas pressure
dissipates into voids or to vents (see Fig. 21). It
should be noted that if a gas expansive agent is
to do anything, then the grout has to be able to
expand, and therefore there has to be some
venting. Gas expansive agents must be used
with great care and the amount of expansion
must be very carefully regulated. Such
materials have a special role in some grouting
operations but they cannot fill bulk voids left
by poor injection practice.
97. If vents are used to prevent voids then
positioning is important. The obvious location
is at the crowns (high points) of an undulating
duct. However, it was found that vents at the
crowns were not sufficient as they tended to get
blocked by the local grout flow. It was
necessary to include a second vent part way
down each descending limb (descending in the
direction of flow). The crown vent is to be
opened only when a significant quantity of
air-free grout has been allowed to discharge
from the downstream vent. It is still necessary
to vent substantial amounts of grout, and a
total discharge quantity of at least one duct
volume should be specified.
98. The ideal situation with regard to grout
injection in the duct is aways to grout from low
i. : , :
1 2
points to adjacent high points so as to ensure
that there is never downward flow. However,
installing the necessary injection points and
injecting from them can present severe
practical difficulties.
Grouts for prestressing tendons: prEN 445:
Test methods;15 prENV 446: Grouting
procedures;6 prEN 447: Specification f or
common grout. These standards include two
rheological tests. The first is a simple funnel
test. The funnel and test procedure are
specified but any funnel should be used with
caution for there are very many different
funnels and test procedures. To avoid
confusion any funnel results are being reported,
the following details should be included: the
quantity of grout put in the funnel; the
quantity of grout discharged; the diameter of
the funnel orifice; the flow time for water. prEN
447 specifies a flow time of <25 S ( <50 S for
high shear mixed grout) for grout before
injection into the duct, and >10 S for the grout
discharged from the duct; 10-50 S is
practically the useful range of the funnel. With
water, the flow time is of order 6 S ; if the grout
flow time goes much beyond 50 S, flow may
stop before the specified quantity has been
discharged.
100. The other test procedure in the
99. There are now three draft standards for
%.,.....
3 4 5
Fig. 21. Duct injected
with 0.38
waterlcement ratio
grout containing a
gas expansive
admixture; single
limited vent at crown
(Note channel created
by gas escape)
Slit at crown
for venting /
338
9579
standard is one that is less widely known-the
Otto Graf plunger or Immersion test. The
apparatus consists of a vertical tube in which a
close fitting bullet shaped plunger can work.
The clearance beween tube and plunger is 1.9
mm. In the test, the tube is filled to a prescribed
level with grout and the plunger is inserted into
the grout. The plunger is then released and the
time for it to fall 0.5 m is recorded. The test
appears to be suitable only for superplasticized
grouts. With normal grouts (unless of
unacceptably high water/cement ratio), the flow
time is very extended. The standard suggests a
range of 30-80 S (30-200 S for high sheared
mixes). Again, this is very much the useful
range of the instrument.
101. A problem with all rheological tests
was found to be that few tests suitable for use
on site have a significant dynamic range. Tests
almost have to be designed to suit individual
grouts. Therefore, with the prEN 445 funnel or
immersion test, flow may stop before the
specified end point, even with grouts that are
satisfactory for injection.
102. The source of the cement, the shear
level during mixing, the mix time and the batch
size can all cause substantial changes in
rheology. Therefore, if rheology is to be used as
a control parameter, then it is crucial that the
same cement and mix procedure are used
throughout the works and also in any pre-
works trials. In the work at Queen Mary and
Westfield College, three cements taken from
different works around the country were tested;
all could be classified as ordinary Portland
cement to BS 12. However, they showed
dramatically different rheologies: e.g. the
funnel flow times ranged from almost the time
for water to no flow at all.
103. Not only is rheology of limited
significance for duct filling but it is also a poor
indicator of the all important parameter-
water/cement ratio. For this, much more
reliable data can be obtained from density
measurements-although a relatively precise
measurement system is required.
104. There is also the problem of bleed once
the duct has been filled with grout. Grouts are
of necessity very porous systems (to make them
pumpable), and the solids will tend to settle and
so expel bleed water. For example, a 0.3
water/cement ratio grout has a volumetric
water content of the order of 50O/ o (' I.e. a
porosity of 50%) and would bleed very
substantially if it did not set.
using the self-weight consolidation theory
developed for soils. From this it can be shown
that the drainage path length is of critical
importance. In a vertical duct without a tendon
the drainage path length will be the height of
the duct, and almost no bleed may occur before
set. However, if there is a tendon, it can act as a
105. The bleeding of grouts can be modelled
drain and the consolidation will be radial with
a very short drainage path, and so substantial
bleed may occur. In trials with a 0.4
water/cement ratio grout in a 6 m vertical duct
without a tendon, the bleed was about 4 mm,
but with an unsealed tendon the bleed was 300
mm. Therefore, when laboratory bleed test
results are being related to full-scale ducts, it is
important to keep in mind that changes in
drainage can cause very substantial changes in
bleed. For critical situations, the duct drainage
conditions should be simulated in the
laboratory.
106. It should be remembered that if bleed
water is seen dripping from a tendon after the
completion of grout injection, then a void must
be developing in the duct.
D. I. Cooper, Flint and Neill Partnership
Unbonded or poorly bonded tendons seem to
give weaker but more ductile structures. Do the
Authors believe that this might be a useful
characteristic resulting from poor quality
construction, particularly as proper grouting is
seen to be so important?
A. C. E. Sandberg, Messrs Sandberg
I remember discussions on the mechanism that
could cause failure under no live load. Were
there any conclusions in this respect?
109. Although perhaps not part of the
Paper, any developments in methods of
detection of corroded tendons would be of great
interest to all.
Dr J. Manning, Messrs Sandberg
For many years, the phenomenon of brittle
fracture of high strength wires used for
prestressing strands has been questioned as a
quantifiable risk of failure for prestressed
concrete, and has been dismissed.
Investigations into the more common
occurrence of brittle fracture of strands when
used for ground anchors has perhaps thrown
light on why, in spite of metallurgists'
predictions, this occurrence is rare for bridges.
Experimental work conducted on ground
anchors in a marine environment grouted with
epoxy resin reproduced chemical conditions
which were conducive to brittle fracture (by
stress corrosion cracking) and the influence of
small quantities of particular chemicals had a
marked effect on the time (from a few months
to up to 30 years) and mechanism by which
failure occurred.
111. The factor having most influence was,
however, the stress level in the tendons, and
brittle fracture could not be reproduced below a
stress of 50-55% of ultimate tensile strength.
Losses in prestressing tendons due to friction,
relaxation of steel, creep of concrete, anchorage
slip normally results in a final long-term stress
level of this order, whereas short ground
339
DISCUSSION
anchor tendons generally maintain higher
levels in a potentially more aggressive
environment. There may well be a case,
therefore, for limiting final stress levels for
both prestressing tendons and ground anchors
to eliminate the risk of sudden failure of
individual wires. Sustaining the tendon force
rather than consideration of stress levels in
individual wires usually influences stiffeners of
the prestressed member. However, corrosion of
individual wires could result in transfer of
stress to a reduced area and hydrogen
embrittlement.
112. The relationship between chemical
environment, stress level and potential for
brittle fracture needs further investigation.
R. F. Barker, Member
The Authors conclude that deformation
characteristics associated with gradual loss of
tendon area offer no observable warning of
impending failure. I am not convinced.
114. By and large, I do not feel that the
load/deflection information obtained by testing
the edge beams has, or is likely, to provide an
insight into the deflection characteristics of the
inner beams during gradual corrosion of the
tendons. The internal deck did not fail under
applied external load. Rather, effective tendon
areas were reduced until the deck was no longer
able to support its own weight.
115. Would it not have been possible to
monitor the beams deflection profile during the
progressive remote cutting of tendon wires, or
to simulate such conditions with scale models?
116. At failure, the prestressing forces will
have been largely dissipated and it seems
reasonable to expect that some, if not all, of the
prestressing deflection (hog) will have been
lost. The question is: Can one expect a trained
Inspector to observe this? .
117. To develop this notion further, the
extent to which prestress will have been
dissipated at failure needs to be assessed. This
can be estimated by equating the residual
stress capacity in the remaining tendon wires
to that attributable to self weight, with the
beam now acting as a reinforced concrete
member rather than as a prestressed concrete
member.
118. This type of exercise indicates that
some two thirds of effective tendon area will
have been lost at failure.
119. Midspan deflections (of the order of)
can be summarized as follows
those attributable to final
prestress +60 mm
those attributable to self weight -30 mm
Residual +30 mm
those attributable to loss of
prestresses 2/3 X 60 -40 mm
Residual at failure -10 mm
120. Changes in soffit profile of this order
are detectable by eye, particularly in
foreshortened views, and also by using precise
levelling techniques.
121. In this particular case, the relationship
between inner beams and edge beams will have
provided a further reference point.
122. The Paper gives little information on
the beams which actually failed: i.e. the
internal beams. Was the extent of wire
corrosion observed, and did the transverse
tendons have any influence other than to ensure
the failure of the entire internal deck rather
than of a single beam? Presumably, the
transverse tendons did not extend to the edge
beams?
Authors reply
MY Andrews asks for our views on the risks we
are running with segmental bridges which are
not designed to have a minimum compression
of at least 1.5 N/mm2 across the joints under
service loads. Much was made of this point
when the original paper on the collapse of
Ynys-y-Gwas bridge was presented to the ICE.
It was pointed out then that whether or not a
structure complies with this rule in design is
dependent on the loads and effects which are
considered in the calculations: for example,
whether or not they include differential
temperature, shrinkage, etc., and what live load
is taken as the service load. Therefore, whether
a structure is designed for no tension or a
minimum compression, 1.5 N/mmz makes little
difference because the actual stress could vary
by a much greater amount. So while a minimum
compression would appear to give better
protection against ingress of chlorides, it
should not be relied on.
124. With regard to Mr Andrews second
question, we do not believe it is safe to assume
that problems occur only with structures that
are somewhat unusual in design. All structures
have a degree of uniqueness, but there is no
evidence that seemingly normal structures
are immune from problems.
125. Mr Williams asks how the loop
displayed in the moment deflection graph in
Fig. 4 is possible. After the deflection had
reached 180 mm, the jacks were retracted and
the beam left overnight, leaving a small load
locked in the beam; the deflection recovered
only 50 mm. The load was reapplied the
following morning, thus producing the loop.
widths displayed in Fig. 7 for beam A are
greater at joints 5/6 and 6/7 than at joint 3/4
where the failure occured. The failure of this
beam was attributed to the simultaneous
fracture of tendons in the bottom flange of the
box, and the low maximum deflection of 105
mmwas attributable to a high bond stress
between the tendons and the grout. On account
126. MY Williams also asks why the crack
340
9579
of the high bond stress, the strain was localized
to the joint which therefore opened less than
the other two joints in the constant moment
region. With regard to beam B, we agree with
Mr Williams that the opening of the joints was
a function of the amount of debonding that was
taking place. Indeed, there was considerable
creaking as the beam was deflected beyond the
maximum load, and this was thought to be
attributable to debonding of the tendons.
in $ 79, and note that they are similar to the
procedure adopted by the Department of
Transport in their draft Advice Note on ' The
planning organisation and methods for
carrying out for special inspections '.
128. Both Mr Williams and Mr Sandberg
refer to the need for methods for detecting
corroded tendons. Many of the methods used to
assess the corrosion risk in reinforced concrete
can be applied to post-tensioned concrete to
give an indication of the risk of corrosion in the
vicinity of the duct. However, it is much more
difficult to assess the risk of corrosion of
tendons. It is not possible to make surface
measurements of their electrode potential in
lined ducts as they are screened by the metal
sheathing. For unlined ducts it is not possible
to determine whether the potentials measured
are those of the tendons or secondary
reinforcement, unless holes are drilled to allow
measurements to be made adjacent to the
tendons. Another problem is that where there
are voids, there is no continuity of the
electrolyte.
129. There are no NDT methods that can
reliably detect corrosion. Radiography might
detect fractures or serious loss of section if a
radiograph was taken in the right place. The
French have developed a radiographic
technique that can scan along tendons and
inspect them in real time. While this is an
improvement on existing techniques, the
number of structures that are suitable for this
technique is limited by geometrical and safety
considerations, and the number of positions at
which radiographs can be taken are limited by
geometry. Radar can be used to locate metal
ducts but cannot penetrate the sheathing. It can
inspect tendons in unlined ducts but interpre-
tation is difficult. Ultrasonic methods might be
used to detect wire fractures near an anchorage
but require good access to the anchorage. There
are a number of other methods which it is
claimed can be used to detect voids and
corrosion, but none that have been proven in
service.
or not the study has contradicted the usual
understanding that structures with unbonded
tendons have a lower ultimate bending capacity
than that of their bonded counterparts. The
purpose of the model was to investigate the
127. We agree with Mr Williams' comments
130. Mr Low is right in questioning whether
load-deflection characteristics of the beam.
The Fig. 14 graphs were plotted to investigate
the effect of bond strength on the shape of the
moment-deflection curve (see $ 37), not to
calculate the ultimate bending capacity of the
beam. The unbonded case was run to give the
limiting lowest bond strength case and the
failure criterion was based solely on the steel
strain reaching a predetermined level.
131. In $38, it is noted that a higher bond
results in a shorter transfer length. This means
the change in length of the tendon across a
joint is carried on a shorter length of tendon as
the bond strength increases. For an unbonded
tendon, the local change in length at a joint is
dissipated over the total length of the tendon,
resulting in a much smaller increase in strain
than for bonded tendons. Fig. 14 therefore
shows that the ultimate bending capacity
of the beam with an unbonded tendon, based
only on a limiting steel strain criterion, is
higher than that of a beam with a bonded
tendon.
132. If the model had been established to
investigate the ultimate bending capacity of
beams with unbonded tendons, it would have
taken into account the differences in behaviour
between beams with bonded and unbonded
tendons. Additional characteristics such as the
friction between the duct and the tendon and
the different development of cracking in the
beam due to the lack of bond would have been
incorporated. It is likely that an appropriate
model would have confirmed conventional
wisdom.
that the debonding of a fractured tendon in a
fully grouted duct may produce longitudinal
cracking on either side of the fracture.
However, this does not affect the principal
conclusion of the Paper that localized corrosion
that has not caused actual failure of wires or
tendons is essentially undetectable by
measurement of deflection, joint opening and
cracking.
134. We agree that it would be unwise to
rely on the assumption that the onset of
non-linear behaviour occurs when there is zero
compressive stress in the soffit. The method
used was to detect joint opening on the second
loading cycle, although this was only one of
several methods used to estimate the
prestressing force in the tendon.
135. We would endorse Dr Jeffeeris's
comments on the difficulty of ensuring that
ducts are fully grouted. However, fully grouted
ducts will not guarantee protection against
corrosion. Grout is only one link in the chain. It
is necessary to ensure that chlorides cannot
enter the ducts, and this necessitates paying
proper attention to details such as the integrity
of the waterproofing, protection at the
anchorages and ensuring that there are no
133. We agree with Dr Linsell's observation
341
DISCUSSION
paths within the structure which might allow
chlorides to gain access to the ducts.
136. MY Barkers assertion that loss of
prestress would give rise to changes in the
soffit profile that could be detected by eye, or
by precise levelling, is correct where tendons
are ungrouted. However, where ducts are well
grouted, the loss of prestressing force will be
localized to the section at which corrosion is
occurring and there will be no measurable
change in deflection.
137. MY Coopers suggestion that the more
ductile behaviour of poorly grouted structures
is a useful characteristic might apply if the
grouting and degree of bond could be quan-
tified by inspection. However, if the degree of
bond is unknown, then absence of deflections
does not give assurance that there has been no
loss of prestress.
138. MY Sandberg and MY Barker both ask
about the collapse mechanism for Ynys-y-Gwas
Bridge. This was not addressed in the Paper.
However, the small deflections resulting from
localized corrosion might explain why no
evidence of distress was observed before
collapse. As for there not being a vehicle on the
structure when it collapsed, it should be
remembered that failure of concrete beams can
take several minutes. Therefore, if a vehicle
had initiated a collapse, it would have been on
the bridge only for a few seconds and could
have been some distance away when the
collapse occurred.
risk of stress corrosion. To our knowledge,
139. Dr Manning is concerned about the
stress corrosion of post-tensioned tendons is
not regarded as a problem in grouted ducts in
the UK. Where failures have been reported
abroad, it is usually either because the tendons
were left stressed and unprotected for long
periods or because of the use of quenched and
tempered steel which is more susceptible to
stress corrosion.
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