Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014

Foundations of Chemistry I
Chapter 5.1-5.2
5.1 Energy
5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy: the ability to do work or transfer/supply heat

• Energy used to cause an object that has mass to move is called _____________
• Energy used to cause the temperature of an object to rise is called ______________
• Units: SI unit of energy is the joule (J), but kilojoules (kJ) are often used
• 1J=1
• 1  calorie  (cal)  =  4.184  J  (joule);  “energy  needed  to  heat  1  g  of  H2O from 14.5 C to 15.5 C”                      
• 1 dietary calorie (Cal) = 1000 cal = 1 kcal

Thermodynamics: study of energy and its ________________________ from one form to another in
___________________________________

Thermochemistry: the field of thermodynamics applied to the _______________________________________ during

chemical reactions
• Thermodynamic State (Macroscale): a description of a system in terms of macroscopic variables like
_________________________________________________________
• Molecular State (Microscale): a description of a system in terms of the properties of its molecules like
________________________________________________________

Kinetic Energy (Ek): energy an object possesses by virtue of its ___________________

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
Examples:
• Mechanical: motion of macroscale objects; _______________________________________
• Thermal: random motion of nanoscale objects; ______________________________________
• Acoustic: periodic motion of nanoscale objects; _______________________________________

___ C3H5N3O9 (l) ___ N2 (g) + ___ CO (g) + ___ H2O (g) + ___ O2 (g) + ______________________________________
Kinetic energy associated with motions of molecules – which, in this case, are so violent that they result in a shock wave!

Example: calculate the kinetic energy (in J) of a 25.0 kg mass moving at 1.78 (~4 mph).

Potential Energy (Ep): energy an object possesses by virtue of its _______________________________ (bond energies);
______________________________ due to _________________________________ interactions
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 9.81 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚

Gussenhoven 1 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
• Most important form of Ep in molecules is electrostatic potential energy (Eel) between two interacting
objects with electrical charges (Q1 & Q2)
. ×
𝐸 = =

Examples:
• Gravitational: objects that are held in a hand are attracted to the floor by gravitational force
• Electrostatic: _________ charged particles _____________, __________________ charged particles
______________ in ionic compounds
• Chemical: ________________________ between atoms in molecular compounds

Energy: can be converted from one type to another

Example: cyclist _______________________________ (sitting on top of the hill); potential energy is converted to
____________________________ as speed increases (coasting to bottom of hill)
Example: describe the energy transformations at each step in the diving photos
a) Diver has ___________________________________ due to macroscale position
b) Converts _________________________ to macroscale ______________________________
c) Converts ___________________ kinetic energy to __________________ kinetic energy by
_______________________________ from __________________ to the _______________________

Gussenhoven 2 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014

System: ____________________________________;
The part of the universe under study like __________________________
H2(g) and O2(g) in closed system
• Equilibrium: all macroscopic properties (P, V, T) are _______________________
unchanging in time and remain so even if
the system is disconnected from the surroundings
• Steady State: properties are unchanging but must have a ____________
flow in and out of
energy and/or matter
___________________________________
Surroundings: _____________________________________________;
The rest of the universe outside the system like ______________________
cylinder and piston in closed system
Universe: _____________________________________
system + surroundings

mass and energy

energy exchanged neither energy nor mass
Work (w): a mechanical process that transfers energy to or from an object (_________________________________);
a directed energy change
energy used to _____________________________________________________
move an object against a resisting force (F) over some distance (d) traveled
𝑤 =𝐹×𝑑
Gussenhoven 3 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
Example: describe  what  happens  to  work  and  energy  below…  

You do work against G

potential energy converts into
kinetic energy
No work is done on
the floor (it doesnt
move)

expands or contracts
Chemical processes: work occurs whenever something _________________________
(pushes/pulls on surrounding air)
Example: what happens if the gas inside a balloon is heated?

Gas expands and balloon grows; gas

does work pushing back the rubber
and air outside it

molecular/atomic/ionic motion
Thermal Energy: kinetic energy of _________________________________, measured by finding the
temperature
_________________________ of an object
• Higher Temperatures = ______________________________
faster motion
thermal energy
Temperature (T): measure of the __________________________ of a sample
Heat (q): the amount of thermal energy transferred from one object to another
between the system and surroundings
(__________________________________________) temperature difference
as the result of a __________________________ between the two

Example: explain how a thermometer works when the temperature of water is monitored as the water and Hg are
heated by a burner
• Temperature: _________________________________________________________________________
increases and atoms move faster and become farther apart
• Volume: _______________________________________________________________
of the material increases
of liquid in column increases (Hg^)
• Length: _____________________________________________________________

hotter
Heat flow: direction of energy transfer is from ______________ colder
to ______________ objects until they reach thermal
equal temperature
equilibrium (_______________________________)

Gussenhoven 4 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
Example: looking at the photos below, describe what is going on in terms of heat and temperature as a bar of iron is
warmed and then placed in the beaker of water

created or destroyed
Law of Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be _______________________________; it can only be
converted
___________________ from one form to another; the total energy of the universe is constant
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 2.99 × 10
• Internal Energy (E): transferred from (or to) the ______________________ system must be equal to that lost
surroundings
(or gained) by the _______________________; the capacity to ________________________________ supply heat (q) or do work (w)
∆𝐸                                               =                              𝑞                                             +                                          𝑤
heat exchange work done
energy

Internal Energy (E): sum of all kinetic and potential energies of all system components (every molecule or ion)
• Change in Internal Energy (ΔE): final energy of the system minus the initial energy of the system
∆𝐸 = 𝐸 −𝐸
• If ΔE > 0, then Efinal > Einitial
• Endergonic: the ______________________________
system absorbed energy in the form of work
from the surroundings
___________________________; non-spontaneous process
• If ΔE < 0, then Efinal < Einitial
• Exergonic: the ________________________
system released energy to the surroundings
in the form of work ________________________;
spontaneous process

Gussenhoven 5 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
Example: 802 kJ is released when 1 mol of methane (CH4) reacts with 2 mol of oxygen (O2) to produce 1 mol of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and 2 mol of water (H2O)
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) 802 KJ energy
CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g) + ____________________________
∆𝐸 = 𝐸 −𝐸 = −𝟖𝟎𝟐  𝐤𝐉
-802 KJ

Heat transfer processes:

• Endothermic (q > 0): heat (thermal energy) is ______________________________
absorbed by the system surroundings
from the _______________
Example:

• released
Exothermic (q < 0): heat is _______________________ (given off) by the system into the surroundings
Example: steam condenses: H2O(g) -> H2O(l)

Gussenhoven 6 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
Example: calculate ΔE for a system in which 462 J of work is done when a gas is compressed, and 128 J of heat is
transferred to the surroundings
work done on a system = +462J
heat released to the surroundings = exothermic = -128J
Delta E = (-128J) + (+462J) = +334J

Final internal energy of the gas is ____________________

greater particles are moving faster in the final state
(____________________________________________)
entered the system through work departed as heat flow
because more energy ________________________________ than _____________________________

Practice: a mixture of H2 and N2 has a higher internal energy than a sample of NH3. Determine the sign of the ΔE
(change in internal energy) in the following reactions:
∆𝐸 = 𝐸 −𝐸

Delta E = E(final) - E(initial) < 0 Delta E = E(final) - E(initial) > 0

Problem: identify the system, surroundings, and signs of quantity of energy transferred by heating/cooling (q) and/or
quantity of energy transferred by work done on the system (wsystem)
System Surroundings q or w
• Metal feels cold to the touch: metal hand q>0
• Cup of hot coffee cools: coffee cup/air q<0
• Crane lifts a pallet of pallet of marshmellows crane w > 0
marshmallows against gravity:
• Air pushes outwards on the walls air balloon w<0
of a balloon as it inflates:

Practice: It takes 1.5 kJ to raise the T of a can of Coke from 25.0°C to 26.0°C. The can of Coke is then placed in the
refrigerator and cooled from 25.0°C to 1.0°C.
• What quantity of heat transfer is required (in kJ)?
1C - 25C = -24C ∆T =  T −T = 1.0℃ − 25.0℃ = −24℃  
1.5  kJ
q = (-24C)(1.5KJ/1C) = -36KJ released to the surroundings
q = (−24℃) = −𝟑𝟔  𝐤𝐉  𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐝  𝐭𝐨  𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬
1℃
• What  constitutes  the  “system”  and  the  “surroundings”  in  the  question?
can and coke
system = __________________________ air around the can
surroundings = ____________________________
• What is the value of the internal energy change (ΔE) for the cooling of the Coke?
∆E = q + w =  (−36  kJ) + (0  kJ) = −𝟑𝟔  𝐤𝐉

Gussenhoven 7 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
Practice: The internal energy decreases by 2400 J, when a mixture of H2 and O2 gases is ignited and burns. If the
surroundings are heated by 1.89 kJ, how much work was done on this system?
∆E = q + w              𝑠𝑜              ww== ∆E − qE - q
delta
Cooling  the  system … heat  transfers  out  from  system  to  surroundings,
cooling the system… heat transfers out from system to surroundings, so q < 0  so  q < 0  
1000  J
w = (−2400  J) − (−1.89  kJ) = −𝟓𝟏𝟎  𝐉
w = (-2400J) - (-1.89KJ)(1000J/1KJ) = -510J 1  kJ

Practice: a system does 50.2 J of work on its surroundings and there is a simultaneous 90.1 J heat transfer from the
surroundings  to  the  system.    What  is  ΔEsystem?

Internal Energy of the System (ΔEsys): usually we have no way of finding this value because it is too complex a problem
• We do know it is ___________________________________
independent of the path by which the system achieved that state;
_ΔEsystem depends only on Einitial and Efinal_
State Function: property of a system that is determined by its present state or condition and not how the condition was
created
• Examples:    pressure  (P),  volume  (V),  temperature  (T),  &  internal  energy  (E)…anything  with  a    
state  function  change  (Δ)  like  ___________________________
delta T = T(final) - T(initial)

altitude difference
Example: the ___________________________ between  Denver  and  Chicago  doesn’t  
depend on how you get there (fly, drive, train); the altitude only depends on the
_______________________________________________
elevation of the cities above sea level

internal energy
Example: the __________________________ of 50 g of H2O (l) at 25°C does not depend on
cool heat
whether we ____________ 50 g of H2O (l) at 100°C, or we _______________ 50 g of H2O (l)
at 0°C.

heat (q) and work (w)

NON-State Functions: __________________________________ are path-
dependent and are NOT state functions because they are only
manifested during a process/reaction
________________________________________________
• Whether the battery is shorted out or is discharged by running
the fan, its internal energy difference (ΔE) is the same, but heat
(q) and work (w) are different in each case

volume change
Expansion Work: work done as the result of a ____________________________
in  the  system;  also  known  as  “pressure-volume”  or  “PV  work”
• Open container: only work done is by a __________________________________________________________
gas pushing on the surroundings (or by the surroundings pushing on
the gas)
_________________________________________
• We can measure the work done by the gas if the reaction is done in a vessel that has been fitted with a piston
𝑤 = −𝑃∆𝑉 = −𝑃 𝑉 −𝑉

Gussenhoven 8 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014

1L * atm = 101.3J
1L * 1bar = 100J

w = –Pexternal ΔV            =            –Pexternal (Vfinal – Vinitial)

Units: (J) (bar) (Liters) Δ =  “change  in”  =  final  – initial
100J
Conversions: 1 (L bar) = ________________
• Expansion (ΔV > 0): work done ___________
by on
the system _____________ the surroundings
• w = ______________________
negative(-)
• Compression (ΔV < 0): work done _____________
on by
the system ______________ the surroundings
• w = ____________________
positive(+)
Example: a gas expands from 264 mL to 971 mL at a constant temperature. Calculate the work done in Joules by the
gas if it expands (a) against a vacuum and (b) against a pressure of 4.00 bar.

(a) V(initial) = 0.264L V(final) = .971L

Delta V = 0.707L

w = -P Delta V = -(0 bar)(0.707L) = 0L bar (100J/1L bar) = 0J

(b)

Irreversible: process run in the ______________

forward will not
direction ______________ exact opposite
be the ______________________ of the
reverse
process run in the ___________________ direction
• Pexternal ≠  Psystem

Gussenhoven 9 | Page
Old Dominion University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry CHEM 121N – Fall 2014
slowly
Reversible: process that proceeds so ________________ system and surroundings
that the ___________________________________ remain
close to _____________________;
equilibrium forward will be
process run in the _________________ direction ______________ the
exact opposite
______________________________ reverse
of the process run in the ____________________ direction

-
ΔVcompression (______) +
= –ΔVexpansion (_________)
Pext + 5 weights > Pext + 4 weights

work done by gas

Expansion (remove weight): __________________________________
w(5 4) = –Pext,4 ΔVexpansion

work done on gas

Contraction (add weight back): _________________________________
w(4 5) = +Pext,5 ΔVcompression

w(5 4)  ≠  w(4 5)
Irreversible process: requires more work to compress the gas because
Pcompressed gas > Pexpanded gas

Example: calculate the work in kJ done during a synthesis of ammonia from its elements in which the volume contracts
from 8.6 L to 4.3 L at a constant external pressure of 44 atm. Write a balanced chemical reaction. Which direction does
the work energy flow? What is the sign of the energy change? Helpful conversions: 1 atm = 1.01325 bar; 1 L bar = 100
J; 1 L atm = 101.325 J

Isothermal: process that takes place at ___________________________

• Temperature changes the ____________________ of molecules, but does not change the
___________________ of an ideal gas because they have ___________________________________
• ΔT = _____, so ΔE = _____ (for an ideal gas)

Isobaric: process that takes place at ____________________________

• Common in chemistry where reactions are open to _______________________________________
• ΔP = _____

Isochoric: process that takes place at ______________________

• ΔV = ____
• When only _________________________ is possible: w = –Pext ΔV = ________________ = ______
• Heat evolved equals __________________________: ΔE = q + w = _________________ = ________

Adiabatic: process where _____________________________ is zero

• q = ______
• ______________________________ system that allows only for work to be ___________________________:
ΔE = q + w = _____________ = __________ w  =  (+)  =  “done  on system”  
w = (–)  =  “done  by system”

Gussenhoven 10 |
Page