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dt e t x f X
t j
) ( ) (
where t is time, f is frequency, = 2f and 1 = j , x
represents signal in the time region and X represents
signal in the frequency region. The signal does not
change in time.
In the case of the unsteady signals, the frequency is
variable. We must adapt FT to analyze signal in the
small section of the time only. A this technique is called
the windowing of the signal, Short-Time Fourier
Transform (STFT). Mathematically:
,
dt e t w t x f STFT
t j
)] ( ) ( [ ) , (
where w is a window size function and is a time
shift. STFT represents a sort of compromise between
the time- and frequency-based views of a signal. The
precision is determined by the size of the window.
The Wavelet Transform (WT) does not process of
signal in the time-frequency region as STFT, but it
processes it in the time-scale region. One of the main
advantages of this processing is the fact, that it is
possible to perform a local analysis. That is, to analyze a
localized area of a larger signal. In comparison with the
STFT the window size could be changed during
analysis. Mathematically:
, ( )
=
dt t s t f s C , , ) ( ) , (
where C are coefficients of CWT, s is scale, t is time,
is time shift and represents a wavelet function.
The wavelet functions are unstable signals (wavelets)
and the coefficients represent their modifications. We
use several families of wavelets (Haar, Daubechies,
Biorthogfonal, Symlets and the others). Their variability
is very advantageous for the processing of unsteady
signal, e.g. for evaluation of PD signals. It could detect
signal changes and other variability. That is why the
WT is the best for PD signal analysis.
IV. RECOGNITION OF PD PATTERNS
The neural network [15] based on the empty expert
system named Neurex 5.1 was developed for the
recognition PD-patterns. This neural network was
trained by means of the software generator named GCV
(PD-generator). Two kinds of training set were created
by means of the GCV. The first one was the training set
with fixed values and the second one was with interval
values of input parameters. Both training sets have eight
final elements in the output layer, according to the basic
PD-patterns. We developed three versions of neural
network and six neural networks for training (three
versions with two kinds of training sets).
Testing set with sixteen elements was also created by
the GCV. None element from the training set was
accepted in the testing set.
After training procedure, all developed neural
networks were tested. Four training sets was acceptable,
two training sets (A-A and B-A) were unacceptable for
the neural network in the consultation mode. Variants
A, B and C are different by the count of neurons in
inner layers. Variant marked A-B has 25 neurons in
inner layer and it has the training set marked B (fixed
values). Training set A is with interval values. Variant B
has 100-25 and C has 100 neurons in the inner layer. All
our developed neural networks have three layers only.
After testing procedure we selected variant C-B for
the using in the neuron expert system, because it has the
best testing results. Training set A has not so acceptable
for this purpose.
Measuring data was then put into graph (see Fig. 1 and
2), where we can compare characteristics of tested
calibrators.
V. PD CALIBRATION
Calibration levels of 5000 and 10000 pC
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0
1
0
2
0
5
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
Loading capacitance [pF]
C
a
l
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
c
h
a
r
g
e
[
p
C
]
G6-6
G6-7
G3
TETTEX
PD measurement is the comparative measurement
and that is why that result of whole measurement
depends considerably on the calibration of measuring
devices and measuring circuits. Nevertheless at the
moment calibration is unjustly underrated in practice.
The newly released IEC 60270 introduces many new
requirements for PD measuring systems and related
calibrators. Calibrator consists of generator producing
pulses of voltage of the amplitude U
0
connected in
series with capacitor C
0
. Charge of calibration pulses q
0
then equals q
0
=U
0
C
0
.
Accuracy of measurement depends on the accuracy of
calibrators and we have to carry out operational test.
These tests have to be carried out because of
determination and keeping of characteristics of
calibrators.
Fig. 2. Calibration levels of 5000 and 10000 pC.
Alternative method: The output of calibrator is loaded
by the resistance R
m
. The output voltage u
m
(t) measured
on R
m
is monitored by the digital scope. This scope must
have the bandwidth greater or equal than 50 MHz. The
value of R
m
should be chosen between 50 and 200 .
Operational test from the newly released IEC 60270
consists of:
Charge of calibrator q
0
for all setting of calibrator,
with an uncertainty within 5% (or 1 pC whichever
the greater).
Charge q generated by the calibrator then is:
( ) ( ) dt t u
R
dt t i q
m
m
=
=
1
, Rise time t
r
of voltage U
0
, with an uncertainty within
10%. Rise time must be less than 60 ns (t
r
< 60 ns).
where i(t) is current impulse generated by the
calibrator and u
m
(t) is voltage impulse measured by the
scope.
Following calibrators were tested:
Calibrator TETTEX, type 9216, range 10 pC
10 000 pC.
In the High Voltage Laboratory of CTU FEE in
Prague we measured the characteristics of commercial
calibrators by using the alternative method [15]. The
digital scope LeCroy 9350 with bandwidth 500 MHz
was used, which satisfied SN EN 60270. The values of
R
m
used for loading of the calibrators output were 5000,
1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 .
Calibrator developed in the Research Laboratory of
the CTU, Faculty of Electrical Engineering in
Podebrady, type G6-6 (1993), range 5 pC
10 000 pC.
Calibrator developed in the Research Laboratory of
the CTU, Faculty of Electrical Engineering in
Podebrady, type G6-8 (1998), range 10 pC 25 000
pC, impulse frequency 50 Hz, 100 Hz, 1 Hz or
5 kHz switchable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Calibration levels of 500 and 1000 pC
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
1
0
2
0
5
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
Loading capacitance [pF]
C
a
l
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
c
h
a
r
g
e
[
p
C
]
G6-6
G6-7
G3
TETTEX
BIDDLE
This research is financially supported by the
Department of Electroenergetics of the CTU and by the
Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (grant No.
102/02/0105).
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th
International
Conference Dielectric and Insulating Systems in
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ast-Pla (Slovakia), pp. 62-65.
Fig. 1. Calibration levels of 500 and 1000 pC.
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th
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rd
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