Help Sheet

Atomic Structure - Quantum Mechanics - Periodic Table

Chapter 7
Bohr Model …

Rhydberg Equation …used to determine the energy released/absorbed as an electron moves between energy levels.

 1 1 
∆E = ( 2.178 ×10 −18 J )  2 − 2  [This is NOT on the AP Handout!]
n n 
 i f 

Quantum Numbers… these give the orbital location and energy level of a given electron.

Number Name Description Meaning Mathematics

n Principle energy level n= n= 1,2,3,4,…
Quantum (i.e.; Bohr’s 1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Number Theory)
l Angular general l = s, p, d, f l = n-1
Momentum (number) shape
Quantum of the orbitals (s =0, p =1
Number d =2, f =3)
ml Magnetic 3-D orientation s=1, p=3, d=5, ml = -l to l
Quantum of the orbital f=7
Number
ms Spin spin of the clockwise or ms = +1/2
Quantum electron counter- or –1/2
Number clockwise

Ex: An electron with n, l, ml, ms = 3, 1, 0, -1/2 would be located here:

-1 0 1

3p

Orbital Diagram and Energy (electrons occupy lowest energy orbitals as possible)
Filling Order of the Orbitals … use the diagonal rule (some exceptions do occur).

1s

2s 2p Start with 1s and follow the arrows.

3s 3p 3d Maximums: s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f Example: Bromine has 35 e-‘s

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
6s 6p 6d or … [Ar]4s23d104p5
This is known as electron configuration.
7s 7p

Orbital Notation Rules …

Aufbau Principle … electrons will occupy lowest energy subshells and orbitals possible. Lowest energy
orbitals fill first (see diagrams on previous page). When all electrons are occupying lowest
possible orbitals, the atom is in its ground state.

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle … Each sub-orbital may hold 2 electrons with opposite spins.

Hund’s Rule … the lowest energy configuration maximizes the number of unpaired electrons possible in a
subshell.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Phosphorus (17 e-‘s)

Three unpaired electrons in the valence shell.

Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism …

Paramagnetic, attracted by a magnet. Diamagnetism, repelled by a magnet.

General rule: Any element with an odd-electron number must be paramagnetic.

Electron Configuration

Example: Bromine has 35 e-‘s

Electron configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5

Short hand Electron config. = [Ar]4s23d104p5

Exceptions: A d subshell that is half-filled or full (ie 5 or 10 electrons) is more stable than the s subshell of
the next shell.
Cu has a configuration of [Ar]4s1 3d10, not [Ar]4s2 3d9
Cr has a configuration of [Ar]4s1 3d5, not [Ar]4s2 3d4.

Penetration effect…
- describes why some orbitals are at higher or lower energy levels than others (Ens < Enp < End < Enf)
- the s orbital electrons spend most of a little farther from the nucleus than does a p orbital electron, however, the
s electron spends a small but very significant amount of time very close to the nucleus. Thus the s electron
penetrates to the nucleus more than a p electron and causes the s electron to be attracted more strongly to the
nucleus. The 2s is said to be more “penetrating” than the 2p, and is less shielded by the 1s electrons. As a result, the
s orbital is lower in energy than the p orbital. This is the penetration effect.
- also explains why the 4s orbital fills before 3d eventhough 4s has a higher principle quantum number.
(The 4s is more penetrating than the 3d (like 2s vs 2p))

Legal Quantum Numbers …

(4 , 1 , -2 , +1/2) legal
(5 , 4 , 3 , -1/2) legal
(2 , 2 , 1 , +1/2) illegal

Periodic Table Trends

Physical Properties …
Atomic Radius Increases as you move LEFT or DOWN
Ionic Radius Increases as you move DOWN, Small in full or ½ full orbitals
Ionization Energy Decreases as you move DOWN, High in full or ½ full orbitals
Electron Affinity Decreases as you move DOWN, High in almost full obitals, low in full
orbitals

* Periodic Trends can be explained by the level of nuclear force of attraction (effective nuclear charge)
experienced by the electrons in the outer most orbital.

Effective nuclear charge = Nuclear charge (# protons) – Electron Shield (# core electrons)
…as the effective nuclear charge increases, there is an increase in the attractive force between the nucleus and the
electrons. Thus the outermost electrons will become more attracted to the nucleus and thus “pulled” closer to the
nucleus. As a result of closer proximity to the nucleus, atomic radius decreases and energy required to remove the
outer electrons increases.

We can relate the periodic properties of atoms to the energy levels of the outermost electrons and to the “effective
nuclear charge”. These properties depend on the “pull” on the outermost electrons by the protons in the nucleus. It
is related to the force of attraction as calculated by Coulomb’s Law. The outermost electrons are both attracted to
the positive charges in the nucleus (nuclear charge) and repelled by the electrons between the outer electrons and
the nucleus (electron shielding). Some of these forces offset each other, and the outer electrons “think” they see a
smaller charge on the nucleus. This is called the “screening effect” or “shielding effect”. The inner electrons
“shield” the outer electrons from some of the attractive force of the nucleus. The smaller the effective nuclear
charge, the greater will be the size of the atom where the attractive and repulsive forces are in equilibrium,
depending on the actual energy level of the outermost electrons.

Chemical Properties …
Hydrogen Metal or a non-metal (ox. no. of +1 and –1)
Group 1A Metal w/ox. no. of +1, increase reactivity down table, Rx with water
To form H2, forms oxides or peroxides when Rx with O2
Group 2A Metal w/ox. no. of +2, react with acid to form H2, may Rx with O2
Group 3A Metal w/ox. no. of +3, reacts with Acid and O2, heavier elements
somewhat inert
Group 4A Metalloids w/ox. no. of +4 or –4, will not react with H2O, may react
with acid
Group 5A First 2 are nonmetals, later are metalloids. Wide variation with ox. no.
Group 6A First 3 are nonmetals, later are metalloids. Commonly –2 ox. no.
Very reactive with numerous compounds possible.
Group 7A Most reactive non-metals. Commonly, -1 ox. no.. React with H to form
hydrogen halides.
Group 8A Noble gases. Reactive only in extreme situations. NOT INERT.

Oxide Properties Across a Period …

Na2O Ionic, Basic
MgO Ionic, Basic
Al2O3 Ionic, Amphoteric
SiO2 Molecular, Acidic
P4O10 Molecular, Acidic
SO3 Molecular, Acidic
Cl2O7 Molecular, Acidic