Psychology 1000 Notes: Key Concepts in Cognitive, Behavioral and Cultural Perspectives

Psychology 1uuu Chaptei 1 Notes
Lulgl Calvanl performed an experlmenL wlLh frog leg and elecLrlclLy and dlscovered LhaL braln
slgnals were elecLrlcal ln naLure
-
karl Lashley creaLed leslons ln speclflc parLs of Lhe braln Lo sLudy lLs effecL on memory and
learnlng
-
!ames Clds and eLer Mllner of McClll unlverslLy dlscovered LhaL cerLaln areas of Lhe braln gave
anlmals pleasurable sensaLlons
-
LLC (1929) allowed researchers Lo measure braln acLlvlLy ln cerLaln areas of Lhe braln -
1hese are known as neurotransm|tters !
8lochemlcal research shows LhaL Lhe bralns elecLrlcal acLlvlLy ls conLrolled by chemlcals
released by nerve cells
-
!"#$%&'() %+ ,(-"./,'0-&"%1( 2'3-4"%.#
Pumans exlsL because of our ancesLors ablllLy Lo adapL Lo a changlng, hosLlle envlronmenL -
Darw|ns Lvo|ut|onary 1heory
uarwln proposed LhaL specles evolve over Llme as a response Lo envlronmenLal condlLlons ln a
process called natura| se|ect|on
-
Any lnherlLable characLerlsLlc LhaL enhances survlval wlll be malnLalned -
Pls work was lnsplred by a 3 year Lrlp Lo SouLh Amerlca and was publlshed ln hls book Cn the
Cr|g|n of Spec|es
-
Modern Lvo|ut|onary sycho|ogy
An organlsms blology deLermlnes lLs behavloural capablllLles and lLs behavlor -
Cne Lheory ls LhaL evoluLlonary pressures force human belngs Lo learn, Lhlnk, reason, and
soclallze more effecLlvely
-
1hls lncludes aggresslon, compeLlLlon, and domlnance ln males
lL sLaLes LhaL behavlor LhaL llkens Lhe chance of passlng on offsprlngs are also favored !
Soc|ob|o|ogy, however, sLaLes LhaL complex soclal behavlours are also bullL lnLo Lhe human
specles as a producL of evoluLlon
-
AlLrulsm serves a greaLer purpose of passlng on one's genes are lL ls dlfflculL for women Lo
reproduce ofLen durlng Lhelr llfeLlme
-
8ehav|our Genet|cs
Lg. llghLlng flsh are bred by maLlng very brlghL and aggresslve palrs !
Lg. ldenLlcal Lwlns have slmllar behavlor compared Lo fraLernal Lwlns !
8ehavlour geneLlcs ls Lhe sLudy of how behvaloural Lendencles are lnfluenced by geneLlc facLors -
5&%314"%. -.6 ,'0-&"%1(7 8(%9 !-(:". 4% 5&%314"%. ;#)$0%3%<)
1he vlewpolnL where humans are problem solvers whose acLlons are governed by LhoughLs and
plannlng
-
Concerned wlLh how lnformaLlon ls percelved and organlzed ln our mlnds -
Cr|g|ns of the Cogn|t|ve erspect|ve
1|tchener and Wundt approach was known as Structura||sm because Lhey analyzed Lhe mlnd ln
Lerms of lLs baslc elemenLs
-
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ChapLer 1
CcLober-11-10
1:03 M
Psych 1000 My Notes Page 1
Lerms of lLs baslc elemenLs
1hey belleved LhaL sensat|ons are Lhe baslc elemenLs of consclousness, and Lhey sLudled lL by
uslng |ntrospect|on
-
SLrucLurallsm evenLually dled ouL and gave way Lo funct|ona||sm, whlch sLudles Lhe funcLlons of
consclousness
-
lL argues LhaL Lhe sum of all percepLlons ls greaLer Lhan and dlfferenL from Lhe lndlvldual
parLs
!
kohler ls a leader ln Lhls fleld, and sLudled Anlmals on Lhe Canary lslands durlng WWl !
Lg. kohler placed a banana ouL of reach of an ape, buL puL a box near Lhe
ape. 1he ape flgured ouL how Lo use Lhe box Lo reach Lhe banana.
Pe concluded LhaL Lhe ablllLy Lo percelve relaLlonshlps ls Lhe essence of lnLelllgence and
LhaL |ns|ght ls Lhe percepLlon of a useful relaLlonshlp or soluLlon Lo a problem (an a-PA
momenL)
!
Gesta|t psycho|ogy was concerned wlLh how elemenLs of experlence are organlzed lnLo a whole -
|aget: Cogn|t|ve deve|opment |n ch||dren
lageL spenL 30 years sLudylng how chlldren Lhlnk, reason, and solve problems -
lageL concluded LhaL new and speclflc sLages of cognlLlve developmenL unfold naLurally as
chlldren maLure
-
Cogn|t|ve approaches to psycho|og|ca| d|sorders
AlberL Lllls and Aaron 8eck Lrled Lo undersLand how menLal dlsLorLlons and lrraLlonal LhoughLs
paLLerns creaLe emoLlonal problems
-
ulsLress and maladapLlve behavlor ls noL only caused by exLernal facLors buL by Lhe way we
Lhlnk abouL Lhe slLuaLlons
-
Modern Cogn|t|ve Sc|ence
Art|f|c|a| |nte|||gence develops compuLer models of complex human LhoughL, reasonlng, and
problem solvlng
-
Lg. 1here are compuLerlzed medlcal dlagnosLlc sysLems LhaL are based on Lhe LhoughL
process of emlnenL physlclans
!
8y creaLlng models LhaL dupllcaLe naLural cognlLlve process, a beLLer undersLandlng of how
humans Lhlnk can be galned
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roposed a hypoLheLlcal braln sLrucLure called a cell assembly" whlch sLaLes LhaL
repeaLed usage ls assoclaLed ln carrylng ouL responses more effecLlvely (pracLlce makes
perfecL)
!
nebb wroLe a book called !"# %&'()*+(,*%) %- .#"(/*%&0 1 )#2&%3456"%7%'*6(7 ,"#%&5 -
Soc|a| Construct|v|sm
Soclal ConsLrucLlvlsm clalms LhaL a large parL of whaL people conslder reallLy ls a large parL of
our menLal creaLlon
-
A llLLle parL of shared rea||ty exlsLs -
sychodynam|c erspect|ve: 1he Iorces W|th|n
Lg. uolng someLhlng ouL of characLer and someLhlng LhaL you were noL meanlng Lo do ln
Lhe flrsL place
!
sychodynam|c perspect|ve searches for Lhe causes of behavlor wlLhln Lhe worklngs of our
personallLy and Lhe role of unconsclous processes
-
sychoana|ys|s: Ireud's Great Cha||enge
lreud emphaslzed Lhe role of complex psychologlcal forces LhaL conLrol human behavlor -
Pe uses hypnosls and free assoclaLlon Lo LreaL hls paLlenLs and hls paLlenLs Lell hlm abouL
forgoLLen lnsLances of chlldhood sexual abuse
!
Pe focused on Lhe LreaLmenL of hyster|a, a psychologlcal dlsorder ln whlch physlcal sympLoms
such as bllndness, paln, or paralysls develop wlLhouL any physlcal woes
-
Pe concluded LhaL hls paLlenLs were prompLed Lo creaLe Lhese fanLasles by a compelllng and
unsaLlsfled sexual drlve LhaL ls a unlversal aspecL of human naLure
-
lreud belleves LhaL much of human behavlor ls lnfluenced by forces whlch humans are unaware -
lreud clalms LhaL our chlldhood has a slgnlflcanL lmpacL on our adulL personallLles -
lreud suspecLed LhaL because some of our early sexual needs are punlshed, we learn Lo fear -
1hese anxleLles are coped wlLh Lhrough defense mechanlsms !
Cne of Lhe mosL lmporLanL ls repress|on, whlch proLecLs us by keeplng lmpulses, feellngs,
and memorles ln Lhe unconsclous parL of Lhe mlnd
!
1hey remaln Lhere as a source of energy, sLrlvlng for release !
lreud suspecLed LhaL because some of our early sexual needs are punlshed, we learn Lo fear
Lhem and become anxlous when we become aware of Lhelr presence
-
lL helped sLlmulaLe Lhe developmenL of new Lheorles as well as promoLe new research !
Some of lreuds research was conLradlcLed, and some oLhers were valldaLed -
Current Deve|opments
SclenLlsLs worklng wlLhln Lhe blologlcal perspecLlve have ldenLlfled braln mechanlsms LhaL can
produce emoLlonal reacLlons of whlch we are consclously unaware
-
CognlLlve sclenLlsLs have shown LhaL many aspecLs of lnformaLlon processlng occur ouLslde of
our awareness
-
locuses on Lhe role of Lhe exLernal envlronmenL ln shaplng and governlng our acLlons -
eoples behavlor ls [olnLly deLermlned by learned hablLs from Lhelr llfe experlence or from
Lhelr lmmedlaLe envlronmenL
-
Cr|g|ns of the 8ehav|oura| erspect|ve
All ldeas and knowledge are galned emplrlcally (Lhrough Lhe senses) !
Pumans are a blank sheeL of paper and ls dlfferenLlaLed by experlence !
8ehavloural perspecLlve comes from a 17
Lh
cenLury school of phllosophy known as 8r|t|sh
emp|r|c|sm
-
8ehav|our|sm
8ehav|our|sm ls a school of LhoughL LhaL emphaslzes envlronmenLal conLrol of behavlor
Lhrough learnlng
-
!ohn 8. WaLson was agalnsL sLrucLurallsLs, funcLlonallsLs, and psychoanalysLs and argued LhaL
proper psychology should be based on observab|e act|ons
-
SLrucLurallsLs belleve LhaL one ls only lnfluenced by ouLslde forces and noL Lhelr lnnaLe
Lendencles
-
8ehavlourlsLs do noL focus on whaLs happenlng lnslde, buL raLher on whaL's happenlng
ouLslde
-
8.l. Sklnner was a famous behavlourlsL -
8ehav|our mod|f|cat|on ls posslble by alLerlng Lhe envlronmenLal facLors LhaL sLlmulaLe
behavlor
-
Cogn|t|ve 8ehav|our|sm
Cogn|t|ve 8ehav|our|sm ls an aLLempL Lo comblne behavloural and cognlLlve perspecLlves Lo
make a more comprehenslve Lheory
-
Lg. lf we see someone do someLhlng effecLlve, we sLore lL ln our memory and use lL for
laLer
!
1hls Lheory sLaLes LhaL Lhe envlronmenL glves us Lhe knowledge Lo behave effecLlvely -
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lL emphaslzes Lhe role of Lhe lnLernal LhoughL process !
PumanlsLlc perspecLlve emphaslzes a persons lnnaLe Lendencles Loward growLh and Lo flnd
ulLlmaLe meanlng ln exlsLence
-
PumanlsLs belleve LhaL every person sLrlves Loward se|f-actua||zat|on or reachlng one's
personal poLenLlal
-
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personal poLenLlal
CulLures deal wlLh lL by usually creaLlng an afLerllfe and creaLes a sLandard for personal
value and some hope for Lranscendlng deaLh
!
1error management theory sLaLes LhaL an lnnaLe deslre for conLlnued llfe, comblned wlLh Lhe
unlquely human awareness of deaLh, creaLes an exlsLenLlal Lerror
-
eople who llve up Lo Lhelr culLures values have more self esLeem and lower deaLh anxleLy -
1hls perspecLlve focuses on Lhe manner ln whlch culLure ls LransmlLLed Lo lLs members and on
Lhe slmllarlLles and dlfferences LhaL occur among people from dlverse culLures
-
Cu|ture ls values, bellefs, behavlours, and LradlLlons LhaL are shared by a large group of people
and ls passed on Lhrough generaLlons
-
CulLures creaLe Lhelr own norms Lo whaL ls expecLed and accepLable -
ln adherence Lo Lhe terror management theory, Lhls Lakes Lhe pressure of lndlvlduals
abouL many Lhlngs
!
Pumans have an lnherenL need Lo develop culLures Lo fosLer sLablllLy and predlcLablllLy -
Cu|tura| Learn|ng and D|vers|ty
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sychologlsLs recognlze LhaL our experlence of Lhe world ls sub[ecLlve Lo our own reallLy -
8ehavlour ls deLermlned by mulLlple causal facLors LhaL can lnLeracL wlLh each oLher -
naLure and nurLure lnfluence one anoLher -
8ehavlour ls a means of adapLlng Lo envlronmenLal demands and psychologlcal capaclLles have
evolved accordlngly Lo ensure survlval
-
8ehavlour ls sLrongly affecLed by Lhe culLural envlronmenL -
In kev|ew pg. 34
-
Psychology 1uuu: Chaptei 2 Notes
Sclence ls abouL dlscover abouL Lhe world gulded by Lhe sclenLlflc meLhod -
resenLs a challenge ln behavloral sclence because lL's dlfflculL Lo quanLlLaLlvely measure Lhe mlnd -
Sc|ent|f|c Att|tudes
1hey were unsaLlsfled by Lhe dehumanlzaLlon produced by Lhe urban
envlronmenL" explanaLlon
1hey concluded LhaL havlng mulLlple bysLanders produced a d|ffus|on of

respons|b|||ty
Lg. !ohn uarley and 8lbb LaLane dlscussed how 38 bysLanders dld noLhlng as Lhey wlLnessed
a crlme
!
Sclence ls based on curloslLy, skepLlclsm, and open-mlndedness -
A$"'.4"+"$ ;(".$">3'# ". ;#)$0%3%<)
I|g 2.2 -
llrsL a quesLlon ls asked abouL a phenomenon, and Lhen a hypoLhesls ls generaLed -
lL ls asked ln an lf-Lhen formaL !
A hypothes|s ls a LenLaLlve explanaLlon -
uarley and LaLane creaLed a false emergency ln whlch sub[ecLs were led Lo belleve LhaL
someone was selsurlng
!
Sub[ecLs who LhoughL Lhere were oLher bysLanders presenL Look longer Llme Lo reacL !
AfLer a hypoLhesls ls generaLed, lL musL be LesLed Lhrough research -
1he collecLed daLa ls Lhen analyzed Lo prove or dlsprove Lhe hypoLhesls -
LaLane comblned Lhe prlnclple of dlffuslon of responslblllLy Lo oLher prlnclples Lo develop a
1heory of Soclal lmpacL
!
1hen sclenLlsLs Lry Lo bulld a theory Lo explaln why cerLaln evenLs are relaLed Lo each oLher -
llnally, Lhe Lheory ls used Lo develop new hypoLheses -
J-40'(".< 5&"6'.$'7 A4'># ". 40' A$"'.4"+"$ ;(%$'##
n|nds|ght Understand|ng
MosL common approach ln undersLandlng behavlor ls hlndslghL reasonlng -
no way Lo deLermlnlng lf any of Lhe alLernaLlves ls correcL !
1he problem wlLh Lhls meLhod ls LhaL Lhere are way Loo many posslble explanaLlons regardless of
whaL happens
-
Understand|ng through red|ct|on, Contro|, and 1heory 8u||d|ng
lncorporaLes exlsLlng facLs and observaLlons wlLhln a slngle broad framework !
lL ls LesLable !
redlcLlons made ln Lheory are supporLed by fuLure research !
lL conforms Lo Lhe |aw of pars|mony: lf Lwo Lheorles explaln and predlcL Lhe same
phenomena, Lhe slmpler one ls preferred
!
A good Lheory generaLes an lnLegraLed neLwork of predlcLlons -
Lven ls a Lheory ls supporLed by many successful predlcLlons, lL ls never regarded as an absoluLe
LruLh because fuLure flndlngs may dlsprove lL
-
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ChapLer 2: lncompleLe
CcLober-11-10
1:03 M
LruLh because fuLure flndlngs may dlsprove lL
A var|ab|e ls any characLerlsLlc LhaL can dlffer -
Lg. Measurlng exam sLress and academlc performance !
Slnce many varlables are non maLerlal (eg. SLress, lnLelllgence), sclenLlsLs develop an operat|ona|
def|n|t|on: whlch LranslaLes an absLracL Lerm lnLo someLhlng observable and measurable
-
AlLhough noL everyone wlll agree wlLh Lhe operaLlonal deflnlLlon, lL leLs oLhers know whaL ls belng
LesLed
-
Se|f keport Measures
lL asks people Lo reporL on Lhelr own knowledge, bellefs, feellngs, experlences, or behavlor -
uepends on peoples wllllngness Lo respond honesLly -
Sub[ecLs may be dlsLorLed by 4%6*(7 8#4*&(.*7*,5 .*(4: Lhe Lendency Lo glve a good lmpresslon raLher
Lhan reflecL on how Lhey Lruly feel or behave
-
1o avold Lhls phenomena, quesLlons can be deslgned Lo emphaslze Lhelr poslLlve quallLles raLher
Lhan Lhelr negaLlve ones
-
AlLernaLlvely, over-c|a|m|ng quest|onna|re ls used whlch uses nonexlsLenL lLems Lo and Lhe
sub[ecLs famlllarlLy wlLh Lhem Lo measure Lhelr honesLy
-
keports by Cthers
We can learn abouL Lhe sub[ecLs based on observaLlon from wlLnesses -
hys|o|og|ca| Measures
SclenLlsLs can used hearL raLe, blood pressure, resplraLlon raLe, and hormonal secreLlons Lo
measure whaL ls happenlng Lo Lhe sub[ecL
-
Powever, how Lhese physlologlcal slgns can be lnLerpreLed ln many ways -
8ehav|ora| Cbservat|ons
eg. Seelng how long lL Lakes for bysLanders Lo respond !
1hls ls Lo measure peoples overL (dlrecLly vlslble) behavlors -
Lg. ollce reporLs for frequency of drunk drlvlng occurences !
CLher way ls by uslng arch|va| measures whlch ls already exlsLlng records or documenLaLlon -
1o counLer Lhls, researchers camouflage Lhemselves or use unobLruslve measures Lo make
sure Lhe parLlclpanLs are unaware LhaL Lhey are observed
!
Lg. Seelng how many used condoms Lurned up ln Lhe sewer afLer a safe sex program was
lnduced
!
Pumans acL dlfferenLly when Lhey are observed -
!'+".".< -.6 H'-#1(".< L-("-D3'#
Descr|pt|ve method: lnvolvlng recordlng observaLlons or surveys !
Corre|at|ona| methods: lnvolve measurlng Lhe sLrengLh of assoclaLlon beLween Lwo or more
evenLs
!
Lxper|menta| methods: lnvolve manlpulaLlons Lo esLabllsh cause and effecL relaLlonshlps
beLween Lwo or more evenLs
!
3 meLhods are used -
H'40%6# %+ 2'#'-($0
Seeks Lo ldenLlfy how humans and oLher anlmals behave -
May yleld clues abouL poLenLlal cause-effecL relaLlonshlps LhaL are laLer LesLed experlmenLally -
Case Stud|es: 1reat|ng Cases of Ia||ure to 1hr|ve |n numan Infants
Case study ls an ln depLh analysls of an lndlvldual, group, or evenL -
Case sLudles provlde new ldeas and hypoLheses LhaL may be LesLed -
Lg. Language musL be learned Lhrough exposure aL a young age. All you have Lo do Lo
dlsprove Lhls ls Lo flnd a slngle example where Lhls ls noL Lhe case
!
Case sLudy may challenge Lhe valldlLy of a Lheory or wldely held sclenLlflc bellef -
!'#$(">4"&' 2'#'-($0
dlsprove Lhls ls Lo flnd a slngle example where Lhls ls noL Lhe case
1hls ls caused by poor parenLlng and poverLy
lnLervenLlon program Lo Lraln low lC score moms who had fallure Lo Lhrlve
bables on how Lo effecLlvely feed Lhelr chlldren
Lg. 1he fallure for bables Lo grow rapldly afLer blrLh can cause fuLure physlcal and
lnLellecLual developmenL
!
llrsL ls base||ne: measurlng Lhe chlld's welghL ] !
lollowlng ls treatment: 6 weeks of advlce and supervlslon Lo Lhe parenLs !
llnally Lhere ls fo||owup: where Lhe chlld's welghL ls measured over Lhe nexL 3 years !
lL can lllusLraLe effecLlve lnLervenLlon programs -
oor meLhod of deLermlnlng cause-effecL relaLlons !
Wlll Lhe generallzaLlons found ln Lhe sLudy be LesLed Lrue for oLher cases and oLher
slLuaLlons
!
Some resulLs are sub[ecL Lo Lhe blas of Lhe observer !
Case sLudles have several llmlLaLlons -
LxLenslvely used Lo sLudy anlmals !
Learned LhaL Lhey can use and make Lools
Lg. !ane Coodalls sLudy of chlmps ln Afrlca !
ln natura||st|c observat|on, Lhe researcher observes behavlor as lL occurs ln naLure -
1he observer may lnfluence Lhe behavlor of Lhe parLlclpanLs !
uoes noL permlL causal concluslons abouL Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween varlables -
M-41(-3"#4"$ ND#'(&-4"%.7 ,133)".< -.6 L"$4"9"C-4"%. ". =-.-6"-. ;1D3"$
A$0%%3#
Survey research ls lnformaLlon abouL a Loplc LhaL ls admlnlsLered Lhrough quesLlonalres or
lnLervlews
-
opulaLlon ls all Lhe lndlvlduals whom we are lnLeresLed ln drawlng a concluslon from !
A samp|e ls a subseL of lndlvlduals drawn from Lhe larger populaLlon of lnLeresL !
1wo concepLs ln survey research are popu|at|on and samp|e -
Cenerally, researchers Lry Lo keep Lhe sample ln Lhe same proporLlons as Lhe populaLlon !
1o draw a valld concluslon, Lhe sample musL be representat|ve whlch ls one LhaL reflecLs Lhe
lmporLanL characLerlsLlcs of Lhe whole populaLlon
-
Larger samples are generally beLLer Lhan smaller ones -
1hls ls because Lhe sample was chosen from Lelephone reglsLraLlons and
auLomoblle reglsLraLlons whlch only Lhe rlch mlnorlLy of Amerlcans had
Lg. 1936 elecLlon, LlLerary ulgesL magazlne dld a survey wlLh 2 mllllon people LhaL reporLed
Landon was golng Lo wln, buL 8oosevelL won lnsLead
!
unrepresenLaLlve samples wlll produce erroneous resulLs -
Allowed qulck collecLlon of daLa ln shorL Llme !
Powever, Lhere ls less conLrol over daLa quallLy because people can lle abouL sLuff !
1here ls more chance of blas because Lhere ls no meLhod for randomly sampllng Lhe
populaLlon of lnLerneL users
!
lnLerneL, however, has a wlde varleLy of people ln dlfferenL socloeconomlc sLaLus,
geographlc reglon, age, and gender
!
Cne of Lhe blggesL survey advances came wlLh Lhe lnvenLlon of Lhe lnLerneL -
unrepresenLaLlve samples 1.
8elles on Lhe facL LhaL people do noL lle or mlspercelve Lhelr own behavlor 2.
1here are 3 ma[or survey drawbacks -
A1(&') 2'#'-($07 !%'# )%1( %:. >'(#%.-3"4) 9-4$0 40' =-.-6"-.
.-4"%.-3 $0-(-$4'(O
8elles on Lhe facL LhaL people do noL lle or mlspercelve Lhelr own behavlor 2.
Survey daLa cannoL be used Lo draw daLa abouL cause and effecL 3.
4.
When acting as a psychiatiist theie aie ceitain values that you must obtain to succeeu as a
scientist. The fiist is that you must be cuiious because without cuiiosity nothing woulu be
uiscoveieu. Seconu most theie must be skepticism because without skepticism theie woulu
be no neeu foi ieason. Finally, theie must be open minueuness because without that a
satisfactoiy answei may nevei be ieacheu.
As well as these necessaiy qualities that psychiatiists must possess they must also follow a
set of steps to piove something. The scientific piocess begins with an obseivation anu a
question about saiu obseivation. Aftei this the conuuctoi of the expeiiment must cieate a
hypothesis, then test the hypothesis using ieseaich. Then aftei the ieseaich is collecteu it will
be analyzeu anu supplementaiy ieseaich can be conuucteu aftei the analysis. Finally, anothei
hypothesis will be foimeu baseu on the finuings anu this will become a theoiy.
The Binusight unueistanuing of behavioi occuis aftei the fact. This is often the fiist
hypothesis about a situation (Kitty uenevese).
It incoipoiates existing facts anu obseivations unuei a single bioau heauing.
It is testable anu geneiates new hypotheses whose accuiacy can be testeu by gatheiing
new eviuence
The pieuictions maue in the theoiy aie suppoiteu by the finuings of new ieseaich
It confiims to the law of paisimony wheie if two theoiies can explain anu pieuict the
same phenomena equally well then the simplei theoiy is the piefeiieu one
When possible it is also best foi scientists to ueteimine what causes what. They can
ueteimine this by fiist making theie pieuictions, then ensuiing that they can contiol the
setting anu finally builuing a theoiy, which is built on an integiateu netwoik of pieuictions. A
goou theoiy will always have:
!"#$%&' )
A vaiiable is a chaiacteiistic that can uiffei. Some vaiiables can iepiesent non-mateiial
concepts as in memoiy anu peisonality. An opeiational uefinition uefines a vaiiable in teims
of a specific pioceuuie.
!'+".".< -.6 H'-#1(".< L-("-D3'#
The measuiing of vaiiables comes uown to being measuieu in foui ways: eithei by self-iepoit,
iepoits by otheis, physiological measuies, anu behavioial obseivation.
To ueteimine if people aie being honest uuiing self iepoits 0vei-Claiming-Questionnaiies (wheie
people say how familiai they aie with something) can be useu. Twenty peicent of the objects on the
Questionnaiie aie non-existent anu theiefoie if people say they aie familiai with those items they
aie not being honest.
H'40%6# %+ 2'#'-($0
The uesciiptive methou is useu to tiy anu iuentify how humans anu animals behave especially
when they aie in theii natuial settings.
!"#$%&'(&)" +"#",%$-. +"$/%0&12 3)"1(#
!#*& +%,-.&*
Case stuuies aie useu to gain geneial knowleuge about a veiy specific taiget. It has many benefits
incluuing how they biing about vibiant new iueas anu how they biing insight into uiveise topics.
Anothei auvantage is how they may challenge wiuely helu scientific belief. The final anu thiiu
benefit is that they can illustiate effective inteivention piogiams foi the taiget gioup.
/#%,'#0.*%.1 23*&'4#%.56
In this methou a ieseaichei will tiy anu obseive an inuiviuual in theii natuial setting. This is often
Wes's ChapLer 2 noLes
CcLober-18-10
9:17 M
In this methou a ieseaichei will tiy anu obseive an inuiviuual in theii natuial setting. This is often
the methou chosen foi stuuying animals in the wilu. It can take a veiy long time befoie the human
obseivei can blenu into the suiiounuings enough to obseive natuial behavioi.
+,'4&7 8&*&#'1"
Questions aie ieleaseu in the foim of a suivey anu the culmination of many suiveys help to uevelop
geneialities. It is impoitant that when a whole population cannot be suiveyeu that a goou
iepiesentative sample is obtaineu wheie piopoitional people fiom uiffeient subgioups aie
suiveyeu in coiielation with the population. Ranuom suiveying in then employeu to ensuie that no
biases occui within the subgioups.
Coiielation ieseaich takes two sepaiate vaiiables that one might believe aie intei ielateu anu
measuies both sepaiately. Then the ieseaichei ueteimines statistically whethei oi not the
vaiiables aie ielateu. In coiielation ieseaich one must be willing to accept that X coulu cause
Y, Y coulu cause X oi that they coulu both cause each othei, this is calleu a bi-uiiectional
causality pioblem. 0thei factois, Z, might even be the cause of both X anu Y meaning that X
anu Y aie in no way inteiielateu, this is calleu the thiiu-vaiiable pioblem (when it looks like X
anu Y aie ielateu but both vaiiables aie causeu by a thiiu, Z). This foim of ieseaich can
sometimes leau to incoiiect conclusions because people uo not consiuei the possible
vaiiations.
4/%%"5,(&/1 +"#",%$-. 6",#7%&12 8##/$&,(&/1 9"(:""1 3)"1(#
This coefficient inuicates the stiength anu uiiection of association between two vaiiables. If
both vaiiables aie high then the coiielation is positive (tallei anu heaviei) anu if one is low
anu the othei high the coiielation is negative (job tuinovei anu job satisfaction). The
coiielation is measuieu between positive anu negative one, wheie the absolute value tells
you the stiength of the coiielation.
9"& !5''&0#%.56 !5&::.1.&6%
Although uefinitive answeis cannot be ieacheu using this methou I uoes allow scientists to
compaie events wheie they cannot contiol the system (fetal alcohols effect of chiluien) anu
also allows people to make pieuictions such as which giaue level coming out of high school
will yielu the bettei stuuent in univeisity. These pieuictions aie also useu by insuiance
companies.
!5''&0#%.56 #* # ;#*.* :5' <'&-.1%.56*
Expeiiments aie a veiy goou way to examine the cause anu effect of something anu aie the
most effective way of testing explanations of why phenomena occui.
3;'"%&<"1(#. 3;,<&1&12 4,7#" ,10 3=="$(
Expeiiments woik on the giounus of manipulating a vaiiable so that theie aie uiffeient
conuitions to test. The ieseaichei then measuies whethei oi not changing one vaiiable
impacts the othei vaiiable. Finally, the ieseaichei tiies to eliminate all othei vaiiables fiom
the expeiiment by tiying to iepiouuce the same enviionment anu situation foi eveiy test.
When pioceeuing with an expeiiment the inuepenuent vaiiable is the vaiiable that is
mouifieu foi each situation anu the uepenuant vaiiable is the vaiiable that will hopefully be
effecteu by the inuepenuent.
Ranuom assignment takes away the possible biases of an expeiiment when using uiffeient
subjects in both the contiol anu in the expeiimental gioups.
Counteibalancing is when half of the paiticipants uo one task fiist anu the othei half
paiticipates in the seconu task fiist, this eliminates possible auueu vaiiables (like fatigue oi
boieuom) if all paiticipants peifoim all of the expeiimental tasks.
Single vaiiable expeiimentation tests the effects of one inuepenuent vaiiable on the
uepenuant vaiiable. Nulti vaiiable expeiimentation looks at moie then one inuepenuent
9"& =5>.1 5: ?@$&'.A&6%.6>
uepenuant vaiiable. Nulti vaiiable expeiimentation looks at moie then one inuepenuent
vaiiable anu how each of them influence the same uepenuant vaiiable (see page 66).
In expeiimental ieseaich the scientist actually manipulates one oi moie vaiiable to ueteimine
whethei oi not they affect a ceitain behavioi, howevei in uesciiptive oi coiielation ieseaich
the vaiiables aie only measuieu. Expeiimental ieseaich is usually conuucteu in a lab wheieas
the two othei foims usually occui in natuial settings. Finally in uesciiptive anu coiielation
appioaches one cannot keep extianeous factois constant as one uoes in an expeiiment. (see
pg 69 foi all auvantages anu uisauvantages)
3;'"%&<"1(,5 )"%#7# !"#$%&'(&)"> 4/%%"5,(&/1 8''%/,$-"#
Inteinal valiuity is how well an expeiiment suppoits a cleai casual conclusion. If vaiiables aie
not manipulateu piopeily in a well-plotteu expeiiment theie may be some question as to
which inuepenuent vaiiable effects the uepenuant.
?0('-4# ?% 40' L-3"6"4) %+ 2'#'-($0
This means that two vaiiables aie inteitwineu to make it impossible to tell which is
influencing the uepenuant vaiiable. The confounuing vaiiable is the vaiiable that is not sought
aftei (ex Nozait music make you peifoim bettei, moou is confounuing vaiiable because
Nozait makes you moie ielaxeu). Confounuing is the ieason that conclusions cannot be
uiawn fiom coiielation ieseaich.
!56:5,6-.6> 5: B#'.#30&*
These aie ceitain tiaits that paiticipants pick up while tiying to fulfill cues about the
hypothesis. When a paiticipant picks up subtle clues about how they aie supposeu to ieact to
situations they iuin the valiuity of the expeiiment because it uistoits the paiticipants tiue
iesponse.
C&A#6- !"#'#1%&'.*%.1*
In meuical ieseaich if both the half ieceiving the tiue uiug anu the placebo show impioveu
conuitions theie is a high placebo effect. This is bau because it intiouuces the vaiiable of
expectation. The placebo effect uecieases the valiuity of an expeiiment because the vaiiables
of expectation anu chemical ieactions have been confounueu.
<0#1&35 ?::&1%
This iefeis to the subtle ways that ieseaicheis might poitiay to theii paiticipants what they
want the outcome to be. The uouble blinu pioceuuie minimizes patient placebo effect anu
expeiimentei expectancy. Both people aie kept blinu as to which expeiimental conuition the
paiticipant is in.
?@$&'.A&6%&' ?@$&1%#617 ?::&1%
Exteinal valiuity is the uegiee to which the iesults of a stuuy can be geneializeu to othei
people, settings oi conuitions. Replication is the piocess of iepeating a stuuy to ueteimine
whethei the oiiginal finuings can be uuplicateu. By using ieplication anu by auuing uiffeient
factois to the oiiginal expeiiment (ie age of paiticipant etc.) the exteinal valiuity of the
expeiiment is incieaseu. If the seconuaiy stuuies uo not yielu the same conclusion this may
tell psychiatiists impoitant things about the seconu (oi fiist) gioup of people stuuieu.
8&$0.1#%.6> #6- D&6&'#0.E.6> %"& F.6-.6>*
540"$-3 ;(".$">3'# ". @19-. -.6 B."9-3 2'#'-($0
Piotect anu piomote the welfaie of the paiticipants
Avoiu uoing haim to the paiticipants
Bont caiiy out the stuuies unless the piobable benefit much outweighs the iisk
Explain all aspects of the expeiiment to the paiticipants anu ieceive oial oi wiitten
?%".1#0 +%#6-#'-* .6 G,A#6 8&*&#'1"
Explain all aspects of the expeiiment to the paiticipants anu ieceive oial oi wiitten
consent fiom the paiticipant oi guaiuian
Take all ieasonable steps to ensuie consent is not given unuei coeicion
Ensuie piivacy anu confiuentiality
Chaptei S notes
?0' M'1(-3 ,-#'# %+ ,'0-&"%(
neurons are Lhe baslc bulldlng blocks of Lhe nervous sysLem and are connecLed llke elecLrlcal
clrculLs
-
1he braln has abouL 100 mllllon neurons -
Lach neuron conslsLs of: ce|| body, dendr|tes, and an axon -
1he dendrlLes collecL lnformaLlon from nelghbourlng neurons and send Lhem on Lo Lhe cell body -
A slngle axon exLends from Lhe cell body whlch passes messages Lo oLher neurons, muscles, or
glands
-
More Lhan 200 Lypes of neurons have been vlewed Lhrough elecLron mlcroscopes -
neurons are supporLed by g||a| ce||s whlch surround Lhe neurons and hold Lhem ln place,
manufacLure nuLrlenLs LhaL neurons need, form myelln sheaLh, and absorb Loxlns and wasLe
-
1he b|ood-bra|n barr|er prevenLs many subsLances from enLerlng Lhe braln !
Cllal cells proLecL Lhe braln from Loxlns -
Nerve Conduct|on: An e|ectrochem|ca| rocess
neurons can: generate e|ectr|c|ty and re|ease chem|ca|s -
1he hlgh concenLraLlon of sodlum carrles a poslLlve elecLrlcal charge !
1he lnslde of Lhe neuron, however, ls elecLrlcally negaLlve !
1hus an e|ectr|ca| rest|ng potent|a| of abouL -70mv ls formed across Lhe membrane
(polarlzed sLaLe)
!
neurons are surrounded ln a sallne llquld envlronmenL -
Act|on otent|a|
An acLlon poLenLlal or nerve lmpulse ls a sudden reversal ln Lhe neuron's membrane volLage
from -70mv Lo +40mv (depo|ar|zat|on)
-
lf lL depolarlzes enough, Lhen lL reaches an acLlon poLenLlal !
1hls makes Lhe acLlon poLenLlal an a|| or none phenomenon !
uependlng on Lhe sLlmulaLlon from oLher axons, Lhe neuron wlll elLher depolarlze a loL or a llLLle
(graded potent|a|s)
-
Craded poLenLlal change Lhe membrane poLenLlal by acLlng on small proLeln sLrucLures ln Lhe cell
membrane called |on channe|s
-
1he Lhreshold Lo reach acLlon poLenLlal ls usually abouL-33mv, abouL 13mv dlfference from
Lhe resLlng poLenLlal
!
When Lhe lon channels open, lL allows poslLlve charges Lo enLer Lo make Lhe lnslde less negaLlve -
uurlng acLlon poLenLlal, Lhe sodlum channels open, whlch allows poslLlve na+ lons Lo flow lnLo Lhe
axon
-
When Lhe poLenLlal ls reached, Lhe k+ lon channels open Lo leL k+ lons ouL, whlch brlngs Lhe
membrane lnLo a refracLory perlod
-
A pump resLores Lhe k+ and na+ raLlos back Lo lLs orlglnal sLaLe -
uurlng Lhe refracLory perlod, Lhe membrane cannoL dlscharge anoLher acLlon poLenLlal -
1he nervous sysLem dlfferenLlaLes beLween dlfferenL sLlmulus Lhrough Lhe number of neurons
flrlng as well as Lhe raLe of flrlng
-
Neurons
ChapLer 3
CcLober-11-10
1:03 M
flrlng as well as Lhe raLe of flrlng
1he Mye||n Sheath
1he myelln sheaLh covers Lhe axons -
lL ls a faLLy, whlLlsh lnsulaLlon layer derlved from gllal cells -
lL ls lnLerrupLed by the nodes of kanv|er where Lhe mylln ls elLher exLremely Lhln or absenL -
ln myellnaLed axons, elecLrlcal conducLlon can sklp from node Lo node Lo accounL for hlgh
conducLlon speeds of more Lhan 300km per hour
-
Mu|t|p|e sc|eros|s ls a dlsease where a person's own lmmune sysLem aLLacks Lhe myelln sheaLh -
1he neurons are noL ln physlcal conLacL, buL communlcaLed aL a synapse -
1he neurons relased chemlcals from one neuron Lo Lhe nexL -
1here ls a gap called Lhe synapt|c c|eft beLween Lhe neuron and Lhe dendrlLe of Lhe nexL neuron -
Neurotransm|tters
neurons produce neurotransm|tters whlch are chemlcal subsLances LhaL carry messages across
Lhe synapse Lo elLher exclLe oLher neurons or lnhlblL Lhelr flrlng
-
Synthes|s: chemlcal molecules are formed lnslde Lhe neuron 1.
Storage: molecules are sLored ln chambers called synapt|c ves|c|es wlLhln Lhe axon
Lermlnals
2.
ke|ease: Lhe molecules are released ln Lhe sendlng (presynapLlc) neuron 3.
8|nd|ng: Lhe molecules blnd aL Lhe recelvlng (posLsynapLlc) neuron 4.
Deact|vat|on: 3.
1hls happens ln 3 sLeps -
Lxc|tat|on, Inh|b|t|on, and Deact|vat|on
1he blndlng of a LransmlLLer molecule can elLher exclLe Lhe posLsynapLlc neuron (Lhrough
depolarlzaLlon) or lnhlblL lL Lhrough hyperpo|ar|zat|on by allowlng poLasslum lons Lo flow ouL of
Lhe neuron or negaLlve lons such as chlorlde Lo flow lnLo Lhe neuron
-
neurons are consLanLly bombarded by exclLaLory and lnhlblLory neuroLransmlLLers from oLher
neurons and Lhelr lnLerplay deLermlnes wheLher Lhe acLlon poLenLlal flres
-
ueacLlvaLed by oLher chemlcals locaLed ln Lhe synapLlc space LhaL break Lhem down
lnLo Lhelr chemlcal componenLs
1.
keuptake: reabsorpLlon lnLo Lhe presynapLlc axon 2.
A neuroLransmlLLer conLlnues Lo lnhlblL or lnhlblL a neuron unLll lL ls deact|vated whlch occurs ln 2
ways
-
Lg. CplaLes and nlcoLlne mlmlck Lhe effecL of naLural LransmlLLers !
urugs lnfluence neuroLransmlLLers by elLher mlmlcklng Lhe effecL of a neuroLransmlLLer or
prevenLlng oLher LransmlLLers access Lo Lhese recepLors
-
Spec|a||zed 1ransm|tter Systems
varlous sysLems ln Lhe braln only recognlze cerLaln chemlcal messengers, Lhey are lmmune
from Lhe messages from oLher sysLems
!
1here are abouL 100 Lo 130 dlfference subsLances LhaL are suspecLed neuroLransmlLLers ln Lhe
braln
-
1ab|e 3.1: Important neurotransm|tters and the|r effects -
AceLylchollne ls lmporLanL ln memory and muscle acLlvlLy, underproducLlon may be an lmporLanL
facLor ln alzhelmer's dlsease
-
8oLullsm (from lmproperly canned foods) block Lhe acLlon of Ach whlch resulLs ln paralysls !
8lack wldow splders causes a loL of ACh Lo be produced, whlch can cause muscle
convulslons and posslble deaLh
!
Ach ls also an exclLaLory LransmlLLer LhaL acLlvaLe muscle cells -
ln arklnsons dlsease, a group of dopamlne produclng neurons degeneraLe and dle -
@%: M'1(%.# =%991."$-4'7 A).->4"$ ?(-.#9"##"%.
ln arklnsons dlsease, a group of dopamlne produclng neurons degeneraLe and dle -
Schlzophrenla ls LreaLed by drugs LhaL prevenL dopamlne from havlng lLs effecLs -
uepresslon ls lnvolved ln an abnormal senslLlvlLy Lo seroton|n, a neuroLransmlLLer LhaL lnfluences
mood, eaLlng, sleep, and sexual behavlor
-
urugs can elLher block Lhe reupLake of seroLonln (meanlng LhaL lL wlll be blnded aL Lhe
posLsynapLlc Lermlnal for a longer Llme) or lnhlblL Lhe acLlvlLy of enzymes ln Lhe synapLlc space
LhaL deacLlvaLe seroLonln
-
1he oplaLe group blnd Lo Lhe same recepLors whlch produce slmllar psychologlcal effecLs !
Lndorph|ns are a group of neuroLransmlLLers LhaL reduce paln and lncrease feellngs of well belng -
Neuromodu|ators lncrease or decrease Lhe senslLlvlLy of Lhousands of neuroLransmlLLers Lo Lhelr
speclflc LransmlLLers
-
3 ma[or Lypes of neurons carry ouL Lhe nervous sysLem's lnpuL, ouLpuL, and lnLegraLlon funcLlons -
Sensory neurons carry lnpuL messages from sense organs Lo Lhe splnal cord and braln -
Motor neurons LransmlL ouLpuL lmpulses from braln and splnal cord Lo Lhe body's muscles and
organs
-
Interneurons perform connecLlve or assoclaLlve funcLlons wlLhln Lhe nervous sysLem -
1he nervous sysLem can be dlvlded lnLo Lhe centra| nervous system: whlch conslsLs of all Lhe
neurons ln Lhe braln and splnal cord and Lhe per|phera| nervous system: whlch ls compsed of all
Lhe neurons LhaL connecL Lhe cenLral nervous sysLem wlLh Lhe muscles, glands, and sensory
recepLors
-
?0' M'(&%1# A)#4'9
lL helps carry ouL Lhe lnpuL and ouLpuL funcLlons LhaL are necessary for us Lo sense whaL ls
happenlng lnslde and ouLslde our body
-
lL has 2 dlvlslons, Lhe somaLlc nervous sysLem and Lhe auLonomlc nervous sysLem -
Somat|c Nervous System
ConslsLs of sensory neurons LhaL are speclallzed Lo LransmlL messages from Lhe eyes, ears, and
oLher sensory recepLors
-
lL also has moLor neurons Lo conLrol our volunLary movemenL -
1he axons of sensory neurons group LogeLher Lo for sensory nerves and Lhe moLor neurons
comblne Lo form moLor nerves
-
Autonom|c Nervous System
ConLrols Lhe bodys lnLernal envlronmenL such as Lhe smooLh muscles, Lhe blood vessels, and
dlgesLlve sysLem
-
lL has Lwo dlvlslons: Lhe sympaLheLlc nervous sysLem and Lhe parasympaLheLlc nervous syLem -
Lg. When you are sLressed your hearL pumps more blood, puplls dllaLe, and dlgesLlon slows
down so blood can go Lo muscles (-*'", %& -7*'",9
!
1he sympathet|c nervous system has an acLlvaLlon or arousal funcLlon and Lends Lo acL as a unlL -
lL slows down body processes and malnLalns a sLaLe of LranqulllLy !
lL works ln balance wlLh Lhe sympaLheLlc nervous sysLem Lo malnLaln "%:#%4,(4*4, a
balanced lnLernal sLaLe
!
arasympathet|c nervous system ls more speclflc and has Lhe opposlLe effecL of Lhe sympaLheLlc
one
-
;'(">0'(-3 M'(&%1# A)#4'9
ConLalns Lhe splnal cord and Lhe braln -
Sp|na| Cord
MosL nerves enLer and leave Lhe cenLral nervous sysLem by way of Lhe splnal cord -
Some slmple sLlmulus-response sequences, known as splnal reflexes, can be Lrlggered aL Lhe splnal
cord wlLhouL braln lnvolvemenL
-
?0' ='.4(-3 M'(&%1# A)#4'9
Lg. 1ouchlng a heaL source !
cord wlLhouL braln lnvolvemenL
1he 8ra|n
lL ls a 3 pound organ LhaL makes up who you are and consumes Lhe mosL energy of all body organs -
1he braln never resLs -
Un|ock|ng the 8ra|n
Neuropsycho|og|ca| tests
1hls measures Lhe verbal and non-verbal behavlours LhaL are known Lo be affecLed by parLlcular
Lypes of braln damage
-
Destruct|on and st|mu|at|on techn|ques
8esearchers can produce braln damage under conLrolled condlLlons ln anlmals Lo see whaL Lhe
consequences are
-
1hey can also sLlmulaLe Lhe neurons Lo do Lhe opposlLe -
L|ectr|ca| kecord|ng
lL can be used Lo deLecL abnormal elecLrlcal paLLerns ln Lhe braln !
8esearchers use e|ectroencepha|ogram (LLG) Lo map ouL large areas of Lhe braln's elecLrlcal
acLlvlLy
-
8ra|n Imag|ng
A focused beam of x-ray Lakes plcLures of narrow sllces of Lhe braln !
lL ls far more senslLlve Lhan LradlLlonal x-ray procedures !
C1 scans use x-ray Lechnology Lo sLudy braln sLrucLures -
1he braln uses glucose for energy, and when Lhey are more acLlve, Lhey consume more
glucose
!
8adloacLlve glucose ls ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe blood sLream where lL Lravels Lo Lhe braln !
1he energy LransmlLLed by Lhe radloacLlve subsLance ls measured by Lhe L1 scan !
L1 scans measure braln acLlvlLy such as meLabollsm, blood flow, and neuroLransmlLLer acLlvlLy -
Can be used Lo sLudy boLh braln sLrucLures and braln acLlvlLy !
1he person ls placed ln Lhe core of a long magneLlc cyllnder and Lhe aLoms ln Lhe sub[ecL's
body are exposed Lo a unlform magneLlc fleld
!
Magnet|c resonance |mag|ng -
1he crownlng feaLure of Lhe braln ls Lhe cerebrum -
lL has 3 ma[or dlvlslons: Lhe hlndbraln, Lhe mldbraln, and Lhe forebraln -
1he n|ndbra|n
As Lhe splnal cord enLers Lhe braln, lL enlarges Lo form sLrucLures LhaL compose sLalkllke bra|n
stem
-
8ra|n stem: ||fe support systems
1he medu||a plays an lmporLanL role ln vlLal body funcLlons such as hearL raLe and resplraLlon -
MosL of Lhe sensory and moLor nerves cross over wlLhln Lhe medulla, so Lhe lefL slde conLrols Lhe
rlghL and Lhe rlghL conLrols Lhe lefL
-
lL also regulaLes dreams !
1he pons lle above Lhe medulla and serves as a brldge carrylng nerve lmpulses beLween hlgher
and lower levels of Lhe nervous syLem
-
lL regulaLes complex rapldly changlng movemenLs LhaL requlre exqulslLe Llmlng !
1he cerebe||um conslsLs of malnly grey maLLer and ls concerned prlmarlly wlLh muscular
movemenL coordlnaLlon
-
1he M|dbra|n
ConLalns clusLers of sensory and moLor neurons -
lL conLalns an lmporLanL relay cenLre for Lhe vlsual and audlLory sysLems -
lL also conLrols eye movemenLs -
lL as an ascendlng parL whlch sends lnpuL Lo hlgher reglons of Lhe braln
1he ret|cu|ar format|on acLs as a senLry LhaL elLher blocks messages or allows Lhem Lo pass -
?0' @"'(-($0"$-3 ,(-".7 A4(1$41('# -.6 ,'0-&"%(-3 81.$4"%.#
lL as an ascendlng parL whlch sends lnpuL Lo hlgher reglons of Lhe braln !
lL also has a descendlng parL whlch hlgher braln cenLers can elLher admlL or block ouL
sensory lnpuL
!
Lg. Some anesLheLlcs work by blocklng ouL Lhe slgnals ascendlng Lo Lhe braln !
Lg. LlecLrlcal sLlmulaLlon of some parLs of Lhe reLlcular formaLlon can produce lnsLanL sleep
and wakefulness ln anlmals
!
1he Iorebra|n
MosL profound dlfference beLween people and anlmals ls Lhe slze and complexlLy of Lhe forebraln
(6#&#.&2:9
-
uamage Lo Lhe Lhalamus can cause confuslon and dlsordered aLLenLlon ln Lhe vlcLlms
(schlzophrenla)
!
1he tha|amus ls an lmporLanL sensory relay sLaLlon LhaL rouLes slgnals Lo approprlaLe parLs of Lhe
braln
-
Lg. ln arklnsons ulsease, Lhe neurons LhaL supply dopamlne Lo Lhe basal ganglla
degeneraLe and dle, Lhe basal ganglla malfuncLlons and Lhe ablllLy Lo lnlLlaLe volunLary
movemenL ls losL
!
arklnsons cause handshaklng, Lhen [erky movemenLs LhaL can only be performed when
lnlLlaLed by a push, and flnally paralysls occurs
!
1he basa| gang||a ls crlLlcal for volunLary moLor conLrol (as opposed Lo reflexlve, and auLomaLed
conLrol of Lhe cerebellum)
-
Lg. uesLrucLlon of one parL of Lhe hypoLhalamus can lead Lo lmpoLence !
Lg. uamage Lo anoLher parL causes exLreme overeaLlng !
arLs of Lhe hypoLhalamus produce a subsLance called orex|ns LhaL sLlmulaLe eaLlng !
1he hypotha|amus plays a role ln conLrolllng sexual behavlor, LemperaLure regulaLlon, eaLlng,
drlnklng, aggresslon, and Lhe expresslon of emoLlon
-
Lg. uamage Lo Lhls sysLem would cause you Lo be unable Lo carry ouL organlzed sequences
of acLlons Lo saLlsfy your needs
!
1wo ma[or sLrucLures are Lhe h|ppocampus and Lhe amyg|ada|a !
n|ppocampus ls lnvolved ln formlng and reLrlevlng memorles, damage Lo Lhls area can cause
severe memory lmpalrmenL for recenL evenLs
!
SLlmulaLlon ln some parLs cause aggresslve posLure and behavlor, whlle sLlmulaLlon ln
oLher parLs cause fear and Lhe lnablllLy Lo acL
lL can produce emoLlonal responses wlLhouL Lhe hlgher cenLres of Lhe braln knowlng
LhaL we are emoLlonally aroused
1hey puL elecLrodes ln Lhe amygdala and wlLnessed LhaL Lhe raL would do a loL
Lo be elecLrlcally sLlmulaLed Lhere
LlecLrlcal sLlmulaLlon of Lhe hypoLhalamus acLlvaLes axons LhaL goes Lo Lhe

llmblc sLrucLure ls called Lhe nuc|eus accumbens
eLer Clds and eLer Mllner also concluded LhaL lL ls Lhe pleasure cenLer of Lhe braln
1he amygda|a organlzes emoLlonal response paLLerns, parLlcularly Lhose llnked Lo
aggresslon and fear
!
1he ||mb|c system have an lmporLanL parLnershlp wlLh Lhe hypoLhalamus and helps Lo coordlnaLe
behavlor needed Lo saLlsfy moLlvaLlonal and emoLlonal urges
-
1he cerebra| cortex ls a grey sheeL of cells LhaL form Lhe ouLermosL layer of Lhe human braln -
lL ls perhaps Lhe mosL dlsLlngulshlng parL of Lhe human body -
eople who lack lL lack Lhe ablllLy of advanced Lhlnklng -
1he cerebral corLex has many flssures and Lhey dlvlde up Lhe many parLs of Lhe braln -
1here are 4 lobes: fronta|, par|eta|, occ|p|ta|, and tempora|, each wlLh a parLlcular sensory and
moLor funcLlon
-
Speech and skeleLal moLor funcLlons are locaLed ln Lhe fronLal lobe -
1he parleLal lobe governs body sensaLlons, separaLed by Lhe centra| f|ssure beLween Lhe fronLal -
?0' ='('D(-3 =%(4'E7 =(%:. %+ 40' ,(-".
1he parleLal lobe governs body sensaLlons, separaLed by Lhe centra| f|ssure beLween Lhe fronLal
and parleLal lobe
-
vlslon ls assoclaLed wlLh Lhe occlplLal lobe -
Motor Cortex
ConLrols 600 or more muscles lnvolved ln volunLary body movemenLs lle aL Lhe rear of Lhe fronLal
lobe
-
Speclflc body areas are dedlcaLed ln speclflc parLs of Lhe corLex -
1he sensory cortex
Speclflc areas have been ldenLlfled Lo dlfferenL areas of Lhe corLex wlLh Lhe excepLlon of LasLe and
smell
-
lL lles ln Lhe parleLal lobe behlnd Lhe moLor corLex wlLh Lhe uppermosL parLs conLrolllng Lhe
boLLom of Lhe body and Lhe lower parLs conLrolllng Lhe upper parLs
!
1he ma[or sensory area for vlslon lles aL Lhe rear of Lhe occlplLal lobe !
Lach eye and ear sends slgnals Lo opposlLe sldes of Lhe braln, Lhe loss of slghL or hearlng ln
one has llLLle effecL on Lhe oLher
!
Somat|c sensory cortex recelves sensory lnpuL LhaL glves rlse Lo sensaLlons of heaL, Louch, cold,
balance, and body movemenL
-
When we hear hlgh sounds, cerLaln neurons flre and when we hear low sounds, oLher neurons flre -
1he sensory corLex ls also senslLlve Lo experlence -
Wern|ckes area ln Lhe Lemporal lobe ls lnvolved ln language comprehenslon -
8rocas area ls ln Lhe fronLal lobe ls necessary for normal speech producLlon -
uamage Lo Lhe assoclaLlon corLex can cause dlsrupLlon of speech, undersLandlng, Lhlnklng,
and problem solvlng
!
lL accounLs for abouL 73 of Lhe human cerebral corLex !
Skoyles suggesLs LhaL our ablllLy Lo learn learnlng allowed us Lo upgrade our cognlLlve skllls
fasLer Lhan naLural selecLlon alone
!
Assoc|at|on cortex ls found ln all reglons of Lhe cerebral corLex ls lnvolved ln Lhe hlghesL level of
menLal funcLlons lncludlng percepLlon, language, and LhoughL
-
lL ls also lnvolved ln emoLlonal experlence such as happlness, sadness, or dlsgusL !
eople wlLh lobe damage ofLen exhlblL apaLhy and lack of concern !
1he fronta| |obe accounLs Lo abouL 29 of Lhe corLex and accounLs for quallLlLes such as self-
awareness, plannlng, lnlLlaLlve, and responslblllLy
-
eople wlLh damage Lo Lhls parL seem obllvlous Lo Lhe fuLure consequences of Lhelr acLlons
and only governed by lmmedlaLe consequences
!
A sLudy of people who pleaded noL gullLy by reason of lnsanlLy showed LhaL Lhey have
reduce prefronLal lobe acLlvlLy whlch Lhey lack foreLhoughL and lmpulse conLrol
!
1he prefronta| cortex, locaLed behlnd Lhe forehead, has execut|ve funct|ons whlch are menLal
ablllLles lnvolved ln goal seLLlng, [udgmenL, sLraLeglc plannlng, and lmpulse conLrol
-
1he lefL and rlghL cerebral hemlsphere ls connecL Lhe corpus ca||osum, whlch allows Lhe Lwo sldes
Lo funcLlon as a slngle unlL
-
Latera||zat|on ls Lhe greaLer locallzaLlon of a funcLlon ln one hemlsphere or Lhe oLher -
1he lefL slde ls responslble for speech, maLhemaLlcs, and loglc -
When 8rocas or Wernlckes speech areas are damage, aphas|a, loss of ablllLy Lo communlcaLe,
occurs
-
Lg. lorgeLLlng well Lravelled rouLes, mlsLaklng common ob[ecLs !
When Lhe rlghL slde ls damaged, spaLlal ablllLles are lmpalred -
1he rlghL slde ls responslble for muslc, arLlsLlc ablllLles and Lhe ablllLy Lo comprehend spaLlal
relaLlons
-
Lg. When muslc ls presenLed Lo Lhe rlghL hemlsphere flrsL, lL reacLs fasLer !
Lg. Words are ldenLlfled more qulckly lf lL ls presenLed Lo Lhe lefL hemlsphere flrsL
When sLlmull ls presenLed Lo one hemlsphere before Lhe oLher, a dlfference can be deLecLed -
@'9"#>0'("$ G-4'(-3"C-4"%.7 ?0' G'+4 -.6 2"<04 ,(-".#
Lg. Words are ldenLlfled more qulckly lf lL ls presenLed Lo Lhe lefL hemlsphere flrsL !
8lghL ls 20 fasLer aL recognlzlng muslc Lhan lefL !
LefL ls 20 fasL aL ldenLlfylng words Lhan rlghL !
Corpus callosum allows lnformaLlon Lo be passed beLween Lhe Lwo -
8lghL hemlsphere ls more acLlve when feellng negaLlve emoLlons such as sadness and anger -
LefL hemlsphere ls more acLlve when experlenclng happy emoLlons -
?our rlghL eye sends lnformaLlon Lo Lhe lefL slde of Lhe braln and vlce versa, buL geL a unlfled
vlew of Lhe slLuaLlon because Lhe Lwo sldes communlcaLe wlLh each oLher
!
8oger Sperry addressed whaL would happen lf Lhe llnk beLween Lhe lefL and rlghL slde ls broken -
When a word ls flashed Lo Lhe lefL eye (rlghL hemlsLphere), Lhe sub[ecL could noL descrlbe
whaL Lhey [usL saw on screen, whlch lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe rlghL hemlsphere does noL have well-
developed language ablllLles
!
Lg. lf a LooLhbrush ls shown, Lhe person can use Lhelr lefL hand Lo flnd Lhe
brush, buL he would noL be able Lo name lL ln language unLll lL ls Lransferred Lo
Lhe rlghL hand (lefL hemlsphere)
Powever, Lhe rlghL hemlsphere can sLlll recognlze ob[ecLs !

Sperry found LhaL people wlLh severed corpus collosams have lmpalred ablllLles -
8lghL hemlsphere has beLLer recognlLlon ablllLles -
Some say LhaL Lhe consclous self resldes ln Lhe lefL hemlsphere because consclousness ls
based on our ablllLy Lo verballze abouL Lhe pasL and presenL
!
1he lefL hemlsphere answered dlfferenLly from Lhe rlghL
Cne spllL braln vlcLlm learned Lo use scrabble leLLers wlLh Lhe rlghL hemlsphere and each
hemlsphere was asked whaL hls ldeal occupaLlon was
!
1here ls a hypoLhesls LhaL each hemlsphere ls a mlnd on lLs own -
Chlmps have greaLer lefL hemlsphere ln Lhe area LhaL corresponds wlLh Wernlcke's area !
Language ls mosLly lefL hemlsphere -
90 of people are rlghL handed, 93 people have lefL hemlsphere language domlnance, a small
mlnorlLy have locallzed language on Lhelr rlghL hemlsphere
-
Lven bllnd people showed greaLer lefL slde domlnance ln brallle -
Men show mosLly lefL slde acLlvlLy ln language whlle women showed acLlvlLy on boLh sldes -
nem|spher|c |atera||zat|on of |anguage
Learnlng, and exposure Lo new lnformaLlon changes your braln ln a way LhaL makes you a dlfferenL
person Lhan you were before
-
Neuron |ast|c|ty: Lhe ablllLy of neurons Lo change ln sLrucLure and funcLlon -
Lar|y exper|ence
8ralns of raLs LhaL was ralsed ln a sLlmulaLlng early envlronmenL had larger braln slzes, more
connecLlons, and more neuroLransmlLLers
-
Muslclans have beLLer developed rlghL hemlsphere somaLosensory areas devoLed Lo Lhe flngers -
remaLurely born lnfanLs showed fasLer neurologlcal developmenL Lhan Lhose who weren'L -
Alcohol exposure ln womb can produce llfelong behavloral and menLal damage -
kecovery of Iunct|on after |n[ury
neurons can Lake over Lhe funcLlon of oLher neurons LhaL have dled durlng Lhe ln[ury -
Lg. A chlld havlng a sLroke can recover fasLer and beLLer Lhan Lhe elderly !
8raln damage suffered earller ln llfe ls less devasLaLlng LhaL Lhose laLer ln llfe -
8raln ls capable of greaLer plasLlclLy early ln llfe -
neurons from younger caLs can survlve and creaLe new synapses whlle Lhose Laken from
older caLs could noL survlve
!
neurons Laken from caLs were grown ln a medlum -
;3-#4"$"4) ". 40' ,(-".7 ?0' (%3' %+ 'E>'("'.$' -.6 40' ('$%&'() %+
+1.$4"%.
older caLs could noL survlve
When neurons dle oLher neurons replace Lhelr funcLlon or lncrease Lhe volume of
neuroLransmlLLers
!
neurons are programmed for cell deaLh -
ln prlmaLes, Lhe hlppocampus has been shown Lo generaLe new neurons whlch ls lmporLanL ln
memory
-
1hose who use Lhelr bralns more ofLen are much beLLer aL reLalnlng Lhelr synapses -
Interact|ons w|th the Lndocr|ne System
Lndocr|ne system conslsLs of numerous glands dlsLrlbuLed LhroughouL Lhe body (flg. 3.24) -
Conveys lnformaLlon vla hormones (chemlcal messengers secreLed lnLo Lhe blood sLream) -
Lg. A hypoLhesls sLaLes LhaL voodoo maglc makes Lhe person Lhlnk LhaL Lhey are golng Lo dle
whlch causes Lhe release of loLs of sLress hormones whlch could cause a faLal blood pressure
drop
!
1he endocrlne messages can affecL Lhe nervous sysLem and Lhe menLal processes ln Lhe braln can
affecL Lhe endocrlne sysLem
-
SecreLes cort|so| whlch allows Lhe person Lo funcLlon desplLe sLressful condlLlons !
Powever, hlgh levels of sLress hormones can cause Lhe deLerloraLlon of Lhe hlppocampus
whlch ls relaLed Lo cognlLlve and memory funcLlons
!
1he adrena| g|ands are Lwln sLrucLures on Lop of Lhe kldneys -
ModeraLe levels of sLress early on ln llfe can lead Lo fasLer sLress recovery laLer on -
8eLLer moLhers can have an effecL on laLer llfe sLress recovery ablllLles -
1he endocrlne sysLem ls much slower Lhan Lhe nervous sysLem, buL ls able Lo LargeL bllllons of cells
lndlvldually
-
M'(&%1# #)#4'9 ".4'(-$4"%.# :"40 40' '.6%$(".' -.6 "991.' #)#4'9#
lmmune sysLem ls able Lo deLecL anLlgens and desLroy Lhem -
Cnce Lhe lmmune sysLem has encounLered Lhe anLlgens LhaL enLer Lhe body, lL reLaln a memory
LhaL allows lL Lo produce more Lo desLroy Lhe parLlcular anLlgen
-
roblems arlse when Lhe lmmune sysLem ls elLher underacLlve or overacLlve -
lL also lncludes cancer, whlch Lhe lmmune sysLem allows Lhe cancer cells Lo prollferaLe !
underacLlve lmmune sysLems lnclude AluS whlch aLLacks Lhe helper 1 cells whlch are responslble
of calllng lnLo acLlon Lhe anLlgen kllllng cells
-
Lg. ln an asLhma aLLack, Lhe allergen releases a LorrenL of hlsLamlne, whlch causes Lhe
bronchlal Lubes Lo conLracL
!
Lg. ln rheumaLold arLhrlLls, Lhe lmmune sysLem aLLacks Lhe [olnLs
lL could also cause an auto|mmune react|on when Lhe body mlsLakenly aLLacks a body parL !
CveracLlve response can cause problems ln Lerms of allergles -
Lg. Lhe sLlmulaLlon of cerLaln parLs of Lhe cerebral corLex lnsLanLaneously lncreases or
decreases lmmune sysLem acLlvlLy
!
Lg. ln[ecLlng anLlgens lnLo Lhe body causes elecLrlcal sLlmulaLlon ln Lhe braln !
1he lmmune sysLem can make neuroLransmlLLers and hormones, allowlng lL Lo affecL boLh
Lhe nervous and Lhe endocrlne sysLem
!
!
1he lmmune sysLem ls relaLed Lo Lhe nervous sysLem -
F.4'(-$4"%.# ".&%3&".< 40' "991.' #)#4'9
Genet|c Inf|uences
CeneLlcs ls noL a slmple blend of parenLal characLerlsLlcs
Cregor Mendel and Lhe peas -
Genotype: speclflc geneLlc make up of an lndlvldual -
henotype: Cbservable characLerlsLlcs produced by LhaL geneLlc endowmenL -
henoLypes can be affecLed by Lhe envlronmenL -
unA porLlon carrles Lhe heredlLary blueprlnL ln unlLs called genes
Lgg and sperm cells carry chromosomes, a LlghL arrangemenL of unA and proLeln -
All human cells have 46 chromosomes, excepL gameLes whlch have 23 -
Cene's maln purpose ls Lo produce proLelns -
Chromosomes and Genes
uomlnanL genes wlll be dlsplayed ln Lhe phenoLype -
8ecesslve genes do noL lf palred wlLh a domlnanL gene, buL wlll be expressed lf palr wlLh
anoLher recesslve gene
-
o|ygen|c transm|ss|on ls when gene palrs have a comblned lnfluence on a slngle
phenoLyplc LralL
-
Dom|nant, kecess|ve, and o|ygen|c Lffects
1he Puman Cenome pro[ecL sLarLed ln 1990 and flnlshed ln 2001 mapped Lhe enLlre
human geneLlc sequence
-
A compuLer (ueep Maple) was Lhe maln daLabase for Lhe pro[ecL -
ulscovered LhaL humans have abouL Lhe same number of genes as frulL flles -
Mapp|ng the Genet|c Code
ln recomb|nant DNA procedures researchers use cerLaln enzymes Lo cuL Lhe Lhreadllke
molecules of unA lnLo pleces, and comblne Lhem wlLh unA from anoLher organlsm and
lnserL Lhem lnLo a hosL organlsm such as a bacLerlum
-
1he human growLh hormone can be creaLed Lhls way Lo LreaL people wlLh shorL sLaLures -
1here are meLhods of lnserLlng geneLlc maLerlal lnLo vlruses LhaL can lnfllLraLe neurons Lo
change Lhelr geneLlc sLrucLure
-
1hls ls called a gene knockout because Lhe parLlcular funcLlon of Lhe gene ls
ellmlnaLed
1hls alLeraLlon caused Lhe mlce Lo have exaggeraLed sLress response

Cne experlmenL was done by Polmes, uennls, and !acquellne ln whlch Lhey knocked
ouL Lhe mechanlsm ln reupLake of seroLonln
Cne was done on anlmals Lo alLer a speclflc gene so LhaL lLs normal funcLlons are
dlsrupLed
-
More Lhan one gene ls usually responslble for a cerLaln behavlor -
knocklng ouL one gene have affecL a wlde range of funcLlons -
Genet|c Lng|neer|ng: 1he Ldge of Creat|on
Cffsprlng has a 30 chance of havlng Lhe same genes as parenLs -
8ehav|or Genet|cs 1echn|ques
ChapLer 4
CcLober-11-10
1:02 M
Cffsprlng has a 30 chance of havlng Lhe same genes as parenLs -
30 chance of havlng Lhe same genes as broLhers or slsLers -
23 chance of grandparenLs -
ner|tab|||ty coeff|c|ent ls Lhe exLenL Lo whlch varaLlon ln a parLlcular characLerlsLlc wlLhln
group can be aLLrlbuLed Lo geneLlc facLors
-
Lg. 8ange of body welghLs: how much of LhaL range ls due Lo geneLlc varlances
Applles only wlLhln groups
ner|tab|||ty means how much of Lhe varlaLlon ln a characLerlsLlc wlLhln a populaLlon can
be aLLrlbuLed Lo geneLlc dlfferences
-
lf a characLerlsLlc has hlgher concordance ln people who are relaLed, Lhls polnLs Lo a
geneLlc conLrlbuLlon parLlcularly lf Lhey llved ln dlfferenL envlronmenLs
-
lf Lhe adopLee has more slmllarlLles Lo Lhe adopLed parenLs, envlronmenLal facLor ls
more lmporLanL
lf Lhe adopLee has more slmllarlLles wlLh Lhe blologlcal parenLs, Lhen genLlcs ls more
lmporLanL
Lg. Schlzophrenla: adopLlon parenLs only had 3 famlly members wlLh Lhe dlsease
whlle blologlcal parenLs had 12, whlch shows LhaL lL ls probably heredlLary
ln adopt|on study people adopLed ln whlch characLerlsLlcs are compared boLh beLween
Lhe blologlcal parenLs and Lhe adopLlve parenLs
-
MonozygoLlc (ldenLlcal) are geneLlcally ldenLlcal
ulzygoLlc Lwlns (fraLernal) are llke any regular broLhers and slsLers
1w|n Stud|es -
Lven when Lhey are ralsed ln dlfferenL envlronmenLs (separaLed early chlldhood)
ldenLlcal Lwlns have many slmllarlLles Lo each oLher -
eople wlLh blologlcal faLhers wlLh crlmlnal records, buL adopLlve faLher wlLh no crlmlnal
record have hlgh crlmlnal records
-
eople wlLh blologlcal faLhers wlLh low crlmlnal records, buL adopLlve faLhers wlLh hlgh
crlmlnal records, had low crlmlnal records
-
lf boLh adopLlve and blologlcal faLhers had crlmlnal records, Lhen Lhe chlld has Lhe hlghesL
crlmlnal record of all
-
All of our behavlor reflecL Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe genes and Lhe envlronmenL -
nered|ty, Lnv|ronment, and Inte|||gence
Lvldence shows LhaL Lhls ls noL Lhe case
1hen Lhe correlaLlon beLween ldenLlcal Lwlns should be +1.00
Lg. 8lologlcal parenLs and Lhelr chlld have more slmllar lC Lhan adopLlve
parenLs and Lhelr adopLed chlld
Powever, Lhe more genes LhaL people share Lhe more slmllar Lhelr lC wlll be
Suppose LhaL lnLelllgence ls LoLally deLermlned by genes -
8|o|og|ca| keact|on kange, Lnv|ronment, and Inte|||gence
keact|on range: for a geneLlcally lnfleunced LralL ls Lhe range of posslblllLles - Lhe upper
and lower llmlLs - LhaL Lhe geneLlc code allows
-
CeneLlc varlaLlons cannoL be measured dlrecLly, buL sLudles show LhaL lL could be 13 Lo 20
polnLs on Lhe lC scale
-
Lg. llgure 4.6 -
8ehav|or Genet|cs and ersona||ty
ersonallLy LralLs such as exLraverslon-lnLroverslon reflecL dlfferences ln braln arousal -
CerLaln behavlors such as novelLy seeklng has been llnked Lo genes LhaL affecL Lhe levels -
Genet|c Inf|uences on 8ehav|or
CerLaln behavlors such as novelLy seeklng has been llnked Lo genes LhaL affecL Lhe levels
of dopamlne
-
varlaLlon aLLrlbuLable Lo geneLlc facLors 1.
varlaLlon due Lo a shared famlly envlronmenL among Lhose reared LogeLher 2.
varlaLlon aLLrlbuLable Lo oLher facLors, such as unlque lndlvldual experlences 3.
varlaLlon among lndlvlduals on each personallLy LralL can be dlvlded lnLo 3 componenLs -
1he envlronmenL had llLLle lnfluence on ldenLlcal Lwlns reared aparL -
1he lndlvldual's unlque experlence, school, soclal lnLeracLlons, accounLed for a slgnlflcanL
porLlon of Lhe varlaLlon
-
Lg. 1he en[oymenL of rollercoasLers may be based how robusL Lhe lnner ear ls
1here may noL be genes dlrecLly lnfluenclng Lhese behavlor
CeneLlc lnfluences may also lnfluence alcohol abuse, personallLles dlsorders
A survey was done on Lwlns showed LhaL Lhe hlghesL herlLablllLy coefflclenLs were
aLLlLudes Lowards readlng books, aborLlon, playlng organlzed sporLs, rldlng roller coasLers,
and deaLh penalLy
-
LvoluLlonary sychology seeks Lo undersLand how behavloral ablllLles and Lendencles
have evolved over Lhe course of half mllllon years
-
1hls allows Lhe wolf Lo survlve by creaLlng mechanlsms LhaL allow Lhls behavlor
Lg. 1he wolf howl allows Lhe wolf Lo communlcaLe over a long dlsLance and sLay
away from compeLlng wolf packs
ln humans, aggresslon, alLrulsm, and sex roles are examples of evolved mechanlsms
8|o|og|ca||y based mechan|sms recelve lnpuL from Lhe envlronmenL, process Lhe
lnformaLlon, and responds Lo lL Lo creaLe behavlor
-
Lvo|ut|on and 8ehav|or
Lvo|ut|on ls a change over Llme ln Lhe frequency wlLh whlch parLlcular genes occur wlLhln
an lnLerbreedlng populaLlon
-
Some geneLlc varlaLlons come from muLaLlon -
Natura| Se|ect|on
CharacLerlsLlcs LhaL lncrease Lhe llkellhood of survlval and reproducLlon wlll be more llkely
Lo be preserved ln Lhe populaLlon
-
1here ls a fllLer LhaL lncreases Lhe number of characLerlsLlcs presenL ln Lhe survlvors and
decrease Lhe characLerlsLlcs found ln nonsurvlvors
-
Lg. 8adlaLlon Lolerance afLer nuclear war
Some neuLral varlaLlons are passed on wlLhouL blas and are known as #/%72,*%)(&5 )%*4#
and lL could be lmporLanL ln Lhe fuLure
-
Adaptat|ons
1hey allow organlsms Lo meeL recurrlng envlronmenLal challenges Lo Lhelr survlval -
lL ls lmporLanL for an anlmal Lo pass on lLs genes, whlch explalns why anlmals someLlmes
rlsk Lhelr own safeLy Lo proLecL Lhelr kln
-
8lology -> behavloral capablllLles -> survlvablllLy -
uwlndllng vegeLaLlon favored Lhose wlLh blpedal locomoLlon Lo survlve because Lhey can
hunL on plalns, Lhls also favors use of Lools, Lhe developmenL of language, and soclal
sLrucLure
-
1he greaLesL pressure came Lo ablllLles for aLLenLlon, memory, language, and LhoughL
because Lhey became essenLlal for survlval
-
1oday, our braln ls acLually smaller Lhan Lhose of Lhe neanderLhal whlch shows LhaL
culLural evoluLlon ls also lmporLanL ln Lhe developmenL of adapLaLlons
-
Lvo|ut|on of Adapt|ve Mechan|sms
culLural evoluLlon ls also lmporLanL ln Lhe developmenL of adapLaLlons
Doma|n spec|f|c adaptat|ons are deslgned Lo solve a parLlcular problem such as selecLlng
a sulLable maLe, chooslng safe foods Lo eaL, eLc
-
1he braln ls a collecLlon of speclallzed and somewhaL lndependenL modules -
lnfanLs are born wlLh lnnaLe ablllLy Lo learn any language spoken, deaf lnfanLs are able Lo
learn slgn language
-
1hey are more responslve Lo plcLures of human faces Lhan random feaLures
arranged a mess
1hey can dlsLlngulsh Lhe odor of Lhelr moLher's mllk

1hey are able Lo percelve cerLaln speclflc sLlmull -
AL 1 week of age, lnfanLs show prlmlLlve maLh skllls -
Pumans have a need Lo belong and fear of belng osLraclzed from Lhe group -
Some baslc emoLlons are unlversallzed such as happlness and goodwlll -
An Lvo|ut|onary Snapshot of human nature
A perspecLlve where all behavlor ls llnked Lo how Lhose funcLlons conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe
success and adapLablllLy of Lhe lndlvldual
-
ersona||ty
Lvo|ut|onary ersona||ty 1heory asks where dld human LralLs come from ln Lhe flrsL place -
1hls ls conslsLenL LhroughouL all culLures of Lhe world because Lhey help us survlve
physlcally and reproduce successfully
1here are llmlLed number of baslc dlmenslons Lo human personallLy -

LvoluLlonary LheorlsLs regard baslc personallLy LralLs as belng sculpLed by naLural selecLlon
unLll Lhey become parL of human naLure
-
ls person x acLlve and omlnanL or passlve and submlsslve? Can l domlnaLe x or wlll l
have Lo submlL Lo x?
1.
ls person x agreeable and frlendly, or hosLlle and uncooperaLlve? 2.
Can l counL on x? ls x consclenLlous and dependable? 3.
ls x sane (sLable, raLlonal, predlcLable? Cr crazy (unsLable, unpredlcLable, posslbly
dangerous)
4.
Pow smarL ls x, and how qulckly can x learn Lo adopL? 3.
8lologlcally, people had Lo ask 3 baslc quesLlons when Lhey lnLeracL wlLh anoLher person,
ln order or lmporLance
-
Puman belngs are capable of changlng Lhelr behavlor ln order Lo adapL -
Mat|ng Systems and arenta| Investment
Lg. llsh laylng eggs
AL one exLreme specles make loLs of offsprlng and offer llLLle Lo no care abouL Lhe survlval
of Lhem
-
Lg. Pumans and elephanLs
AL Lhe oLher end, llLLle offsprlngs are produced, buL are proLecLed and cared for unLll Lhey
are self sufflclenL and capable of survlvlng on Lhelr own
-
lf Lhe lnvesLmenL ls unequal, Lhen LhaL maLe wlll be more dlscrlmlnaLlng ln chooslng
a maLe and wlll be more rlgorously compeLed for
Lg. Women have Lo go Lhrough gesLaLlon, breasLfeedlng

Cne dlfference across specles ls parenta| |nvestment whlch refers Lo Lhe Llme, efforL,
energy, and rlsk assoclaLed wlLh carlng successfully for each offsprlng
-
lf female lnvesLmenL ls hlgh whlle male lnvesLmenL ls low, Lhen polygyny would be mosL -
Lvo|ut|onary sycho|ogy
1hls would yleld ln larger and sLronger males because lL helps Lhem compeLe for Lhe
female
lf female lnvesLmenL ls hlgh whlle male lnvesLmenL ls low, Lhen polygyny would be mosL
common because males can maxlmlze Lhelr flLness by reproduclng wlLh many females
-
lL ls unllkely LhaL a slngle parenL can successfully ralse an offsprlng
Monogamous specles show llLLle sexual dlmorphlsm ln slze or sLrengLh and
compeLlLlon comes from boLh sexes
lf boLh male and female lnvesLmenL ls hlgh Lhen monogamous mat|ng system ls more
llkely
-
1he females a usually larger, sLronger, and more aggresslve
o|yandry ls when females maLes wlLh many males and ls seen ln some flsh, lnsecLs, and
blrds
-
lound ln prlmaLes such as chlmpanzees and bonobo chlmps
Cne way Lo reduce compeLlLlon for a maLe and allows Lhem Lo be more peaceful
specles
o|yganandry ls when all members of a group maLe wlLh all oLher members of Lhe group -
8lrLh conLrol has alLered much of Lhe selecLlve pressure for speclflc maLlng paLLerns -
Women generally have Lo offer more parenLal lnvesLmenL -
Mate reference
MosL common maLe preferences come from an evoluLlonary perspecLlve -
Men and women raLe muLual aLLracLlon, dependablllLy, and emoLlonal sLablllLy as Lhe
Lhree mosL lmporLanL characLerlsLlcs
-
Men place greaLer value on physlcal aLLracLlveness and good healLh -
Women place greaLer value on male's earnlng poLenLlal, sLaLus, and amblLlousness -
Cn average, Lhe groom ls 3 years older Lhan Lhe brlde
1hls makes sense because sLaLus, poLenLlal, eLc comes laLer ln llfe
Women prefer older men -
Shows LhaL men are free from paraslLes or has geneLlc reslsLance Lo paraslLes
Women showed preference for symmeLrlcal faces and oLher slgns of physlcal healLh -
Male aLLracLlveness ls enhanced by slgns of parenLal lnvesLmenL and decreased by
lndlfference Loward a chlld ln dlsLress
-
Males have no preference Lowards wheLher Lhe woman shows more parenLal lnvesLmenL -
Showed preferences for anlmaLed faclal expresslons, hlgh energy level, and a bouncy
youLhful galL
Males prefer women who dlsplay slgns of youLh such as clear smooLh skln, and slgns of
physlcal healLh such as symmeLrlcal faces
-
1he average correlaLlon ln aLLracLlveness raLlng ln males of dlfferenL raclal groups
was +0.93
references for speclflc walsL Lo hlp raLlo has also been conslsLenL cross culLurally
1here ls a cross culLural raLlng of aLLracLlveness for women -
1hls ylelds many beneflLs
Cooperat|on refers Lo a slLuaLlon where helplng anoLher lndlvldual wlll also galn some
personal advanLages
-
Lg. 8lrd LhaL calls ouL Lo alerL Lhe flock of a predaLor puLs Lhemselves aL rlsk
A|tru|sm ls when helplng anoLher wlll have a cerLaln rlsk for Lhe lndlvldual -
Cn Lhe surface lL doesn'L seem Lo make sense ln evoluLlon -
1here are 2 lmporLanL Lheorles -
k|nd se|ect|on theory 1.
A|tru|sm
Lg. Maybe slbllngs, aunLs and uncles are ln Lhe flock and whlle Lhe lndlvldual
may perlsh, Lhe geneLlc code of Lhe anlmal ls more llkely Lo be passed on
AlLrulsm developed Lo lncrease Lhe survlval of relaLlves -

k|nd se|ect|on theory 1.
Lg. Cne lndlvldual may help anoLher buL Lhe asslsLance wlll be reclprocaLed
someLlme ln Lhe fuLure
1hls requlres a sLable group so LhaL Lhe deed ls llkely Lo be reclprocaLed

AlLrulsm ls long Lerm cooperaLlon -
1heory of kec|proca| A|tru|sm 2.
MosL valued resources are ln llmlLed supply -
Lg. Male blrds aLLacklng oLher male blrds durlng maLlng season -
Anlmals musL compeLe wlLh oLhers or oLher groups Lo declde who geLs Lhe resources -
Cne of Lhe mosL common causes of homlclde ls sexual [ealousy usually wlLh Lwo men flghL
for a woman
-
1hls allows members Lo declde who geLs Lhe resource wlLhouL wasLlng energy -
Soclal anlmals have developed domlnance hlerarchles so LhaL Lhey don'L compeLe agaln
and agaln
-
Lg. uomlnanL males have used Lhelr poslLlon Lo sLop flghLlng among subordlnaLes -
8esldes decldlng who geLs Lhe resource, Lhe hlerarchy ls also used Lo quell aggresslon -
ln chlmps and humans only, Lhere are coallLlons Lo aLLack oLher groups -
Aggress|on
now not to th|nk about behav|or genet|cs and evo|ut|onary
psycho|ogy
Lg. lf you have a gene for alcohollsm, you are golng Lo be an alcohollc -
Genet|c determ|n|sm ls when genes have lnvarlanL and unavoldable effecLs -
Cur undersLandlng of human geneLlcs wlll mean LhaL Lhere may be a cure avallable Lo
compensaLe for Lhe genes
-
Cenes have a role ln deLermlnlng Lhe reacLlon range for cerLaln Lhlngs such as lnLelllgence,
buL Lhe envlronmenL sLlll plays an lmporLanL role
-
Aggresslon, for example, ls due Lo Lhe envlronmenL ln a ma[or way -
Genet|c Determ|n|sm
1hls means LhaL lf Lhe more flL are more successful, Lhen Lhose on Lhe Lop rungs of soclal
and economlc ladder musL be mosL flL of all
-
Lugenlcs assume LhaL Lhe genes of one group are ln some measurable way beLLer Lhan Lhe
genes of anoLher group
-
Soc|a| Darw|n|sm
le. lf geneLlcs and our evoluLlonary hlsLory have resulLed ln Lhe presence of a LralL or
behavlor lL ls naLural and rlghL
-
lf people formed flghLlng coallLlons, Lhere's no polnL ln Lrylng Lo sLop lL because lLs
coded ln our genes
-
LvoluLlonary analyses of human behavlor leglLlmlzes Lhe sLaLus quo -
lf someLhlng ls happenlng, lL should remaln so because geneLlcs knows whaL lLs dolng -
Defend|ng the Status uo
Stimulus is ieceiveu by sensoiy ieceptois -> ieceptois tianslate stimulus piopeities
into neive impulses -> featuie uetectois analyze stimulus featuies -> stimulus
featuies aie ieconstiucteu into neuial iepiesentation -> neuial iepiesentation Is
compaieu with pieviously stoieu infoimation in the biain -> matching piocess
iesults in iecognition anu inteipietation of stimuli
Sensation to Peiception -
A'.#-4"%. is the stimulus uetection piocess by which oui sense oigans iesponu to anu
tianslate enviionmental stimuli into neive impulses anu aie sent to the biain
-
It's an active anu cieative piocess; the same stimuli can give iise to uiffeient
peiceptions
Youi inteipietation of a sensation is influenceu by the $%.4'E4 of the stimuli (eg.

Reauing)
;'($'>4"%. is when we actively soit the infoimation anu makes sense of it -

A).-'#40'#"-7 Nixing senses togethei
Sensoiy is only possible because of specializeu sensoiy ieceptois that can tianslate light,
sounu, anu touch foi the biain to inteipiet
-
S senses: vision, heaiing, touch, taste, smell -
Buman sensoiy system is uesigneu to inciease oui suivivability -
;#)$0%>0)#"$# stuuies ielations between physical chaiacteiistics of stimuli anu sensoiy
capabilities
-
A'.#%() ;(%$'##'#
This is because we aie often unsuie of whethei we can uetect veiy faint stimulus
Lowei absolute thiesholu -> gieatei sensitivity
BD#%314' 40('#0%367 The lowest amount of stimulus in which one can uetect its piesence
Su% of the time
-
A4"9131# !'4'$4"%.7 ?0' BD#%314' ?0('#0%36
Psychologists ueteimineu that one's sensitivity to stimulus can vaiy -
1hls can change over Llme as a resulL of faLlgue, expecLaLlon, and poLenLlal slgnlflcance of
Lhe sLlmulus
People set theii own 6'$"#"%. $("4'("%., which is a stanuaiu of how ceitain they must be
that a stimulus is piesent befoie they say they will uetect it
-
S|gna| detect|on theory ls concerned wlLh Lhe facLors LhaL lnfluence sensory [udgmenLs -
Lg. A shlp capLaln wlll have a low declslon crlLerlon and be able Lo see very falnL bllps on Lhe
radar
-
Subllmlnal messages are slgnals below our absoluLe Lhreshold and does noL reglsLer ln our
consclous mlnd, lL has some effecL on our consclous aLLlLudes
-
A"<.-3 !'4'$4"%. ?0'%()
Aka H,*% 65%.1&#30& -.::&'&61& IH6-J
The 6"++'('.$' 40('#0%36 is the smallest uiffeience between two stimuli that a peison can
uetect Su% of the time
-
Eg. The jnu value foi weight is 1Su; this means that theie has to be a uiffeience of
P'D'(Q# 3-:7 uiffeience thiesholu is uiiectly piopoitional to the magnituue of the
stimulus with which the compaiison is being maue anu is known as :'D'(Q# +(-$4"%.
-
1he D|fference 1hresho|d
ChapLer 3
CcLober-23-10
1:32 M
Eg. The jnu value foi weight is 1Su; this means that theie has to be a uiffeience of
1Su of the oiiginal weight foi a uiffeience to be noticeu; foi a Sug weight, an
inciease oi ueciease of 1g is iequiieu foi the uiffeience to be uetectable
Webei's law uoes not woik at veiy low oi veiy high intensities
Smallei Webei's fiaction = moie sensitivity
Eg. Not feeling a watch on the wiist aftei a long time
If it weien't foi small ietina movements, even vision woulu vanish
0ui sensoiy system is tuneu to uetect changes in stimulation, anu the uiminishing
sensitivity to unchanging stimulus is calleu #'.#%() -6->4-4"%.
-
Sensoiy auaptation is auaptive because it fiees oui senses fiom constant munuane pick up
of infoimation
-
Sensory Adaptat|on
1he Sensory Systems
Buman can only sensitive of wavelengths between 7uunm (ieu) to 4uunm (blue-violet);
bees can uetect x-iays anu snakes can uetect infiaieu eneigy
-
V|s|on
Light enteis the eye thiough the $%(.'-R a tianspaient piotective stiuctuie -
The size of the pupil is contiolleu by the coloieu "("# that suiiounus the pupil
Then it passes by the >1>"3, which can uilate oi constiict to contiol the amount of light
enteiing
-
Behinu the pupil is the 3'.# which can get thickei oi thinnei to focus the light on the
('4".-R at the ieai wall of the fluiu filleu eyeball
-
The oiiginal image is flippeu left to iight anu up to uown, but the biain ieconstiucts the
input
-
H)%>"- (neai sighteuness) causes eyeball to become longei; anu the lens is too close to
the image
-
Age ielateu hypeiopia often coiiects foi myopia
@)>'(%>"- (fai sighteuness) The image is too fai fiom the lens; causes eye ball to become
shoitei
-
1he human eye
The ietina is a multilayeieu scieen that contains specializeu sensoiy neuions -
12u million ious anu 6 million cones
Theie 2 types of light ieceptois known as (%6# anu $%.'# -
2%6# function best in uim light anu aie piimaiily black anu white; about Suu times moie
sensitive to light than cones;
-
=%.'# aie coloi ieceptois anu functions best in biight illumination -
Bumans have ious aie founu thioughout the ietina except in the +%&'-R a small aiea in the
centei of the ietina that contains only cones
-
Cones ueciease in concentiation the fuithei fiom the centei it is -
Light -> axons of the <-.<3"%. $'33# S%>4"$ .'(&'T/U D">%3-( cells -> ious anu cones -
The light sensitive paits of the neuion points away fiom the light souice, seeing only a
fiaction of the light enteiing
-
It's easiei to see uim light if you look slightly to one siue so that the image uoesn't fall
on the fovea
Nany ious connect to 1 bipolai cell wheie they can combine theii electiicity to fiie it -
Nany cones also shaie bipolai cells -
In the fovea, each cone has theii own piivate line to a single bipolai cell, which iesults ".
&"#1-3 -$1"4), oui ability to see fine uetail when images aie piojecteu uiiectly onto the
fovea
-
hotoreceptors: 1he kods and Cones
Some biius have 2 fovea to see veiy fine uetails on the giounu
Axons of the ganglion cells exit thiough the back of the eye not fai fiom the fovea,
piouucing a D3".6#>%4 wheie theie aie no photoieceptois, but is oiuinaiily
unuetectable because the minu fills in the missing infoimation
fovea
?(-.#61$4"%. is when a stimulus is conveiteu into neive impulses -
Absoiption of light changes the iate of neuiotiansmittei ielease at the ieceptoi's
synapse with the bipolai cells; then to the ganglion cells wheie it is tiansmitteu to
the thalamus to be iouteu to the visual coitex of the biain
;0%4%>"<9'.4# (pioteins) in ious anu cones tianslate light into neive impulses -
V|sua| 1ransduct|on: Irom L|ght to Nerve Impu|ses
Rous have highei sensitivity to all spectiums except foi ieu
Cones aie sensitive in low illumination to gieenish-yellow iange
Rous anu cones uepenu on wavelength of the light -
Aftei absoibing a light, the photoieceptoi is uepleteu to ieceptoi molecules foi a
peiiou of time
When you go fiom biight to uaik, a laige amount of photopigment will be uepleteu
Buiing uaik auaptation, the photopigments aie iegeneiateu anu the ieceptoi's
sensitivity incieases gieatly
Fig. S.8, giaph of vision abilities in the uaik of ious anu cones vs time
!-(V B6->4-4"%. is the piogiessive impiovement in biightness sensitivity that occui ovei
time in low light
-
Fightei pilots often woik in a ieu ioom to allow theii ious to be in uaik auaptation so they
can be ieauy to take off in the uaik at any given time
-
8r|ghtness V|s|on and Dark Adaptat|ons
Co|our V|s|on
Any coloi combination can be cieateu by a mixtuie of blue, gieen, anu ieu (auuitive coloi
mixtuie)
-
Cones aie sensitive to all wavelengths, but specific ones aie most sensitive to one of
the S colois
?("$0(%9-4"$ theoiy claims that the eye peiceives ieu, gieen, anu blue in uiffeient
intensities anu mixes them togethei to geneiate a coloi
-
Theoiy inconsistent because it claims that yellow is maue by ieu anu gieen ieceptois, but
people who aie ieu gieen coloi blinu aie able to expeiience yellow
-
Also, it uoesn't explain -+4'( "9-<' (a uiffeient coloi aftei you look away) -
?("$0(%9-4"$ ?0'%()
Reu oi gieen !.
Blue oi yellow ?.
Black oi white 3.
Each of the S uiffeient types of cones iesponu to 2 uiffeient wavelengths -
Explains aftei image, because the afteiimage is opposite the coloi of the oiiginal -
N>>%.'.4 >(%$'## 40'%()
Combination of tiichiomatic anu opponent piocess theoiy -
The tiichiomatic theoiy is iight about the piopeity of cones -
The opponent piocess theoiy is paitially coiiect (...) -
!1-3 ;(%$'## ". =%3%1( ?(-.#61$4"%.
7% of males anu 1% of females have ieu-gieen oi yellow blue coloi systems -
=%3%( 6'+"$"'.4 &"#"%.
Ana|ys|s and keconstruct|on of V|sua| Scenes
Input is iouteu to the thalamus which ioutes the signal to the >("9-() &"#1-3 $%(4'E in -
8'-41(' !'4'$4%(#
Input is iouteu to the thalamus which ioutes the signal to the >("9-() &"#1-3 $%(4'E in
the %$$">"4-3 3%D'
-
Fovea, wheie theie aie lots of cones, has a uispiopoitionately laige neuion aiea in
the biain
Theie is an aiea specific coiiesponuence between paits of the ietina anu the neuions in
the occipital lobe
-
Some neuions aie calleu +'-41(' 6'4'$4%(# anu they fiie selectively in iesponse to stimuli
that have specific chaiacteiistics
-
Eg. Some to hoiizontal ones, some to Su uegiees, anu it goes S6u uegiees
Neuions fiie most fiequently when lines of a ceitain oiientation aie piesenteu -
Seeing an aiiay of uiffeient colois allows you to >-(-33'3 >(%$'## the infoimation;
wheie uiffeient featuies aie piocess sepaiately at the same time to give you an
unifieu view of its piopeities
0thei featuie uetectois iesponu to uiffeient colois -

It combines the infoimation with oui knowleuge anu memoiies to give the object
meaning
Analyzeu anu iecombineu infoimation is sent to &"#1-3 -##%$"-4"%. $%(4'E -

L"#1-3 B##%$"-4"%. ;(%$'##'#
Auuio is in the foimeu of sounu waves, wheie molecules go thiough phases of
compiession anu expansion
-
@'(4C (Bz)
Bumans can uetect 2uBz to 2uuuuBz
8('W1'.$) is the numbei of sounu waves pei seconu -
!'$"D'3# (ub), measuie of physical piessuie on eaiuiums
u is the absolute thiesholu foi heaiing
Eveiy 1u inciease in ub is a tenfolu inciease in volume
B9>3"416'7 veitical size of the waves; the amount of compiession anu expansion; how
louu
-
Aud|t|on
Sounu waves -> vibiates eaiuium -> miu eai, which houses S bones calleu the 0-99'(R
-.&"3R -.6 #4"((1> that amplifies the sounu waves moie than Su times -> %&-3 :".6%:
(uivision to the innei eai) -> $%$03'- (liquiu filleu tube) -> D-#"3-( 9'9D(-.' (iuns the
length of the cochlea) -> %(<-.# %+ =%(4" iests on top of the basilai membiane that has
tiny haiis that aie sounu ieceptois -> neuions -> thalamus -> auuitoiy coitex in the
tempoial lobe
-
The haii benuing senus neive signals
The hammei, anvil, anu stiiiup causes the oval winuow to vibiate, which causes the fluiu
in the cochlea to vibiate, anu vibiates the oigans of Coiti
-
Aud|tory 1ransduct|on: Irom pressure waves to nerve |mpu|ses
Some ieceptoi neuions have highei thiesholus than otheis anu will only fiie when
consiueiable benuing occuis
Louuei = moie haii benuing = moie neuiotiansmitteis = highei iate of fiiing -

2 uiffeient piocesses foi pitch; one foi above 1uuuBz an one foi below -
2 histoiic theoiies of sounu -
Eg. SuBz = Su neuion fiiings pei seconu
Nax neuion fiiing speeu is 1uuu times, so how uo we heai sounus above 1uuuBz.
8('W1'.$) 40'%()7 neive impulses sent to the biain matches the fiequency of the wave -
This is causes uiffeient haiis to vibiate which is a cue to the biain of uiffeient
;3-$' 40'%(): the fluiu in the cochlea peaks at uiffeient places -
Cod|ng of |tch and Loudness
This is causes uiffeient haiis to vibiate which is a cue to the biain of uiffeient
fiequencies
Eg. Sounu stiaight aheau is ieceive at the same time with the same intensity anu is
peiceiveu as stiaight in fiont
0ui neivous system uses the time anu intensity uiffeience between the two eais to locate
the souice of the sounus in space
-
Sound Loca||zat|on
9u% of people with heaiing pioblems aie boin with noimal eai functions -
Eg. Bamage to the eaiuium, oi the miueai
=%.61$4"%. 6'-+.'## is causeu by pioblems pioblems involving the mechanical system
that tiansmits sounu waves to the cochlea
-
Causeu by aging, uisease, anu exposuie to louu sounus ovei time
Louu sounus cause the haiis on the basilai membiane to fall off at a paiticulai point
of the basilai membiane
M'(&' 6'-+.'## is causeu by uamageu ieceptois within the innei eai oi the auuitoiy
neive
-
near|ng Loss
J1#4-4"%. Staste) anu %3+-$4"%. (smell) aie chemical senses -
1aste and Sme||: 1he Chem|ca| Senses
Can only taste sweet, soui, bittei, anu salty -
0thei taste expeiiences affecteu by smell, tempeiatuie, anu touch -
Baiis pioject fiom the taste buu that leaus into the taste poie
Substances inteiact with saliva to foim a solution that flow into the taste poie anu
stimulate flavoi
?-#4' D16# aie chemical ieceptois anu aie concentiateu along the euges anu back of
tongue
-
Gustat|on: 1he sense of taste
Belen Kellei can smell people's ouois anu uistinguish them
People who lose othei senses have highly uevelopeu olfactoiy sense -
Nost populai cuiient smell theoiy is that uiffeient ieceptois iesponu to uiffeient smells
anu uo not iecombine such as vision
-
Some ieseaicheis believe that >0'(%9%.'#R chemical signals founu in natuial bouy
scents, may affect human behavioi in subtle ways
-
An expeiiment in which women to uaubeu with anothei female's unueiaim
secietions iesulteu in theii menstiual cycle become closei togethei, while the one
uaubeu with a placebo uiu not have a similai effect
H'.#4(1-3 #).$0(%.), tenuency foi women who live togethei oi aie close fiienus to
become moie similai in theii menstiual cycle
-
C|fact|on: 1he Sense of Sme||
Incluues sense of touch, kinesthesis (muscle movement), anu equilibiium -
1he Sk|n and 8ody Senses
A lack of tactile contact with a caietaking auult ietaius, physical, social, anu emotional
uevelopment
-
Bumans aie sensitive to piessuie, pain, waimth, anu colu -
The skin is the laigest oigan in the bouy -
Receptois foi pain anu tempeiatuie aie +('' .'(&' '.6".<# -
The amount of somatosensoiy coitex uevoteu to a ceitain bouy pait means that bouy pait
is moie sensitive to touch (eg. Lips, fingeis)
-
;0-.4%9 3"9D phenomenon: amputees expeiience sensations coming fiom theii missing -
1act||e Senses
The neuions that useu to connect to the limb senus false signals to the biain
;0-.4%9 3"9D phenomenon: amputees expeiience sensations coming fiom theii missing
limb
-
uives us infoimation neeueu to make piopei movements
X".'#40'#"# pioviues us feeuback about oui muscles anu joints' positions anu movements -
Locateu in the innei eai in the &'#4"D13-( ->>-(-41#
0ne pait of the equilibiium system contains thiee #'9"$"($13-( $-.-3# which
contain the ieceptois foi heau movement
0nly sensitive to acceleiation

L'#4"D13-( #'.#'7 sense of bouy oiientation oi equilibiium -
8ody Senses
,%44%9/1> >(%$'##".<7 the system takes in inuiviuual elements of the stimulus anu
combines it into a unifieu peiception
?%>/6%:. >(%$'##".<7 make use of highei oiuei knowleuge

To cieate peiception: theie aie 2 kinus of functions -
ercept|on: 1he Creat|on of Lxper|ence
Eg. Bow uoes youi toe feel as you ieau.
You can shift to these uniegisteieu infoimation at any given time
Nany sensoiy messages fiie as you ieau, but only a few aie iegisteieu in youi awaieness -
Focusing on ceitain stimuli !.
Filteiing out othei incoming infoimation ?.
Attention involves 2 piocesses of selection -
When 2 things aie happening at once, you can only pay attention to one of them anu
not both
Stuuieu expeiimentally thiough a technique calleu #0-6%:".< -

ercept|on |s Se|ect|ve: 1he ro|e of attent|on
Enviionment can attiact oui attention thiough intensity, novelty, movement, contiast, anu
iepitition
-
Eg. We aie sensitive to foou ielateu cues when we aie hungiy
0ui inteiests anu motives also influence what stimuli we will notice -
Eg. When shown a pictuie of a happy peison in an angiy ciowu, it takes longei to
peiceive than an angiy peison in a happy ciowu
We aie paiticulaily sensitive to stimuli that might be a thieat -

Lnv|ronmenta| and ersona| Iactors |n Attent|on
Bow uo we see uistinct objects when only uiffeient light waves aie sent to oui ietina. -
Bi. Richaius hau biain uamage anu can no longei peiceive objects as wholes; he sees
people as sepaiate moving paits anu not a complete peison; can't match mouth movement
anu voice
-
ercept|ons nave Crgan|zat|on and Structure
The whole paits of what we peiceive aie moie than the sum of its paits -
Eg. We peiceive an apple with its uistinct shape anu coloi to be the foiegiounu;
melouy of the music (foiegiounu) anu haimony (backgiounu)
In +"<1(' <(%1.6 ('3-4"%.#R we oiganizeu stimuli into a cential oi foiegiounu figuie anu a
backgiounu
-
Similaiity: objects consiueieu similai will be gioupeu togethei
uestalt psychologist claim that people can associate sepaiate stimuli as a laigei whole
follow the foui J'#4-34 3-:# %+ >'($'>41-3 %(<-."C-4"%.7 similaiity, pioximity, closuie,
anu continuity
-
Gesta|t r|nc|p|es of erceptua| Crgan|zat|on
Similaiity: objects consiueieu similai will be gioupeu togethei
Pioximity: elements close to each othei aie likely to be peiceiveu as a pait of the
same configuiation
Law of closuie: people complete open euges anu fill gaps so that an incomplete figuie
appeais moie complete
Continuity: people tenu to combine elements that continues bettei into one anothei
Eg. We can iuentify people by theii voices which biings out oui innei piesentation of
that peison
;'($'>41-3 #$0'9-: iecognition means that we have a >'($'>41-3 #$0'9- (mental

iepiesentation) to compaie it with
-
Peiception is an attempt to make the most sense of the stimulus input -
Sometimes youi neivous system will have multiple peiceptual schemas foi a single
stimulus anu it will shift back anu foith (Neckei cube S.S1b)
-
ercept|on Invo|ves nypothes|s 1est|ng
0SS viecenne attackeu an aiiplane that they thought was a fightei jet fiom Iianian
gunboats; howevei it was a commeicial aiiplane; even though sophisticateu iauai
equipment cleaily inuicateu that it was not a fightei jet
-
Psychological enviionment coulu have causeu the eyes to lie -
Because theie was a feeling of impenuing attack fiom the Iianians, the top uown
inteipietation of stimuli is changeu by theii feais anu expectations; even though it shoulu
the plane was not on an attack couise, it became the ieality that the ciewmen expeiienceu
-
They hau a >'($'>41-3 #'47 a ieauiness to peiceive stimuli in a paiticulai way -
When stuuents weie tolu that a paiticulai lectuiei was colu anu evil, they likeu him less
than if they weie tolu that he was waim anu fiienuly even if they attenueu the same
lectuie
-
ercept|on |s Inf|uenced by Lxpectat|ons: erceptua| Sets
;'($'>41-3 $%.#4-.$"'# allow us to iecognize familiai stimuli unuei vaiying conuitions,
otheiwise we woulu have to ieuiscovei things eveiy time we something new
-
A0->' $%.#4-.$"'# allow us to iecognize people anu othei objects fiom many angles -
This is because the iatio of illumination iemains the same
,("<04.'## $%.#4-.$): ielative biightness of objects iemain the same unuei uiffeient
conuitions of illumination such as full sunlight anu shaue
-
A peison stanuing twice as fai away isn't peiceiveu as half as tall
A"C' =%.#4-.$)7 size of an objects iemain ielatively the same even though it changes
ielative to uistance
-
St|mu|| are recogn|zab|e under chang|ng cond|t|ons: perceptua|
constanc|es
ercept|on of Depth, D|stance, and Movement
Images aie 2B, but the biain tianslates them into S uimensional peiceptions thiough
9%.%$13-( $1'# (which iequiies only 1 eye) anu D".%$13-( $1'# (iequiies both eyes)
-
Depth and D|stance ercept|on
Patteins of 3"<04 -.6 #0-6%: -
G".'-( >'(#>'$4"&'7 paiallel lines conveiging as they ieceue into the uistance -
F.4'(>%#"4"%.7 objects closei cut off oui view of moie uistant objects -
@'"<04 ". 40' %("C%.4-3 >3-.'7 objects fuithei away appeai highei in the plane of view -
?'E41(' -.6 $3-("4)7 less textuie anu claiity with uistance -
2'3-4"&' #"C'7 two similai objects; the one smallei appeais fuithei away -
H%4"%. >-(-33-E7 if we aie moving, neaiby objects may appeai to move fastei in the -
Monocu|ar Depth Cues
H%4"%. >-(-33-E7 if we aie moving, neaiby objects may appeai to move fastei in the
opposite uiiection than objects fuithei away
-
2->0-'3 A-.C"% of the School of Athens uemonstiateu these cues with his painting -
,".%$13-( 6"#>-("4) is when each eye sees a slightly uiffeient image -
Featuie uetectois aie attuneu to uepth -
=%.&'(<'.$'7 youi eyes have to move closei togethei to view a neaiby objects which
signals its uistance to you
-
8|nocu|ar D|spar|ty
Piimaiy cue foi movement is movement of stimulus acioss ietina -
The movement thiough a static backgiounu is also a cue -
A4(%D%#$%>"$ 9%&'9'.47 like fiames in a movie appeai like ieal movement -
ercept|on of Movement
Illusions aie compelling but incoiiect peiceptions -
Eg. The Ames ioom: usually iooms aie iectangulai, but this one as a conveiging
coinei, so a subject stanuing in the coinei appeais laigei than people stanuing in
othei coineis
Attiibuteu to peiception constancies that usually allows us to peiceive moie accuiately -

0ui peiception is stiongly influenceu by context in which the stimulus occuis -
Theie aie also objects which cannot exist such as the uevil's tuning foik because they have
paiauoxical cues
-
I||us|ons: Ia|se perceptua| hypotheses
Eg. If you go blinu anu have to leain biaille, the biain boiiows neuions fiom othei
paits of the biain to inciease the somatosensoiy coitex ueuicateu to the fingeis
Bevelopment of sensoiy anu peiceptual systems iesult fiom the inteiplay of biological anu
expeiiential factois
-
A peison who liveu in a uense jungle was biought to a plain anu he sees buffalos in the
uistance; he assumes they aie insects anu not buffalos, when they got close, he blameu the
psychologist foi using witchciaft to enlaige the insects
-
If you weai glasses that flippeu the image upsiue uown, you eventually leain to
accommouate
-
Lxper|ence, cr|t|ca| per|ods, and perceptua| deve|opment
Cultuies affect oui peiception of stimuli -
The Nullei Lyei illusion -
Comes fiom oui peiception of builuings
In which the longei one iepiesents a builuing coinei
Coming out at you
Cross-Cu|tura| kesearch on ercept|on
People that nevei hau vision to begin with coulu not unueistanu what vision was anu
cannot makes sense of colois, lights, anu patteins (viigil)
-
viigil went blinu again, but consiueieu a gift because he is ieleaseu fiom a sighteu woilu
that bewilueieu him
-
This shows that chiluhoou uevelopment is ciitical
In a compileu stuuy, people with iestoieu vision can leain to iecognize some simple
geometiic patteins, but still can't have full visual capacity like noimal people
-
kestored Sensory Capac|ty
State of consciousness: a pattein of subjective expeiience, a way of expeiiencing inteinal
anu exteinal events
Alteieu state of consciousness: vaiiations fiom noimal waking state
It's subjective anu piivate; each having theii own consciousness
Bynamic: continuous flow of evei changing mental activity
Self ieflective anu cential to oui sense of self
=%.#$"%1#.'##7 moment to moment awaieness of ouiselves anu oui enviionment -
Consciousness is connecteu with the piocess of #'3'$4"&' -44'.4"%. -
1he uzz|e of Consc|ousness
Commonly using self iepoit -
Can also be measuieu >0)#"%3%<"$-33) thiough EEu -
,'0-&"%(-3 9'-#1('# can be useu to evaluateu peifoimance on special tests such as
the '5,>& %&*% (ieu uot on the face of a chimp, anu then showing the chimp a miiioi to
see if he notices it)
-
Measur|ng States of Consc|ousness
Conscious minu: thoughts, peiceptions, anu othei mental events that we aie
cuiiently awaie
!.
Pieconscious mental events: outsiue of cuiient awaieness, but can be iecalleu
unuei ceitain conuitions
?.
Eg. Aggiession, tiauma; because it woulu invoke negative feelings
0nconscious events: cannot be biought into conscious awaieness unuei
oiuinaiy ciicumstances
3.
Fieuu saiu theie aie S levels of awaieness -
Leve|s of Consc|ousness: sychodynam|c and Cogn|t|ve erspect|ves
They view the unconscious as a mental life that woiks in haimony with the
consciousness
Cognitive psychologists ieject the notion of an unconscious minu uiiven instinctive

uiges anu iepiesseu conflicts
-
1he Cogn|t|ve Unconsc|ous
Stuuying, planning a vacation
=%.4(%33'6 S'++%(4+13T6 >(%$'##".<7 voluntaiy use of attention anu conscious effoit -
Recognizing faces, using utensils
B14%9-4"$ >(%$'##".<7 can be peifoimeu with little oi no conscious effoit -
Automatic piocessing is fastei, but ignoies the possibility to make changes -
=%.4(%33'6 &# B14%9-4"$ >(%$'##".<
Ability to peifoim moie than one activity at the same time -
Eg. Listening to 2 conveisations at once
Noie uifficult when the tasks iequiies the same mental iesouices -
Biiveis uiive fastei, leave less space, iun into fixeu objects, iun into oncoming
tiaffic
Biviueu attention can be negative in the case of uiiving a vehicle because it incieases
acciuent iates
-
!"&"6'6 B44'.4"%.
?0' 59%4"%.-3 K.$%.#$"%1#
Chaptei 6: States of Consciousness
CcLober-23-10
10:43 AM
0nconscious events can influence behavioi
An amnesia patient can't iemembei new events; uoctoi shakes hei hanu with a pin in
his palm; he tiies to shake hei hanu again, anu although she isn't consciously awaie
that she was piickeu by the pin, she withuiew hei hanu
-
Those shown with stiongly negative nouns hau the woist moou anu those
shown the positive nouns hau the best moou
Chaitianu anu Baigh *,30.A.6#007 piesenteu univeisity stuuents nouns that weie
eithei stiongly negative, miluly negative, miluly positive, oi stiongly positive
-
This is known as the emotional unconscious -
?0' 59%4"%.-3 K.$%.#$"%1#
Nany view the biain as a collection of laigely sepaiateu but inteiacting 9%613'# -
These paits of the biain peifoim tasks ielateu to sensation, peiception, memoiy,
pioblem solving, emotion, motoi behavioi, etc
-
The piocess infoimation >-(-33'3: simultaneously anu laigely inuepenuent -
0ui consciousness aiises fiom the integiateu activity of vaiious mouules -
?0' H%613-( H".6
The uaily biological cycles within 24 houis is known as the $"($-6"-. (0)409 -
C|rcad|an khythms: Cur Da||y 8|o|og|ca| C|ocks
Noveu healthy SCN neuions into animals who hau theii SCN uestioyeu
Woik uone by Naitin Ralph
The #1>(-$0"-#9-4"$ .1$3'" SA=MT in the 0)>%$-9>1# iegulates most of the
ciicauian ihythms
-
SCN neuions become active uuiing the uaytime anu ieuuce the pineal glanu's
secietion of melatonin, iaising bouy tempeiatuie anu heighten aleitness
At night, SCN neuions become less active which allows melatonin levels to
inciease anu piomote ielaxation anu sleepiness
SCN is linkeu to the tiny pineal glanu which secietes 9'3-4%."., a hoimone that has a
ielaxing effect on the bouy
-
Incieaseu light incieases SCN activity anu iesets the 24 houi clock
SCN is sensitive to the enviionment -
If you liveu in the uaik without light, you uiift into a longei "natuial" cycle of about
24.2 to 24.8 houis calleu a +(''/(1..".< $"($-6"-. (0)409
-
SCN neuions exhibit this long cycle of fiiing even if they aie iemoveu anu giown in a
petii uish
-
Blinu people can have out of sync ciicauian ihythms anu have pioblems aujusting to
the 24 houi woilu
-
keep|ng 1|me: 8ra|n and the Lnv|ronment
Eaily biius tenu to uo bettei in moining classes than night owls (highei giaues) -
Lar|y 8|rds and N|ght Cw|s
uiauual anu suuuen enviionmental changes can uisiupt oui ciicauian ihythms -
Nay be uue to sensitivity to light; the lack of light in the wintei months cause
them to still be in sleep moue when they wake up
A'-#%.-3 B++'$4"&' !"#%(6'( SAB!T is a cyclic tenuency to become psychologically

uepiesseu uuiing ceitain months of the yeai
-
Flying east you lose houis fiom the uay
Flying west you gain houis
Causes insomnia, uecieaseu aleitness, anu pooiei peifoimance until the bouy
}et lag is a suuuen ciicauian uisiuption -
Lnv|ronmenta| D|srupt|ons of C|rcad|an khythms
Causes insomnia, uecieaseu aleitness, anu pooiei peifoimance until the bouy
ieaujusts
Even small changes in time, like spiingtime uay light saving when you lose 1 houi,
causes a small jump in likelihoou of acciuental ueath
-
S|eep and Dream|ng
Appioximately eveiy 9u minutes, we cycle thiough uiffeient stages in which oui biain
activity anu othei physiological iesponses change in a geneially pieuictable way
-
,'4- :-&'# have a high fiequency anu low amplituue when you aie awake anu aleit -
When you aie uiowsy, the biain slows uown anu -3>0- :-&'# about 8 to 12 cps -
Stages of S|eep
You'ie easily awaken in this stage
A4-<'# Y7 As sleep begins, youi biain wave pattein becomes moie iiiegulai anu
slowei %"&%# K#4&* inciease (S.S to 7.S cps)
-
Inuicates that you aie now in #4-<' Z
As sleep gets ueepei, #3''> #>".63'# aie a peiiou of 1 to 2 seconu buists of iapiu
biain wave activity
-
A4-<' Z7 youi muscles ielax, bieathing anu heait iate aie slowei anu you aie haiuei
to awaken
-
A4-<' [7 appeaiance of veiy slow (u.S to 2cps) anu laige 6'34- :-&'# -
A4-<' \7 when uelta wave uominates -
Within 6u to 9u minutes, you go thiough the pattein 1-2-S-4-S-2 -
Stages S anu 4 aie the #3%:/:-&' #3''> wheie youi bouy is ielaxeu, activity in the
biain has uecieaseu, anu you aie haiuei to awaken
-
A4-<'# Y 4% \
When people aie awakeneu in REN sleep, they almost always iemembei theii
uieams
Rapiu Eye Novement sleep occuis eveiy half a minute oi so anu causes buists of
musculai activity in the eye
-
Beait iate quickens, bieathing becomes moie iapiu anu iiiegulai, biain wave activity
iesembles that of active wakefulness
-
Nen have eiections anu women get wet -
Biain senus signals that make it moie uifficult foi voluntaiy muscles to contiact -
Calleu >-(-6%E"$-3 #3''> because youi bouy is highly aiouseu, but it looks like
you aie sleeping peacefully because theie is little movement
You get 25H #3''> >-(-3)#"# -

REN uieams aie viviu with sensoiy anu motoi elements anu the peiception of
ieality
Non-REN uieams aie less stoiy like, less viviu, focuses on static objects; also
known as #3''> 40%1<04# because they aie moie like uaytime thinking than
uieams
Theie aie non-REN uieams anu REN uieams -

As time passes, stages 4 anu stage S uiop out anu REN peiious become longei (#''
+"<] ^]YZT
-
25H A3''>
The base of the foiebiain (basal foiebiain) anu biain stem aie especailly impoitant in
iegulating oui falling asleep
-
This aiea uiiects othei aieas that contiol uiffeient aspects of REN sleep, such as
eye movements, musculai paialysis, anu genital aiousal
The aiea wheie the ieticulai foimation passes thiough the pons plays a key iole in
initiating REN sleep
-
Gett|ng a N|ght's S|eep: 8ra|n and Lnv|ronment
eye movements, musculai paialysis, anu genital aiousal
People sleep longei in the wintei

Shiftwoik, jetlag, stiess at woik anu school, anu nighttime noise ueciease sleep
quality
Although biologically iegulateu, the enviionment plays a iole as well -

As we age we sleep less; infants 16 houis; 1S to 24 yeai olus 8.Shis; elueily unuei 6
houis
-
REN sleep uecieases uiamatically uuiing infancy anu eaily chiluhoou -
Stages S anu 4 ueclines anu by late auulthoou we get ielatively little slow wave sleep -
Sleep time is uepenuent on genetic factois, some people function well on veiy little
sleep
-
0n aveiage, Canauians sleep 8.u houis a night -
now Much Do We S|eep
Paiticipants iepoiteu theii moou, mental ability, anu physical abilities
A0%(4 4'(9 4%4-3 #3''> 6'>("&-4"%. S1> 4% \_ 0%1(# :"40%14 #3''>TR 3%.< 4'(9
4%4-3 #3''> 6'>("&-4"%. S9%(' 40-. \_ 0%1(# :"40%14 #3''>TR >-(4"-3 6'>("&-4"%.
S.% 9%(' 40-. _ 0%1(# %+ #3''> >'( ."<04 +%( %.' %( 9%(' $%.#'$14"&' ."<04#T
-
Noou suffeis most of all, followeu by cognitive then physical peifoimance, although
all thiee showeu significant impaiiment fiom sleep loss
-
Ranuy uaiunei set a woilu iecoiu by not sleeping foi 11 uays; he became iiiitable,
foigetful, nauseous anu intensely tiieu; by uay S he has uisoiientation anu uistoiteu
thinking; in the last 4 uays he uevelopeu fingei tiemois anu sluiieu speech
-
Aftei long peiious of sleep uepiivation, we uo not make up foi all the sleep time that
we have lost
-
S|eep Depr|vat|on
2'#4%(-4"%. 9%6'3 suggests that sleep iechaiges oui iun uown bouies anu allows us
to iecovei fiom physical anu mental fatigue
-
0f noimal people, exeicising in a uay only incieases sleep foi about 1u minutes -
Caffeine blocks auenosine ieceptoi sites anu pievents them fiom signaling the
biain to sleep
Some ieseaicheis suggests that -6'.%#".' builus up as cellulai waste anu piomotes
the bouy to sleep
-
5&%314"%.-()`$"($-6"-. #3''> 9%6'3# suggests that in histoiy, we hunt anu gathei
foou most efficiently in the uay, anu it woulun't make much sense to go at night
-
Foi small animals, they spenu lots of time sleeping because they have safe shelteis
(eg. Tiee tiunks)
-
Foi laigei mammal that sleep in the open (eg. Boise) they spenu little time sleeping
because they neeu to iun to get away
-
Sleep might be a way to conseive eneigy because oui metabolic iate is 1u to 2S
peicent slowei when asleep
-
Restoiation anu evolutionaiy mouels compliment each othei -
0ccuis in many species
25H ('D%1.6 '++'$47 the tenuency foi the biain the inciease the amount of REN
sleep aftei being uepiiveu fiom it
-
This shows that REN sleep is vital foi leaining anu memoiy consoliuation anu may
help stiengthen neuial ciicuits
-
Why Do We S|eep?
12 to 2S of auults feel like they have some soit of sleeping pioblem -
S|eep D|sorders
F.#%9."- is uifficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, oi expeiiencing iestful sleep -
F.#%9."-
F.#%9."- is uifficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, oi expeiiencing iestful sleep -
Tiouble falling asleep is most common in young auults anu staying asleep is most
common in oluei auults
-
;#'16%".#%9."-$# think they can't fall asleep foi a long time when only veiy little
time has passeu
-
Some aie genetically pieuisposeu to insomnia
Bisoiueis such as uepiession, anxiety; geneial stiess anu jetlag
Insomnia has biological, psychological, anu enviionmental causes -
Psychological tieatment is calleu #4"9131# $%.4(%3 wheie you use youi beu as a
stimulus to go to sleep anu not foi homewoik, Tv, oi anything else
-
M-($%3'>#) involves extieme uaytime sleepiness anu suuuen, uncontiollable sleep
attacks that may last fiom 1 minute to an houi
-
They can also expeiience cataplexy, a suuuen loss of muscle tone often tiiggeieu
by laughtei, excitement, anu othei stiong emotions; in seveie cases knees buckle
anu the peison collapses
They iepoit a lowei quality of life

When sleep attacks occui they coulu go iight into REN sleep -
Signals genetic pieuisposition combineu with an unknown enviionmental factoi
In humans, if one twin has naicolepsy the othei has Su% chance of ueveloping it as
well
-
Narco|epsy
Woman singing uuiing REN sleep
25H #3''> D'0-&"%( 6"#%(6'( S2,!T in which loss of muscle tone that causes
noimal REN sleep is absent
-
kLM s|eep behav|or d|sorder
0ccuis in stages S anu 4 of sleep -
They aie usually uniesponsive to othei people, but seem vaguely conscious of the
enviionment as they navigate aiounu fuinituie, go to the bathioom oi finu something
to eat
-
Sleepwalking may be inheiiteu, but uaytime stiess, alcohol, anu othei illnesses
inciease sleepwalking
-
Awakening sleepwalkeis is not haimful -
S|eepwa|k|ng
They seem to wake up anu scieam, oi flee to anothei ioom
M"<04 ?'((%(# aie moie intense than nightmaies -
They usually have no iecollection of it in the moining -
Night teiiois occui mostly in ueep sleep: stages S anu 4 -
N|ghtmares and N|ght 1errors
1he Nature of Dreams
@)>.-<%<"$ A4-4'7 The tiansition state fiom wakefulness thiough eaily stage 2 -
1S to 4u peicent of sleepeis iepoit uieamlike activity when awakeneu within six
minutes of falling asleep
-
We uieam moie uuiing REN sleep, wheie 8u% uieam activity is iepoiteu -
When Do We Dream?
Bieams aie not as stiange as they aie steieotypeu to be anu aie usually involveu in
familiai settings involving people we know
-
8u% of uieams involve negative emotions anu half containeu aggiessive acts -
Women uieam about men anu women equally -
Nen have about 2S male anu 1S female in theii uieam -
What Do We Dream About?
Nen have about 2S male anu 1S female in theii uieam -
Eg. Chiluien in uaza uieam moie about peisecution anu aggiession moie often
than theii peeis living in non violent aieas
0ui cultuial backgiounu, life expeiiences, anu cuiient concein shape oui uieams -
Why Do We Dream?
Bistinguishes between the 9-."+'#4 $%.4'.4: the suiface stoiy anu the 3-4'.4
$%.4'.47 the uisguiseu psychological meaning
Fieuu believeu that the main puipose of uieaming is :"#0 +13+"339'.4, the
giatification of oui unconscious uesiies anu neeus
-
This view is geneially iejecteu because theie is no eviuence that theie is a uisguiseu
meaning oi hiuuen conflicts
-
It is also highly subjective to the analyst's point of view -
8('16Q# ;#)$0%-.-3)4"$ ?0'%()
This uoes not match any exteinal sensoiy events but oui biain continues to
inteipiets the infoimation
This theoiy states that uieams seive no special puipose anu that oui ceiebial coitex
inteipiets the ianuom neuial activity causeu by
-
Ciitics claim that activation-synthesis theoiy oveiestimates the bizaiieness of uieams -
It also uoesn't explain non REN uieams -
B$4"&-4"%. #).40'#"# 40'%()
Bivoiceu women that have stiong feelings anu incoipoiate the stiessoi uiiectly
into uieams appeai to woik thiough theii uepiession moie successfully
The >(%D3'9 #%3&".< 6('-9 9%6'3 claim that uieams can help us finu cieative
solutions to oui pioblems anu conflicts because they aie not constiaineu by ieality
-
They aie baseu on the mouulai mouel of consciousness
They suppose that uieaming anu conscious thoughts aie piouuceu by the same
mental systems in the biain
=%<."4"&' ;(%$'## !('-9 ?0'%("'# focus on the piocess of how we uieam -

In uieaming theie is usually a iapiu shift in content which is similai to conscious
thinking
Theie is a gieat similaiity between uieaming anu waking mental activity -

=%<."4"&' B>>(%-$0'#
Nany theoiists began to integiate concepts fiom cognitive, biological, anu mouein
psychouynamic peispectives
-
Epstein views the unconscious minu as an infoimation piocessoi that weaves input
fiom uiffeient biain mouules into a coheient stoiy while we uieam
-
?%:-(6 F.4'<(-4"%.
Bayuieams pioviue stimulation uuiing peiious of boieuom anu let us expeiience
positive emotions
-
People who have a +-.4-#) >(%.' >'(#%.-3"4) often live in a viviu, iich fantasy woilu
that they contiol
-
In a stuuy, people with fantasy pione peisonality coulu achieve oigasm just by
fantasizing about sexual activity
-
Bayuieams tenu to have gieatei visual imageiy, anu tenu to be less bizaiie anu
emotional than nighttime uieams
-
They usually ieflect peisonal conceins -
Daydreams and Wak|ng Iantas|es
Drugs and A|tered Consc|ousness
Biugs get into the capillaiies wheie they heau to the biain -
The D3%%6/D(-". D-(("'( filteis out foieign substances anu allow nutiients to pass -
Drugs and the 8ra|n
The D3%%6/D(-". D-(("'( filteis out foieign substances anu allow nutiients to pass
thiough, but sometimes substances can get thiough
-
Biugs can altei consciousness by facilitating oi inhibiting synaptic tiansmission -
An agonist is a uiug that incieases they activity of a neuiotiansmittei -
Eg. 0piates attaches to sites that usually accept enuoiphins to ielieve pain
Amphetamines cause neuions to ielease uopamine anu noiepinephiine even if
they uon't fiie anu blocks the ieuptake of the these tiansmitteis; this allows the
uopamine anu noiepinephiine to iemain the synapse anu keep stimulating the
postsynaptic neuion
An agonist may enhance piouuction, stoiage, oi ielease of a neuiotiansmittei;

activate the postsynaptic ieceptoi; oi pievent the neuiotiansmittei fiom being
ueactivateu
-
@%: !(1<# 8-$"3"4-4' A).->4"$ ?(-.#9"##"%.
A uiug that inhibits oi uecieases the action of a neuiotiansmittei is calleu an
antagonist
-
They can ieuuce the synthesis, stoiage, oi ielease of a neuiotiansmittei, oi pievent a
neuiotiansmittei fiom binuing to its ieceptois on the postsynaptic neuion
-
Eg. A uiug that tieats schizophienia by binuing to the postsynaptic neuion that
pievents uopamine fiom binuing to the site
-
@%: !(1<# F.0"D"4 A).->4"$ ?(-.#9"##"%.
?%3'(-.$' is when a uiug is useu iepeateuly, the intensity of effects piouuceu by the
same uosage may ueciease ovei time
-
Eg. If a uiug causes you to inciease youi heait iate, youi biain will iesponu by tiying
to keep heait iate uown
-
This aujustment is calleu $%9>'.#-4%() ('#>%.#' -
This is known as :"406(-:-3
If you suuuenly stop using a uiug, youi bouy's compensatoiy iesponses continue, anu
you will expeiience stiong ieactions opposite to those piouuceu by the uiug
-
1o|erance and W|thdrawa|
The enviionment can have an effect on the bouy's compensatoiy iesponses thiough a
leaining piocess calleu $3-##"$-3 $%.6"4"%.".<
-
Physical settings tiiggei piogiessively stiongei compensatoiy iesponses, incieasing
the usei's toleiance
-
Eg. Beioin auuicts who expeiienceu neai fatal oveiuoses uiu it in unfamiliai
enviionments
This coulu pose a uangei because if take the uiug in an unfamiliai location, youi
compensatoiy iesponse is not at full stiength which makes it easiei foi you to
oveiuose
-
G'-(.".<R !(1< ?%3'(-.$'R -.6 N&'(6%#'
A1D#4-.$' 6'>'.6'.$' iepiesents a malauaptive pattein of substance use that
causes a peison significant uistiess oi substantially impaiis that peison's life
-
;0)#"%3%<"$-3 6'>'.6'.$' is when uiug toleiance oi withuiawal symptoms have
uevelopeu
-
;#)$0%3%<"$-3 6'>'.6'.$' is when a ciaving is causeu by pleasuiable effects -
No, maiijuana abuse causes incieaseu toleiance but no withuiawal effects
Nyth 1: uiug toleiance always leau to significant withuiawal -
People become highly uepenuent on cocaine even though they have milu
withuiawal; theii pleasuiable effects is piouuceu by boosting uopamine activity
Nany uiug usei who make it thiough withuiawal eventually stait using again
Nyth 2: Physiological uepenuence is the majoi cause of uiug auuiction -
H)40# -D%14 !(1< B66"$4"%. -6 !'>'.6'.$'
Nany uiug usei who make it thiough withuiawal eventually stait using again
Biug uepenuence is influenceu by genetic pieuisposition, peisonality tiaits,
ieligious beliefs, peei influence, anu cultuial noims
Beciease neivous system activity -

In moueiate uoses, they ieuuce feelings of tension anu anxiety, anu piouuce a state of
ielaxeu euphoiia
-
Depressants
By incieasing the action of an ".0"D"4%() neuiotiansmittei, alcohol uampens
uown neuial fiiing
Alcohol incieases the activity of JB,B -

It also uecieases the activity of glutamate, which is a majoi 'E$"4-4%()
neuiotiansmittei
-
This causes the slowuown of the inhibitoiy contiol centeis in the ceiebial coitex, so
you become less inhibiteu
-
Bowevei, highei uosage can cause uisoiganizeu mental anu physical cooiuination,
anu fatigue anu psychological uepiession may occui
-
This is why theie is an "uppei" anu "uownei" phase to alcohol -
The D3%%6 -3$%0%3 3'&'3 (BAL) is a measuie of alcohol concentiation in the bouy -
4u% of ueaths fiom tiaffic acciuents aie alcohol ielateu
Incieaseu BAL causes ieaction time, eye-hanu cooiuination, anu uecision making to
become impaii
-
In auuition to lesseneu inhibition, you can get -3$%0%3 9)%>"- wheie a
shoitsighteuness in thinking causeu by the inability to pay attention to as much
infoimation as sobei peple
-
Biinkeis uon't think about long teim consequences as often -
B3$%0%3
Baibituiates aie sleeping pills -
Najoiity of tianquilizeis anu baibituiates aie maue to inciease the activity of the
inhibitoiy neuiotiansmittei uABA
-
Nilu uoses of baibituiates aie effective as sleeping pills, but aie highly auuictive -
At high uoses baibituiates tiiggei initial excitation, followeu by sluiieu speech, loss of
cooiuination, uepiession, anu seveie memoiy impaiiment
-
0veiuose can cause unconsciousness, coma anu ueath -
,-(D"41(-4'# -.6 ?(-.W1"3"C'(#
A4"913-.4# inciease neuial fiiing anu aiouse the neivous system; they inciease bloou
piessuie, iespiiation, heait iate, anu oveiall aleitness
-
St|mu|ants
They aie piesciibeu to ieuuce appetite anu fatigue, ueciease the neeu foi sleep, anu
sometimes to ieuuce uepiession
-
Amphetamines inciease uopamine anu noiepinephiine activity -
In laige quantities they can cause a suuuen eneigy suige anu intense pleasuie anu can
iemain awake foi up to a week
-
Bloou piessuie incieases uue to amphetamines can cause heait failuie anu ceiebial
hemoiihage
-
In schizophienia, hallucinations anu uelusions aie associateu with excess uopamine
activity
-
0sing amphetamines cause schizophienia like hallucinations anu paianoiu uelusions,
a ieaction calleu -9>0'4-9".' >#)$0%#"#
-
Ciystal meth is a common foim of amphetamines anu causes iiiitability, insomnia, -
B9>0'4-9".'#
Ciystal meth is a common foim of amphetamines anu causes iiiitability, insomnia,
loss of REN sleep, hypeiactivity, confusion, hallucinations, anxiety, paianoia, anu
incieaseu aggiession
-
It causes the ielease of seiotonin anu blocking its ieuptake
It piouuces shoit anu long teim cognitive impaiiment, especially on language
tasks such as tests of veibal fluency
NBNA (ecstasy) is a ueiivative of amphetamine -

It also causes in memoiy anu attention ueficits, sleep uistuibances, sexual
uysfunction, anu impaiieu immune iesponses
-
It also incieases bouy tempeiatuie -
Powuei ueiiveu fiom the coca plant anu is usually in powuei foim -
It incieases musculai stiength anu euphoiia -
Woiks by incieasing the activity of noiepinephiine anu uopamine by blocking theii
ieuptake
-
In laige uoses, it can cause fevei, vomiting, convulsions, hallucinations, anu paianoiu
uelusions
-
=(-$V is an alteieu foim that can be smokeu anu it is fastei, moie intense anu moie
uangeious
-
=%$-".'
Incluue moiphine, Coueine, anu heioin anu comes fiom the opium poppy -
They pioviue pain ielief -
Can cause moou changes which may incluue intense euphoiia -
0xycouone is a poweiful painkillei but wiuely abuseu foi its moou alteiing effects -
You get a pleasuiable iush -
Bigh uoses can cause ieuuceu bieathing, leau to coma oi ueath -
Theie aie intense withuiawals fiom this uiug -
N>"-4'#
Incluue mescaline fiom peyote cactus; psilocybin fiom mushiooms; LSB anu PCP -
They usually intensify sensoiy expeiience anu sense become mixeu up -
LSB is a poweiful hallucinogen; small uoses can cause veiy long highs -
@-331$".%<'.#
Piouuct of the hemp plant -
Nost wiuely useu illicit uiug in Canaua -
It binus to sites that usually binu $-..-D".%"6
?@= is maiijuana's majoi active ingieuient anu binus to ieceptois on neuions
thioughout the biain
-
With chionic use, TBC may inciease uABA activity which slows uown neuial activity
anu piouuces ielaxing effects
-
It also incieases uopamine activity -
A myth is that it causes people to have amotivational synuiome -
Anothei myth is that maiijuana will cause people to stait using moie uangeious uiugs -
It has moie caicinogens than cigaiette smoke
A thiiu myth is that using maiijuana has no significant uangeis -
About 1u peicent of useis uevelop uepenuence -
H-("I1-.-
Biological, psychological, anu enviionmental factois can influence the uiug expeiience -
Eg. Some iats have gieatei toleiance to alcohol than otheis
uenetic factois influence sensitivity anu toleiance to uiug effects -
Iuentical twins have a highei concoiuance iate foi alcoholism than fiateinal twins -
0ffspiing of alcoholic paients typically uisplay fastei hoimonal anu psychological -
Irom Genes to Cu|ture: Determ|nants of Drug Lffects
They neeu to uiink moie ovei the couise of a few houis to maintain theii
intoxication
0ffspiing of alcoholic paients typically uisplay fastei hoimonal anu psychological

ieactions as bloou alcohol levels iises, but these iesponses uiop off moie quickly as
bloou alochol levels ueciease
-
Cioss fosteieu iat pups iaiseu by an alcohol consuming mothei tenu to uiink moie
alcohol than iat pups iaiseu by motheis who uo not uiink alcohol
-
Both genetics anu alcoholic paients paly a iole in incieaseu iisk of alcohol abuse -
Compensatoiy physiological iesponses to a uiug uepenu on the enviionment -
In Westein cultuies, violence anu sexual piomiscuity is common
In othei cultuies, people aie non violent anu coiuial while uiunk
Cultuies also affect people's ieaction to alcohol -
People think they aie uiunk even if its just a placebo
People's beliefs anu expectancies can influence uiug ieactions -
Latei founu that it was actually hypnosis, a state of neivous sleep
Anton Nesnei came up with -."9-3 9-<.'4"#9 wheie he cuie psychological anu
physical uisoiueis by use of magnets
-
nypnos|s
@)>.%#"# is a state of heighteneu suggestibility in which some people can imagine
suggestions to be ieal
-
This causes the subject to ielax but concentiation to inciease at the same time
You cannot be hypnotizeu against youi own will
@)>.%4"$ ".61$4"%. is the piocess by which one peison leaus anothei peison into
hypnosis
-
About 1u% aie completely noniesponsive while anothei 1u% pass neaily all
items
@)>.%4"$ #1#$'>4"D"3"4) #$-3'# contain a stanuaiu seiies of passfail suggestions that

aie ieau to a subject aftei a hypnotic inuuction
-
Susceptibility can be enhanceu by people's expectation that they have the ability
to be hypnotizeu
Bypnotic susceptibility is a stable chaiacteiistic -

Sc|ent|f|c Study of nypnos|s
nypnot|c 8ehav|ors and Lxper|ences
Eg. They believe that exteinal foices aie piesent even though they aie not
Bypnotizeu people subjectively expeiience theii actions to be involuntaiy -
This behavioi may be uue to the paiticipants own expectations as the instiuctions
come fiom a highly authoiitative figuie
-
F.&%31.4-() =%.4(%3 ,'0-&".< B<-".#4 N.'Q# P"33
Eg. When people weie tolu to iun an alleigenic leaf against theii skin uuiing hypnosis,
4 of S showeu no symptoms; when they weie tolu that a iegulai leaf was alleigenic
anu they iubbeu it against theii skin, all S hau alleigic ieactions
-
Bowevei, when blinufolueu people weie exposeu to the alleigenic leaf, they showeu
no symptoms; conveisely when you weie iubbeu with a nontoxic leaf anu weie tolu it
was toxic, they showeu alleigenic ieactions
-
But these can be shown in noimal people as well
0nuei hypnosis, neaisighteu people can see moie cleaily, waits can be cuieu, anu
stomach aciuity can be incieaseu
-
;0)#"%3%<"$-3 5++'$4# -.6 ;0)#"$-3 8'-4#
}ames Esuaile peifoimeu Suu majoi opeiations with using hypnosis as the sole -
;-". ?%3'(-.$'
Neeueu an aveiage of only 11 minutes to piouuce -.-3<'#"-, absence of pain
}ames Esuaile peifoimeu Suu majoi opeiations with using hypnosis as the sole
anaesthetic
-
But othei techniques such as mental imageiy also piouuce similai effects
Bypnosis can pioviue chionic pain ielief foi seveial months -
In one case, a math teachei is leu to believe that the numbei 6 is uisappeaieu -
2S% of hypnotizeu univeisity stuuents can be leu to expeiience amnesia -
@)>.%#"# -.6 H'9%()
1heor|es of nypnos|s
!"##%$"-4"%. 40'%("'# views hypnosis as an alteieu state involving a 6"&"#"%. %+
$%.#$"%1#.'## in which the peison simultaneously expeiience two stieams of
consciousness that aie cut off fiom one anothei
-
This pait of consciousness is known as the 0"66'. %D#'(&'(
0ne stieam iesponus to suggestions, the othei stieam iemains in the backgiounu but
is awaie of eveiything that goes on
-
Eg. If given the suggestion that "youi aim will stait to feel lightei anu will begin to
iise," the subject intentionally iaises the aim, but only the hiuuen obseivei is awaie of
it, the main stieam of consciousness is blockeu fiom this awaieness
-
!"##%$"-4"%. ?0'%("'#7 @)>.%#"# -# !"&"6'6 =%.#$"%1#.'##
People associate hypnosis with a tiancelike appeaiance, iesponsiveness to
suggestion, anu a loss of self consciousness
Pioposes that hypnotic expeiiences iesult fiom expectations of people who aie
motivateu to take on the iole of being hypnotizeu
-
Latei on, SS% of the subjects exhibiteu stiffening of the hanu without any
suggestion fiom the hypnotist
Contiol gioup showeu no stiffening of the hanu

0niveisity stuuents weie tolu that hypnosis is associateu with spontaneous stiffening
of the muscles in the uominant hanu
-
0ui expectations affect what we peiceive anu oui iesponses -
A%$"-3 =%<."4"&' ?0'%("'#7 2%3'# -.6 5E>'$4-4"%.#
-
Some I|na| 1houghts
G'-(.".< is a piocess by which expeiience piouuces a ielatively enuuiing change in
an oiganism's behavioi oi capabilities
-
Leaining is a piocess of peisonal auaptation to the evei-changing ciicumstances of
oui lives
-
Adapt|ng to the Lnv|ronment
Tieateu oiganisms as 9#3,0# '#*#, upon which leaining expeiiences weie
insciibeu
Explaineu puiely on uiiectly obseivable events

Behavioiists obseiveu that many uiffeient species of animals iesponueu in
pieuictable ways to a pattein of iewaiu oi punishment
-
now Do We Learn? 1he Search for Mechan|sms
540%3%<) focuses on animal behavioi within the natuial enviionment -
Aigues that animals aie not blank slates anu that eveiy species comes into the woilu
biologically piepaieu to act in ceitain ways
-
Focuseu on the functions of behavioi, paiticulaily its -6->4"&' #"<."+"$-.$' -
This is known as a +"E'6 -$4"%. >-44'(.
Newly hatcheu heiiing gull pecking at the ieu uot on the paients beak to ask foi foou
is piewiieu into the heiiing; they will peck at any ieu uot even if it's not theii paients
-
Eg. 0luei heiiings can tell if it is an auult heiiing oi not anu will not peck at
inanimate ieu uots
Fixeu action patteins can be mouifieu by expeiience -

Buntings aie piewiieu to migiate by following a fixeu stai, but it has to leain which
specific stai is fixeu by obseivation anu expeiience
-
Why Do We Learn? 1he Search Ior Iunct|ons?
Peisonal auaptation occuis thiough the laws of leaining that the behavioiists
examineu
It iesults fiom oui inteiactions with immeuiate anu past enviionments

Enviionment shapes us thiough >'(#%.-3 -6->4-4"%. anu #>'$"'# -6->4-4"%. -
Enviionmental conuitions faceu by each species help shape its biology
Leaineu behavioi is not passeu onto the offspiing
The enviionment plays a iole in species auaptation -
The ability to leain is passeu thiough genetics
Species capable of leaining can auapt to changing enviionmental conuitions oi
expanu into new an uiffeient enviionments
-
Theoiists piopose that in iesponse to enviionmental uemanus faceu by oui ancestois
millions of yeais ago, the human biain acquiieu the capacity to peifoim psychological
functions that have auaptive value anu enable us to leain
-
Since many species face similai auaptive challenges, one can expect similaiity in the
libiaiy of leaining mechanisms
-
Which events aie, oi aie not, impoitant to its suivival anu well-being
Which stimuli signal that an impoitant event is about to occui
Whethei its iesponses will piouuce positive oi negative consequences
Eveiy oiganism must leain: -
Crossroads of Learn|ng: 8|o|ogy, Cogn|t|on, and Cu|ture
Chaptei 7:Leaining anu Auaptation: The Role of Expeiience
november-12-10
6:37 M
Whethei its iesponses will piouuce positive oi negative consequences
Each leaining mechanism helps us ieponu to one oi moie of these auaptive challenges -
Cognitive psychologists have continueu to challenge the behavioiists assumption that
leaining uoes not involve mental piocesses
-
Social customs also affect how we leain since cultuie is the man-maue pait of the
enviionment
-
@-D"41-4"%. is a ueciease in the stiength of iesponse to a iepeateu stimulus -
Leaining not to iesponu allows the oiganism to conseive eneigy anu focus its
attention on othei stimulus
It is auaptive because if an oiganism iesponueu to eveiy stimulus in its enviionment,

it woulu iapiuly become oveiwhelmeu an exhausteu
-
This is uiffeient fiom sensoiy auaptation because you aie still ieceiving stimuli,
except youi neivous system has chosen to ignoie it
-
nab|tuat|on
It is a basic foim of leaining tha toccuis in many animals
Involves 3'-(.".< -. -##%$"-4"%. between stimuli
=3-##"$-3 $%.6"4"%.".< is wheie an oiganism leains to associate two stimuli, such
that one stimulus comes to piouuce a iesponse that was oiiginally piouuceu by
anothei stimulus
-
av|ov's |oneer|ng kesearch
Bogs salivate to foou, howevei, aftei a while, they woulu salivate to sounus that they
heaiu befoie they got the foou
-
Classical conuitioning aleits oiganisms to stimuli that signal the impenuing aiiival of
an impoitant event
-
8as|c r|nc|p|es
B$W1"#"4"%.
Refeis to the peiiou uuiing which a iesponse is being leaineu -
If you iing a bell to a uog, nothing woulu happen, because the bell is a .'14(-3
#4"9131# anu woulu not cause salivation
-
Foou is an 1.$%.6"4"%.'6 #4"9131#
Salivation is an 1.$%.6"4"%.'6 ('#>%.#'
Putting foou into a uog's mouth woulu cause the uog to salivate because it's ieflexive -
The tone anu the foou become paiieu seveial times anu is known as a 3'-(.".< 4("-3 -
The tone becomes a $%.6"4"%.'6 #4"9131#
Salivation becomes a $%.6"4"%.'6 ('#>%.#'
Aftei seveial leaining tiials, the tone is piesenteu by itself anu the uog salivates even
though theie is not foou
-
Conuitioneu stimulus must be paiieu multiple times with a unconuitioneu stimulus to
establish a stiong conuitioneu iesponse
-
A tone becomes a conuitioneu stimulus moie quickly if gieatei amounts of foou was
given afteiwaius
-
0ne tiial paiiing: CS-0CS stimulus paiis aftei one tiial -
8%(:-(6 #0%(4/6'3-) >-"(".<: the CS appeais fiist, followeu by the 0CS with the CS
still piesent; leaining occuis most quickly
-
8%(:-(6 4(-$' >-"(".<: CS woulu come on anu off, anu aftei then the 0CS woulu be
piesent
-
A"9134-.'%1# >-"(".<: CS anu 0CS come on togethei; least effective -
,-$V:-(6 >-"(".<: 0CS is piesenteu befoie the CS -
C|ass|ca| Cond|t|on|ng: Assoc|at|ng Cne St|mu|us w|th Another
,-$V:-(6 >-"(".<: 0CS is piesenteu befoie the CS -
5E4".$4 -.6 A>%.4-.'%1# 2'$%&'()
This is known as 'E4".$4"%.
If CS is piesenteu iepeateuly in the absence of 0CS, then the CR weakens anu
eventually uisappeais
-
0ccasional iepaiiing of CS anu 0CS aie usually iequiieu to maintain CR -
The key ingieuient to extinction is not meiely passage of time, but iepeateu
piesentation of CS without 0CS
-
A>%.4-.'%1# ('$%&'() is uefineu as the ieappeaiance of a pieviously extinguisheu
CR aftei a iest peiiou
-
J'.'(-3"C-4"%. -.6 !"#$("9".-4"%.
uieatei similaiity = gieatei chance that CR will occui
0nce a CR is acquiieu, oiganisms often iesponu not only to the oiiginal CS but also to
stimulus that aie similai to it
-
J'.'(-3"C-4"%.7 stimuli similai to the initial CS elicit a CR -
Eg. Rattling in the bush causeu an attack; if the animal cannot geneialize it will
only iesponu to an iuentical iattle in the bush foi it to iesponu
Stimulus geneialization seives ciitical auaptive functions -

To pievent stimulus geneialization fiom iunning amok, oiganisms must be able to
uisciiminate uiffeiences between stimuli
-
!"#$("9".-4"%. is uemonstiateu when a CR occuis to one stimulus but not otheis -
@"<0'(/N(6'( =%.6"4"%.".<
When a neutial stimulus becomes a CS aftei being paiieu with an alieauy establisheu
CS (fig. 7.8)
-
It is usually weakei anu extinguishes moie quickly -
B$W1"(".< -.6 N&'($%9".< 8'-(
Infant Albeit was shown a iat which he was not afiaiu of
Albeit was afiaiu of louu noises; louu noises weie maue as the iat was shown to
him
Eventually the iat alone maue Albeit ciy

a%0. ,] P-4#%. -
Albeit became of fuiiy white oi giey objects -
5E>%#1(' ?0'(->"'# is to expose the patient to the feaieu stimulus (CS) without any
(0CS)
-
A)#4'9-4"$ 6'#.#"4"C-4"%. is patients leain muscle ielaxation iechniues anu then is
giauuatlly exposeu to the feai-piovoking stimulus
-
83%%6".< is immeuiate exposuie to the phobic stimulus -
=%.6"4"%.'6 B44(-$4"%. -.6 B&'(#"%.
People become moie sexually aiouseu to vaiious stimuli aftei those CSs have been
paiieu with sexually aiousing 0CSs
-
Reuucing alcoholic's attiaction to alcohol, the patient is given a uiug that inuuces
nausea when alcohol is consumeu
Nixeu iesults; often leaus to shoit teim effects anu extinction ovei time
B&'(#"%. 40'(->) attempts to conuition an aveision to stimulus that tiiggeis
unwanteu behavioi by paiiing it with a noxious 0CS
-
Neutial stimuli can acquiie favoiable oi unfavoiable meaning by paiiing it with othei -
App||cat|ons of C|ass|ca| Cond|t|on|ng
Neutial stimuli can acquiie favoiable oi unfavoiable meaning by paiiing it with othei
stimuli that laieauy has a positive oi negative attituue
-
0peiant conuitioning is not a eliciteu iesponse that is automatically tiiggeieu by some
stimulus
-
Cperant Cond|t|on|ng: Learn|ng through consequences
A cat was put into a box with foou placeu outsiue of it -
Theie is a levei that must be pusheu to open the uooi so the cat can get to the foou -
The cat fiist tiies pulling on the fence, pacing aiounu, uigging in the flooi, anu
eventually stumbleu upon the levei by chance anu the uooi opens
-
Peifoimance impioveu
0vei time, the cat eventually leaineu that pulling the levei=opening the uooi -
This piocess is known as .6*%',A&6%#0 0&#'6.6>
The animal uiu not show insight, but insteau leaineu using tiial anu eiioi -
G-: %+ '++'$4 stateu that in a given situation, a iesponse followeu by a satisfying
consequence will become moie likely to occui
-
1hornd|ke's Law of Lffect
B.F. Skinnei coineu 0peiant behavioi which states that an oiganism opeiates on its
enviionment in some way
-
N>'(-.4 $%.6"4"%.".< is a type of leaining in which behavioi is influenceu by its
consequences
-
Skinnei vieweu opeiant conuitioning as a type of natuial selection that facilitates an
oiganism's peisonal auaptation to the enviionment
-
The iat fiist pushes it acciuentally but pushes it moie fiequently ovei time
AV"..'( ,%E7 a box with a levei that uispenses foou -
The outcome the ieinfoices the behavioi is calleu the ('".+%($'(
2'".+%($'9'.47 a iesponse that is stiengtheneu by an outcome that follows it -
If the levei causes an electiic shock, it will make the iat not want to piess it
;1."#09'.47 occuis when a iesponse if weakeneu by outcomes that follow it -
Sk|nner's Ana|ys|s of Cperant Cond|t|on|ng
Anteceuents: stimuli that aie piesent befoie a behavioi occuis !.
Behaviois: in which the oiganism emits ?.
Consequences: follows behavioi 3.
Skinnei's analysis of opeiant behavioi involves S kinus of events -
Relationship between A anu B anu B anu C aie calleu $%.4".<'.$"'# -
!"++'('.$'# D'4:''. $3-##"$-3 $%.6"4"%.".< -.6 %>'(-.4 $%.6"4"%.".<
In opeiant conuitioning the oiganism leains the association between behavioi
anu its consequences
In classical conuitioning the oiganism leains an association between two stimuli -

0peiant conuitioning focuses on emitteu behaviois
Classical conuitioning focuses on eliciteu behaviois -
A8Cs of Cperant Cond|t|on|ng
If theie is a light above the levei in the Skinnei Box, anu only uispenses foou when the
light is on, the iat will only piess it when the light is on
-
The light becomes a 6"#$("9".-4"&' A4"9131# which signal a paiticulai iesponse -
Antecedent Cond|t|ons: Ident|fy|ng When to kespond
Consequences: Determ|n|ng now to kespond
;%#"4"&' 2'".+%($'9'.4
Eg. Cat piesses a levei; foou pellets appeai; levei piessing incieases
A behavioi causes iewaiu anu iesults in incieaseu behavioi -
Rewaiu is useu synonymously with positive ieinfoicement -
;%#"4"&' 2'".+%($'9'.4
;("9-() ('".+%($'(# aie stimuli such as foou anu watei that an oiganism natuially
finus ieinfoicing because they satisfy biologicla neeus
-
Eg. Noney, positive peifoimance feeuback, etc
Thiough association with piimaiy ieinfoiceis, othei stimuli can become #'$%.6-(),
oi $%.6"4"%.'6 ('".+%($'(#
-
;("9-() -.6 A'$%.6-() 2'".+%($'(#
The iemoveu stimulus is known as the negative ieinfoicei
Eg. Taking aspiiin; heauache goes away; incieaseu tenuency to take aspiiin foi
heauache ielief
A iesponse is stiengtheneu by the subsequent iemoval oi avoiuance of a stimulus -

M'<-4"&' 2'".+%($'9'.4
Eg. If piessing a levei uoes not yielu foou any moie, then the iat woulu
eventually stop uoing it
Weakening anu eventual uisappeaiance of iesponse because it is no longei ieinfoiceu -

Low iesistance: non ieinfoiceu behavioi uisappeais quickly
Bigh iesistance: non ieinfoiceu behavioi keeps going
Begiee of non-ieinfoice behavioi peisisting is calleu ('#"#4-.$' 4% 'E4".$4"%. -
This is because what Pascal wanteu the most was attention
Pascal was a misbehaving chilu that uiu not iesponu to ieason, veibal punishment, oi
physical punishment
-
N>'(-.4 5E4".$4"%.
Chilu misbehaves; chilu is beat in the face; chilu is less likely to uo it again
A iesponse is weakeneu by the subsequent piesentation of a stimulus -
0ften piouuces iapiu iesults -
It has impoitant limitations because it uoes not cause the oiganism to foiget how to
make the iesponse
-
Eg. Naybe a chilu will only stop using bau woius when paients aie piesent
It may not be geneializeu to geneial situations -
Can cause uislike of the peison ueliveiing the punishment -
Physical punishment can senu the message to the iecipient that aggiession is okay -
;%#"4"&' ;1."#09'.4
Running a ieu light; causes a monetaiy fine; uecieaseu chance of iunning the
light again
A iesponse is weakeneu by subsequent iemoval of a stimulus -

0peiant extinction: the veiy uesiieu stimulus is iemoveu
Eg. Bepiiving a misbehaving chilu of Tv; although the Tv hau nothing to uo
with the chilu misbehaving in the fiist place
Negative punishment: iemoval of some othei stimulus that uiu not cause the
behavioi
Biffeient fiom opeiant extinction -

Less likely to cieate stiong feai oi hatieu towaiu the punishing agent !.
Punishing agent is not moueling physical aggiession so it is not likely to be
copieu
?.
It is bettei than positive punishment because -
M'<-4"&' ;1."#09'.4
Reinfoicement oi punishment that occuis immeuiately aftei a behavioi has a stiongei -
F99'6"-4' &'(#1# !'3-)'6 =%.#'W1'.$'#
Reinfoicement oi punishment that occuis immeuiately aftei a behavioi has a stiongei
effect than when it is uelayeu
-
Not having $1uu now but getting $2uu in a month
!'3-) %+ <(-4"+"$-4"%.7 ability to foiego an immeuiate but smallei iewaiu foi an
uelayeu but moie satisfying one
-
Belay of giatification usually uevelop aiounu pieschool yeais -
Eg. 0sing uiugs
People who have lessei ability to uo so have a less quality of life -
uet him to play on the moneky bais
0se attention as a positive ieinfoicei when maik goes to play theie
You'u have to wait a long time because Naik uoesn't go theie often
Eg. uetting maik to be moie active on the playgiounu -
Reinfoice Naik when he stanus up, when he walks ovei to the monkey bais, anu
finally when he staits playing theie
This is calleu the 9'40%6 %+ #1$$'##"&' ->>(%E"9-4"%.#

Skinnei uevelopeu #0->".<, which involves ieinfoicing successive appioximations
towaiu a final iesponse
-
Eg. Ringing a bell tuins the light above the levei on; when the light is on foou will
be uispenseu; the iat pushes the levei afteiwaius to ielease foou
0sually backwaius towaiu the fiist iesponse

=0-".".< is useu to uevelop a sequence of iesponses by ieinfoicing each iesponse
with the oppoitunity to peifoim the next iesponse
-
Shap|ng and Cha|n|ng: 1ak|ng Cne Step at a 1|me
A young chilu not touching all stovetops aftei getting buineu by one of them
N>'(-.4 <'.'(-3"C-4"%. is when an opeiant iesponse occuis to a new anteceuent
stimulus oi situation that is similai to the oiiginal one
-
The anteceuent stimulus is known as the uisciiminative stimuli
N>'(-.4 !"#$("9".-4"%. means that an opeiant iesponse will occui to one
anteceuent stimulus but not anothei
-
Eg. 0nly when a gieen light is on, will foou be uispenseu; eventually the iat will
only push the levei when a gieen light is on anu has uisciiminateu against the
othei colois
N>'(-.4 6"#$("9".-4"%. 4(-".".<7 making an uisciiminate ceitain stimuli that it uoes

not uisciiminate befoie
-
Genera||zat|on and D|scr|m|nat|on
Eveiy piess of the levei iesults in foou pellets
Eveiy quaitei in the coke machine iesults in a can of coke
=%.4".1%1# ('".+%($'9'.4 scheuule is when eveiy ieponse of a paiticulai type is
ieinfoiceu
-
Can be uiviueu into iatio anu inteival scheuules
;-(4"-3 ('".+%($'9'.4 is when only some iesponses aie ieinfoiceu -
The iat's levei only uispenses foou Su% of the time
2-4"% #$0'613'#7 a ceitain peicentage of iesponses is ieinfoiceu -
Eg. The levei only uispenses foou eveiy minute
F.4'(&-3 #$0'613'7 a ceitain amount of time must elapse between ieinfoicements,
iegaiuless of how many coiiect iesponses might occui uuiing that time
-
Schedu|es of ke|nforcement
Eg. The levei only uispenses foou eveiy minute
Eg. FR-S means that ieinfoicement occuis aftei eveiy thiiu iesponse
Reinfoicement is given aftei a fixeu numbei of iesponses -
This iesults in gieatei woik output than houily wages
Some businesses pay employees foi each item piouuceu -
8"E'6/2-4"% A$0'613'
Eg. vR-S means that on aveiage, thiee iesponses aie iequiieu foi ieinfoicement
Reinfoicement is given aftei a vaiiable numbei of coiiect iesponses -
Piouuces high iate of iesponuing -
Less pausing aftei ieinfoicement because the next iesponse might be ieinfoiceu -
Eg. uambling -
L-("-D3'/2-4"% A$0'613'
Eg. FI-S means that aftei a levei is piesseu, it will only uispense foou again aftei
S minutes iegaiuless of how many times the levei is piesseu within the S
minutes
Fiist coiiect iesponse that occuis aftei a fixeu time inteival is ieinfoiceu -
8"E'6/F.4'(&-3 A$0'613'
Eg. vI-S means that on aveiage, theie is a S minute inteival between
oppoitunities to obtain ieinfoicement
Reinfoicement is given foi the fiist iesponse that occuis aftei a vaiiable time inteival -
Because availability is less pieuictable than an FI scheuule, te vI scheuule piouuces a
steauiei iesponse iate
-
Eg. Pop quizzes because they aie given on aveiage eveiy 1 to 2 weeks -
L-("-D3'/F.4'(&-3 A$0'613'
Easiei to extinguish because the shift to no ieinfoicement is suuuen anu easiei
to peiceive
Continuous ieinfoicement piouuces moie iapiu leaining than paitial ieinfoicement

because the association between behavioi anu its consequences is easiei to peiceive
-
Since it's unpieuictable, it takes longei to leain that it is gone foievei
Paitial ieinfoicement is leaineu moie slowly but moie uifficult to extinguish
especially if it's on a vaiiable scheuule
-
Fiist you ieinfoice him constantly foi playing on the monkey bai
Then you giauually ueciease the ieinfoicement until he is willing to play
aftei occasional attention fiom the teachei
Eg. Naik playing on the monkey bai

The best way to piomote fast leaining is to begin by ieinfoicing the uesiieu behavioi
on a continuous scheuule until it's well establisheu; then move on to paitial scheuule
that is giauually maue moie uemanuing
-
;-(4"-3 2'".+%($'9'.4R G'-(.".<R -.6 5E4".$4"%.
Acquiieu anu maintaineu thiough negative ieinfoicement
Putting a sweatei on is negatively ieinfoiceu by the uesiiable consequences that
you no longei shivei
In '#$->' $%.6"4"%.".<R oiganisms leain a iesponse to teiminate an aveisive

stimulus
-
Eg. Emily's snake phobia; she continues to avoiu snakes even though the
intense pain fiom hei acciuent is no longei expeiienceu
It is usually haiu to extinguish

B&%"6-.$' $%.6"4"%.".< is when an oiganism leains a iesponse to avoiu an aveisive
stimulus
-
Lscape and Avo|dance Cond|t|on|ng
intense pain fiom hei acciuent is no longei expeiienceu
Neutial stimulus is paiieu with 0CS so that the neutial stimulus becomes with
CS
This stiengthens anu maintains the iesponse

0peiant conuitioning takes ovei, fleeing fiom the light is negatively ieinfoiceu
by the teimination of feai
?:%/+-$4%( 40'%() %+ -&%"6-.$' 3'-(.".< -

Emily is not likely to go neai a snake to see if it injuies hei
Extinction is uifficult because the subject uoesn't hang aiounu to see if the CS actually
uoes cause aveisive effects
-
Some stimuli (such as snakes) causes phobia moie easily than otheis (iabbits) -
App||cat|ons of Cperant Cond|t|on|ng
Eg. Tiaining bomb sniffing uogs
Thiough shaping anu chaining, animals can leain to peifoim some tiuly iemaikable
behaviois
-
In aii-sea iescues, pigeons weie tiaineu to peck at a key when they see an oiange
object; S pigeons coveieu a S6u uegiee view, anu the fiequency of pecking allows the
pilot to pinpoint the iescue location
-
?(-".".< B."9-3#
Euucational softwaie combines immeuiate peifoimance feeuback anu self-pace
leaining
-
The enviionment is not pioviuing the piopei consequences to ieinfoice the uesiieu
behavioi
-
Skinnei claims that pooi society peifoimance is that the enviionment is not pioviuing
the piopei consequences to meet peifoimance goals
-
?%V'. '$%.%9"'# is wheie uesiiable behaviois aie quickly ieinfoiceu with tokens
which can be latei casheu in foi tangible goous
-
Piogiam implementeu to change behavioi
Skinnei gave iise to a fielu calleu ->>3"'6 D'0-&"%( -.-3)#"# which combines a
behavioial appioach with the scientific methou to solve inuiviuual anu society
pioblems
-
@19-. B>>3"$-4"%.#7 561$-4"%.R 40' P%(V>3-$'R -.6 ,')%.6
Naitin Seligman's concept of "piepaieuness" captuies the iuea that animals aien't
willing to peifoim all behaviois
-
;('>-('6.'## is that thiough evolution, animals aie biologically "piewiieu" to easily
leain behaviois ielateu to theii suivival as a species
-
8|o|ogy and Learn|ng
Combining the smell anu taste of foou (CS) with a toxin oi some illness piouucing
agent (0CS) can piouuce a CR calleu $%.6"4"%.'6 4-#4' -&'(#"%.
-
Bowevei, uaicia showeu that animals leaineu taste aveisions even though foou
(CS) was consumeu up to seveial houis befoie they become ill
}ohn uaicia challengeu classical conuitioning, which assumeu that 0CS-CS has to be
piesenteu within a shoit time fiame; usually a few seconus
-
The iat only avoiueu the watei but not the buzzei oi the light
This shows that iats aie genetically piimeu to associate sickness anu watei
In anothei expeiiment, uaicia exposeu S neutial stimuli: a light, a buzzei, anu watei
anu also exposeu them to X-iay which maue them sick latei on
-
In a thiiu expeiiment, the watei, the light, anu the buzzei weie paiieu with electiic -
Constra|nts on c|ass|ca| Cond|t|on|ng: Learned 1aste Avers|ons
The iat avoiueu the light anu the buzzei but uiu not avoiu the watei
In natuie, sights anu sounus signal feai-piovoking behavioi so this makes sense
In a thiiu expeiiment, the watei, the light, anu the buzzei weie paiieu with electiic
shock
-
Sheep meat was put into sheep hiue anu was laceu with an illness inuucing uiug;
coyotes came anu at the fake sheep anu became sick; this makes them less likely
to eat ieal sheep anu saving theii lives
Psychologists have cieateu taste aveisions in natuie -

Even though Emily was injuieu by a cai, she became afiaiu of snakes
Seligman pioposeu that humans aie biologically piepaieu to acquiie ceitain feais
moie ieauily than otheis
-
In an expeiiment, when people weie shockeu while looking a pictuies of spiueis,
snakes anu angiy faces, they weie much moie likely to uevelop a CR to these things
-
If the pictuie uisplayeu weie floweis, houses, oi happy faces, then the CR is much
moie uifficult to be conuitioneu
-
We tenu to feai things that seem to have a gieatei evolutionaiy significance -
Are We 8|o|og|ca||y repared to Iear Certa|n 1h|ngs?
Sometimes animals simply iefuseu to behave accoiuing to the iules of opeiant
conuitioning
-
F.#4".$4"&' !("+47 a conuitioneu iesponse "uiifts back" towaiu instinctive behavioi -
0peiant leaining is contiaineu by biology -
Constra|nts on Cperant Cond|t|on|ng: An|ma|s 1hat "Won't Shape Up"
Some biain iegions, such as the nucleus accumbens, anu ceitain neuiotiansmitteis,
such as uopamine play a key iole in iegulating the ability to expeiience iewaiu
-
Learn|ng and the 8ra|n
In opeiant conuitioning theie is the stimulus anu iesponse -
In the cognitive mouel of leaining, the oiganism's mental iepiesentation of the woilu
goes between stimulus anu iesponse
-
Cogn|t|on and Learn|ng
Eg. Chimp stacking boxes to ieach a banana
Kohlei claimeu that chimpanzees can leain by ".#"<04, the suuuen peiception of a
useful ielationship that helps to solve a pioblem
-
Then, many auuitional paths weie given
The iat exploies these paths biiefly, but eventually chose the oiiginal, coiiect
path, to get to the foou
Tolman ian an expeiiment that fiist alloweu a iat to follow a path fiom the stait to
goal (which contains foou)
-
The iat hau uevelopeu a $%<."4"&' 9-> -
Ins|ght and Cogn|t|ve Maps
Cognitive theoiists believeu that the CS linkeu to the 0CS fiist to piouuce the
iesponse anu that the CS uoes not uiiectly cause CR
-
This &@$&1%#617 A5-&0 states that the most impoitant factoi in classical conuitioning is
not how often the CS anu 0CS but how well the CS pieuicts the appeaiance of the 0CS
-
The iats uiu not uevelop a feai iesponse fiom the tone because the tone uoesn't
ieliably pieuict the shock
A tone is playeu when the iats weie shockeu by electiicity, but they weie also
shockeu when the tone isn't playeu
-
This is why we uon't get conuitioneu to ianuom stimuli -
Cogn|t|on |n C|ass|ca| Cond|t|on|ng
The ioom is moie often lit, anu foou is not given; it uoesn't pieuict the 0CS
effectively
Eg. Why uoes Pavlov's uog not salivate when the light is on since foou is always
given in a lit ioom
This is why we uon't get conuitioneu to ianuom stimuli -

Cogn|t|on |n Cperant Cond|t|on|ng
0iganisms uevelop an awaieness oi expectancy of the ielations between theii
iesponses anu piobable consequences
-
0ne woulu only inciease theii behavioi if they aie awaie that they that theii behavioi
is being ieinfoiceu
-
Foi example, when a chilu tell his mothei to pass the fucking ceieal, the mothei
gets fuiious; the chilu assumes that it's because he wants ceieal anu not because
he useu a bau woiu
The concept of awaieness implies that the best pieuictoi of behavioi is the peiceiveu
contingency, not the actual one
-
?0' 2%3' %+ B:-('.'##
uioup 1 is given foou in the goal box
uioup 2 finus the goal box empty when they ieach it
uioup S finus no foou foi the fiist 1u uays but finus foou staiting on uay 11
Eg. S gioups of iats iunning in a maze -
uioup S figuieu out that theie is foou on uay 11, anu on uay 12, he became just as
goou as gioup 1 who has been ieinfoiceu all along
-
This phenomenon is known as 3-4'.4 3'-(.".< which iefeis to leaining that occuis
but is not uemonstiateu until theie is an incentive to peifoim
-
The iats leaineu how to solve the maze, but uoes not uisplay that knowleuge until
theie is a benefit in uoing so
-
G-4'.4 G'-(.".<
0ne coulu uo something iiuiculous anu no one woulu like it, but he coulu finu
self accomplishment by uoing so
People make theii own stanuaius that may oi may not fit into exteinal ieinfoicement -
A'3+/5&-31-4"%.# -.6 2'".+%($'(# -.6;1."#0'(#
Eg. Biiving, uoing math, making a sanuwich
Leaining that occuis by obseiving the behavioi of a mouel -
Nonkeys may leain auaptive feais - such as feai of snakes - by obseiving othei
monkeys' ieactions
0bseivational leaining is highly auaptive: an oiganism can leain which events aie
impoitant, which stimuli signal that such events aie about to occui, anu which
iesponses aie likely to piouuce positive oi negative consequences
-
Belps us bypass the potential uangei of tiial anu eiioi
0ui capacity to leain by obseivation is calleu mouelling -
People aie imitate those who aie moie competent, likable, anu have highei status oi
social powei
-
Cbservat|ona| Learn|ng: When Cthers ave the Way
Attention: pay attention to the mouel's behavioi !.
Retention: ietain infoimation in memoiy so that it can be iecalleu at a latei time ?.
Repiouuction: must be physically able to iepiouuce the mouels behavioi 3.
Cognitive piocess involves 4 basic steps -
1he Mode||ng rocess
Repiouuction: must be physically able to iepiouuce the mouels behavioi 3.
Notivation: we must be motivateu to uemonstiate the behavioi 1.
Becieaseu concein about the suffeiing of victims
Babituates us to the sight of violence
Pioviues aggiessive mouels that inciease the likelihoou of aggiession
Tv violence has stiong coiielation with: -
H'9%() iefeis to the piocesses that allow us to iecoiu an latei ietiieve expeiiences
anu infoimation
-
5.$%6".< iefeis to getting infoimation into the system by tianslating it into a neuial
coue that youi piocesses
-
A4%(-<' involves ietaining infoimation ovei time -
2'4("'&-3 is when you want to pull out the infoimation out of stoiage foi use -
Memory as Informat|on rocess|ng
Sensoiy input causes #'.#%() ('<"#4'(
The sensoiy iegistei encoues the infoimation anu biings it into the :%(V".<
S#0%(4 4'(9T 9'9%()
The shoit teim memoiy is encoueu again into the 3%.< 4'(9 9'9%()
Nemoiies can be ietiieveu fiom the long teim memoiy into the shoit teim
memoiy
Nemoiy has S majoi components: sensoiy memoiy, shoit teim memoiy, anu long
teim memoiy
-
A 1hree Component Mode|
Bolus incoming sensoiy infoimation long enough so that it can be iecognizeu -
It can holu images foi moie than a fiaction of a seconu
The visual sensoiy iegistei is calleu the iconic stoie -
Lasts foi 2 to S seconus
The auuitoiy sensoiy iegistei is calleu the echoic stoie -
A'.#%() H'9%()
Refeiieu to as :%(V".< 9'9%()
Thiough selective attention, a small poition of sensoiy memoiy enteis the #0%(4 4'(9
9'9%()
-
We may tiy to foim a mental image (visual encouing), coue something by sounu
(phonological encouing), oi focus on the meaning of a stimuli (semantic
encouing)
The sensoiy iegistei must cieate a mental iepiesentation in youi minu -

About S to 9 meaningful items
Shoit teim memoiy can holu only a limiteu amount of infoimation -
Eg. If you tiy to iemembei a jumble of letteis vs meaningful woius foimeu by the
letteis, memoiize the jumble of letteis will be much haiuei
The memoiy is conceineu with the numbei of meaningful units -

Combining inuiviuual items into laigei units is calleu $01.V".< -
Without ieheaisal, the shoit teim memoiy can last only about 2u seconus -
Simple iepetition of infoimation is calleu 9-".4'.-.$' ('0'-(#-3 -
Bettei in tiansfei to long teim memoiy
53-D%(-4"&' ('0'-(#-3 focuses on the meaning of infoimation oi ielating it to othei
things we know alieauy
-
Eg. Auuing 2 numbeis, the shoit teim memoiy calls up the pioblem solving
piocesses fiom the long teim memoiy on how to auu
Shoit teim memoiy is a woiking memoiy that actively anu simultaneously piocesses
uiffeient types of infoimation anu suppoits othei cognitive functions
-
Alan Bauueley uiviues woiking memoiy into thiee components -
A0%(4/?'(9`P%(V".< H'9%()
Chaptei 8 Nemoiy
november-21-10
7:12 M
B16"4%() :%(V".< 9'9%()7 iepeating a phone numbei, name, oi new
vocabulaiy teims
!.
L"#1-3 A>-4"-3 P%(V".< H'9%()7 tempoiaiily stoie anu manipulate images
anu spatial infoimation
?.
='.4(-3 5E'$14"&'7 uiiects action 3.
Alan Bauueley uiviues woiking memoiy into thiee components -
Piefiontal coitex is heavily involveu in uiiecting the piocessing of infoimation in the
woiking memoiy
-
Long teim memoiy capacity is essentially unlimiteu -
If piesenteu a list of woius, you aie moie likely to iemembei woius piesenteu in the
beginning anu the enu of the list
-
;("9-$) 5++'$47 supeiioi iecall of eaily woius
2'$'.$) 5++'$47 supeiioi iecall of most iecent woius
The #'("-3 >%#"4"%. '++'$4 means that iecall is influenceu by its position of
appeaiance in a seiies of items
-
It can ieheaise them all, so the new woius aie not tiansfeiieu into the long teim
memoiy
Accoiuing to the thiee stage mouel, The shoit teim memoiy gets filleu up by the
woius that keep coming in
-
If you weie askeu to wait Su seconus aftei the last woiu anu youi minu is kept
occupieu uoing something else, the iecency effect uisappeais
The iecency effect is because the last few woius aie not bumpeu out of the shoit teim
memoiy by any new infoimation
-
G%.</?'(9 H'9%()
Lncod|ng: Lnter|ng Informat|on
Effoitful piocessing is encouing that is initiateu intentionally anu iequiies conscious
attention
-
Eg. Remembeiing wheie you saw a uiagiam is locateu on the page
Automatic piocessing is stuff that gets tiansfeiieu into long teim memoiy even
though you have not consciously tiieu to encoue it
-
Lffortfu| and Automat|c rocess|ng
P0TAT0 "Is the woiu in capital letteis." !.
Boise "Boes the woiu ihyme with couise." ?.
TABLE "Boes the woiu fit in the sentence, "the man peeleu the ____." 3.
Eg. -
Question 1 iequiies supeificial #4(1$41(-3 '.$%6".< since you only have to notice
how the woiu looks
-
Question 2 iequiies >0%.%3%<"$-3 '.$%6".< by sounu out the woius anu juuging
whethei it ihymes with anothei woiu
-
Question S iequiies #'9-.4"$ '.$%6".< because you have to pay attention to what
the woiu means
-
G'&'3# %+ ;(%$'##".< states that the moie ueeply we piocess infoimation the bettei it
will be iemembeieu
-
Requiies us to focus on the meaning of the infoimation
Semantic couing iequiies the ueepest level -
Leve|s of rocess|ng: When Deeper |s 8etter
Repeateu shallow exposuie to a stimulus uoes not guaiantee long teim ietention
To leain factual oi conceptual infoimation, we neeu to employ effoitful, ueep
piocessing
-
Lxposure and kehearsa|
Repeateu shallow exposuie to a stimulus uoes not guaiantee long teim ietention
Naintenance ieheaisal involves iepetition anu is most useful foi keeping infoimation
active in shoit teim, woiking memoiy but is an inefficient in tiansfei to long teim
memoiy
-
Elaboiative ieheaisal focuses on the meaning of infoimation anu is moie effective in
tiansfeiiing into long teim memoiy
-
Theie aie hunuieus of possible couise options possible
Bow uoes a waitei iemembei oiueis foi laige gioups of people without wiiting them
uown
-
Be uoes so by using an oiganizational scheme -
Crgan|zat|on and Imagery
Bieiaichies helps the biain oiganize anu iemembei infoimation -
Each level of the hieiaichy help tiiggei the ones below it -
Eg. Chunking phone numbeis into sets of S letteis
Chunking iefeis to combining inuiviuual items into a laigei unit of meaning -
@"'(-($0"'# -.6 =01.V".<
Eg. B0NES (the fiist lettei of the five gieat lakes) anu R0Y u. BIv
A type of memoiy aiu -
Boes not ieuuce the amount of iaw infoimation to be iemembeieu but ieoiganizes
infoimation into meaningful units
-
H.'9%."$ !'&"$'#
Infoimation stoieu in long teim memoiy is stoieu in 2 foims: veibal coues anu
nonveibal coues
-
Eg. Fiietiuck anu light bulb appeals to both veibal anu nonveibal coues because
they can be visualizeu; howevei jealousy anu knowleuge can only be encoueu
veibally
!1-3 $%6".< 40'%() is encouing memoiy infoimation using both coues help impiove
memoiy
-
In the Nethou of Loci, you take a uistinct sequence of lanumaiks in a familiai location
to associate with something you want to memoiize
-
L"#1-3 F9-<'()
now r|or know|edge Shapes Lncod|ng
A #$0'9- is a "mental fiamewoik" about some aspect of the woilu such as a class of
people, events, situations, oi objects
-
Schemas cieate a context foi iemembeiing things anu holus the infoimation you
peiceive into a unifieu set
-
A$0'9-#7 N1( H'.4-3 N(<-."C'(#
Eg. When S chess playeis ianging fiom beginnei to expeit skill level weie askeu
to ieconstiuct the game boaiu of 2S pieces aftei looking at it foi S seconus
The expeit was able to iemembei 16 pieces

The inteimeuiate 8
The beginnei only 4
If it was constiucteu in a situation that might actually occui in a game
If it was constiucteu completely ianuomly the skill levels of the playeis uiun't
mean shit
Acquiiing expeit knowleuge can be vieweu as a piocess of ueveloping schemas -

mental fiamewoiks - that help encoue infoimation
-
The inteimeuiate anu novice playeis coulu not constiuct meaningful chunks as
When chess pieces weie constiucteu in meaningful patteins, the auvanceu playei
coulu apply well uevelopeu schemas to iecognize patteins anu gioup pieces togethei
-
A$0'9-# -.6 5E>'(4 X.%:3'6<'
The inteimeuiate anu novice playeis coulu not constiuct meaningful chunks as
effectively
Storage: keta|n|ng Informat|on

Memory as a Network
A massive netwoik of associateu iueas anu concepts -
Each noue is connecteu to what you alieauy know -
When you think about something like fiie engine, theie is a spieauing activation of
ielateu concepts thioughout the netwoik
-
Eg. Fiie engine piimes the noue foi ieu
;("9".< iefeis to the activation of one concept by anothei -
B##%$"-4"&' M'4:%(V#
Bas noues that aie linkeu to on anothei -
Eg. When noue 4 anu 1u fiie, you get one thought when noues 4 anu 1S fiie you
get anothei thought
In a .'1(-3 .'4:%(V each concept is iepiesenteu by a paiticulai pattein oi set of

noues that become activateu simultaneously
-
The neuial netwoik mouels aie often calleu paiallel uistiibuteu piocessing mouel -
M'1(-3 M'4:%(V#
Nany scientists believe that we have uiffeient systems of long teim memoiy -
1ypes of Long-1erm Memory
5>"#%6"$ 9'9%() is oui stoie of factual knowleuge conceining peisonal
expeiiences
A'9-.4"$ 9'9%() iepiesents geneial factual knowleuge about the woilu anu
language
!'$3-(-4"&' 9'9%() involves factual knowleuge, anu incluues two subcategoiies -

Expiesseu by uoing things such as typing, iiuing a bike, oi playing a musical
instiument
Classical conuitioneu iesponses aie consiueieu pioceuuial

;(%$'61(-3 H'9%() is ieflecteu in skills anu actions -
!'$3-(-4"&' -.6 ;(%$'61(-3 H'9%()
5E>3"$"4 9'9%() involves conscious oi intentional memoiy ietiieval -
Recognition iequiies to ueciue whethei a stimulus is familiai -
Eg. If you can't iemembei hat, anu one says it ihymes with hat, then bat is a
cue
Cueu iecall is when hints aie given to stimulate memoiy

Recall involves spontaneous memoiy ietiieval -
Eg. Euouaiu Clapeieue (anemic) was offeieu to shake hanus with a scientist who
helu a pin in his hanu
She has no iecollection of the event but iefuses to shake the expeiimentei's
hanu again
F9>3"$"4 H'9%() occuis when memoiy influences oui behavioi without conscious
awaieness
-
5E>3"$"4 -.6 F9>3"$"4 H'9%()
Eg. Seeing a pictuie tiiggeis memoiies of that peison
A ('4("'&-3 $1' is any stimulus, whethei inteinal oi exteinal, that stimulates the
activation of infoimation stoieu in long teim memoiy
-
ketr|eva|: Access|ng Informat|on
A gioup of stuuents weie askeu to ieau a list of Su4 woius anu make 1 oi S woiu -
1he Va|ue of Mu|t|p|e and Se|f-Generated Cues
A gioup of stuuents weie askeu to ieau a list of Su4 woius anu make 1 oi S woiu
associations foi them
-
Some weie shown theii won associations, otheis weie shown the associations of
othei people
Stuuents who hau 1 woiu iecalleu 61% of the woius

Stuuents who hau S woius iecalleu 91%
People who saw theii own cues
Stuuents who hau 1 woiu iecalleu 11%
Stuuents who hau S woius iecalleu SS%
People who saw othei peoples' cues
They weie askeu to iecall them latei aftei seeing the association woius that they
maue
-
This shows that having multiple self geneiateu cues was the most effective methou foi
maximizing iecall
-
If one woiu in a list uoes not fit in, it is uistinctive, anu you aie moie likely to iecall
that woiu
-
It is helpful to associate infoimation with things that aie peisonally meaningful to
oneself
-
1he Va|ue of D|st|nct|veness
83-#0D13D 9'9%("'# aie iecollections that seem veiy viviu like snapshots of a
moment in time
-
14 of them hau completely uiffeient memoiies
Stuuents weie askeu to wiite uown what theii memoiy of 911 was like anu they
weie biought back S yeais latei to wiite the expeiience again
Those who hau stiongei emotional iesponse iepoiteu to have bettei memoiy
Among stuuents who hau teiiible iecall, 61% of them weie highly confiuent of
theii memoiies
We aie easily iecalleu, but they aie not necessaiily accuiate -

I|ashbu|b Memory: Iogg|ng Up the |cture
Eg. The joggei was in shock coulu not iemembei the iape, but aftei jogging
thiough the same place, she iemembeieu it viviuly
The '.$%6".< #>'$"+"$"4) >(".$">3' states that memoiy is enhanceu when conuitions
piesent uuiing ietiieval match those that weie piesent uuiing encouing
-
Context, State, and Mood Lffects on Memory
Exteinal cues leau us to $%.4'E4/6'>'.6'.4 9'9%() -
Eg. victims of ciimes aie taken back to the ciime scene to bettei stimulate
iecollection of the event
Its easiei to iemembei something in the same enviionment in which it was acquiieu -
=%.4'E4/!'>'.6'.4 H'9%()7 2'41(.".< 4% 40' A$'.'
Bei state of jogging helpeu hei iemembei the inciuent
The joggei who was iapeu, iapiuly iemembeieu the iape while she was jogging
thiough the same place again
0ui ability to ietiieve infoimation is gieatei when oui inteinal state at the time of
ietiieval matches oui oiiginal state uuiing leaining
-
Eg. People who ieau while iunning the tieaumill iecalls the mateiial bettei when
iunning on the tieaumill again, so it's not veiy goou foi tests, which aie taken at iest
-
If you aie iemembeiing something while being unuei the influence of uiugs, iecall is
pooiei when one is not using the uiug
-
H%%6/$%.<(1'.4 ('$-337 We tenu to iecall infoimation oi events that aie congiuent
with oui cuiient moou
-
A4-4'/!'>'.6'.4 H'9%()7 B(%1#-3R !(1<#R -.6 H%%6
When we aie happy we aie moie likely to iemembei positive events
with oui cuiient moou
Iorgett|ng
Beimann Ebbinghaus stuuieu himself in a memoiy test -
Be cieateu ovei 2,uuu nonsense syllables that he tiieu to memoiize himself -
If he leaineu a list of woius that took him 2u tiials, leaining it a week latei woulu
only take him half as many tiials
Be useu a methou calleu ieleaining -

0ne foigets a lot in the fiist inteival, but it slows uown as time goes on
Be stuuieu the inteivals of foigetting anu came up with the foigetting cuive -
1he Course of Iorgett|ng
Why Do We Iorget?
Sometimes we fail in encouing infoimation fiom the shoit teim memoiy into the long
teim memoiy
-
Theie is too much stimuli anu we uo not commit to all of them ueeply enough to
iemembei them all
-
Those who watcheu the sexual oi violent shows iemembeieu the commeicials
less than those who watcheu the neutial shows because they weie a lot moie
pieoccupieu with the content of theii shows
Eg. People watcheu sexual, violent, anu neutial shows, anu 9 commeicials weie put
into between
-
5.$%6".< 8-"31('
This theoiy was uisfavoieu because no one know what physical memoiy tiaces
weie
!'$-) ?0'%()7 with time anu uisuse, the physical memoiy tiaces in the neivous
system faues away
-
Some neuial ciicuits change as long teim memoiies aie foimeu -
Becay theoiy's pieuiction that the longei the inteival of uisuse between leaining anu
iecall, the less woulu be iecalleu
-
This is calleu ('9"."#$'.$', which is inconsistent with the concept that a
memoiy tiace uecays ovei time
Sometimes though, when a list of woius weie memoiizeu, moie was iecalleu uuiing
the seconu tiial
-
!'$-) %+ 40' H'9%() ?(-$'
Accoiuing to the inteifeience theoiy, we foiget infoimation because othei items in
the long teim memoiy impaiis oui ability to ietiieve it
-
Eg. If you change youi phone numbei, youi olu numbei inteifeies youi ability to
memoiize the new one
;(%-$4"&' ".4'(+'('.$' occuis when mateiial leaineu in the past inteifeies with
iecall of newei mateiial
-
Eg. If you finally iemembei youi new numbei anu was askeu what youi olu
numbei was, you may not iemembei it because youi new numbei inteifeies
with iecalling the olu numbei
2'4(%-$4"&' F.4'(+'('.$' occuis when newly acquiieu infoimation inteifeies with

the ability to iecall infoimation leaineu at an eailiei time
-
The moie similai two sets of infoimation aie, the moie likely that inteifeience will
occui
-
0ccuis about once a week
Tip of the tongue (T0T) phenomenon is when we cannot iecall a fact, but feeling that
we aie on the veige of iecalling it
-
F.4'(+'('.$'R 2'4("'&-3 8-"31('R -.6 40' ?">/%+/40'/?%.<1'
0ccuis about once a week
Sometimes they aie illusions, we think we know the coiiect answei when we
ieally uon't
Eg. Sometimes a thought is so shocking anu anxiety aiousing that one woulu feel
the neeu to iepiess it
Notivational piocesses, such as ('>('##"%. may piotect us by blocking the iecall of

anxiety aiousing memoiies
-
H%4"&-4'6 8%(<'44".<
Eg. Aftei getting hit in football, you have tiouble iemembeiing why you weie in
the hospital
2'4(%<(-6' -9.'#"- iepiesents memoiy loss foi events that occuiieu piioi to the
onset of amnesia
-
Aftei B.N's opeiation, he cannot consciously foim new long teim memoiies
B.4'(%<(-6' B9.'#"- iefeis to memoiy loss foi events that occui aftei the initial
onset of amnesia
-
They can iemembei theii mothei's voice anu that ceitain behavioi piouuce
iewaius
This uoes not mean that infants uo not foim long teim memoiies
This is possibly causeu by the fact that the mechanism foi encouing long teim
memoiies aie still immatuie in the fiist yeais aftei biith
Auuitionally, they uo not have a peisonal fiame of iefeience to oiganize theii

memoiies
F.+-.4"3' -9.'#"- is the loss of eaily expeiiences in chiluhoou -

Amnes|a
Involves the piefiontal coitex
;(%#>'$4"&' 9'9%() conceins iemembeiing to peifoim an activity in the futuie -
Those with bettei ietiospective memoiy uoes not necessaiily have goou piospective
memoiies
-
0luei auults typically have pooiei piospective memoiy
Stuuies suppoit that we become incieasingly absentminueu about iemembeiing to uo
things as get oluei
-
Iorgett|ng to Do 1h|ngs: rospect|ve Memory
Nemoiies aie usually incomplete anu sketchy -
We constiuct a memoiy fiom bits of stoieu infoimation in a way that makes sense to
us
-
Memory as a Construct|ve rocess
The woiu canoe was ieplaceu with boat
The ghost that was helping the naiiatoi is now the enemy
The naiiatoi, insteau of going seal hunting, is going fishing insteau
When a gioup of English men weie tolu a native stoiy anu weie askeu to ietell it 2u
houis latei, they ieconstiucteu it in a way that makes sense to them
-
The stoiy changeu to fit the English cultuie -
People iemembei geneializeu iueas (schemas), but we use oui pieexisting schemas to
fill in the gap
-
Auveitiseis may hint at something, but not claim it uiiectly, so the viewei's
pievious schemas can fill in the gap
Listeiine example
Auveitiseis often take auvantage of this effect -
Memory D|stort|on and Schemas
Listeiine example
They pictuie the scene as having a wiuei angle than it ieally was
Stuuents consistently uisplay bounuaiy extension when uiawing pictuies fiom
memoiy
-
This has ielations to mistaken eyewitness testimony
The 9"#".+%(9-4"%. '++'$4 is the uistoition of a event by misleauing post-event
infoimation
-
The actual ciiminal may appeai gentlemanly anu kinu, anu oui schemas woulu
ueceive us in this scenaiio
Foi example, when witnesses weie askeu to iuentify a ciiminal, they go foi the one
that looks like theii image of a ciiminal
-
0sing the woius smasheu iesulteu in an estimateu speeu of 6S.Skmh,
while using the woiu contact iesulteu in an estimateu speeu of (Su.9kmh)
Eg. When askeu how fast a cai was going uuiing the time of collision
The eye witness account is affecteu by how the question is phiaseu -
1he M|s|nformat|on Lffect and Lyew|tness 1est|mony
Eg. If we see a mugshot of a stiangei anu then askeu to pick out the ciiminal in a
lineup, we aie likely to pick the one in the mugshot that we saw
This is because we aie not suie wheie we encounteieu the peison, but they look
familiai
Nisinfoimation often occui because of #%1($' $%.+1#"%. -

In a similai expeiiment, 29% of people iuentifieu an innocent suspect aftei being
exposeu to seveial misleauing statements
-
=%.+1#".< 40' A%1($'
Bloou alcohol level of u.1u iesults in less infoimation being iecalleu anu less accuiate
infoimation 1 week aftei
-
Iuentification baseu on voice seems to be less accuiate than those baseu on both
visual anu auuitoiy cues oi visual cues alone
-
N40'( 8-$4%(# ". 5)':"4.'## ?'#4"9%.)
Is it causeu by iepiession as Fieuu suggesteu oi some othei psychological
piocess.
What causeu the memoiy to be foigotten foi so long.

When a memoiy is foigotten, but spontaneously iemembeieu again, is it accuiate. -
Fieuu's iepiession theoiy has been haiu to uemonstiate expeiimentally anu othei
ieseaicheis piopose that it coulu be just because of oiuinaiy (non-motivateu) souices
of foigetting
-
A chilu may not iemembei the violent ueaths of hishei paients
Retiogiaue amnesia can occui aftei a tiaumatic event -
It has also been shown that people can mistaken suggesteu events as actual memoiies
by the powei of suggestion
-
1he "kecovered Memory" Controversy: kepress|on or keconstruct|on?
Concluueu that memoiy is stoieu thioughout the biain
Kail Lashley cieateu lesions in the biains of animals, but coulu not finu a location foi
wheie they aie stoieu
-
Be then choppeu it up into pieces anu feu theii RNA to untiaineu woims
The new woims began to show some conuitioning to the light
Bowevei, this expeiiment faileu to iepiouuce in othei animals, anu is now seen
NcConnell classically conuitioneu a flatwoim to a light that piouuceu an electiic
shock so that when the light tuineu on the woim contiacts
-
1he 8|o|ogy of Memory
Bowevei, this expeiiment faileu to iepiouuce in othei animals, anu is now seen
as a ueau enu
In human lesion stuuies, memoiy loss followeu natuially occuiiing uamage (fiom
uisease oi acciuent)
-
In non-human animal lesion expeiiments, ieseaicheis uamage a specific pait of the
biain anu obseive how memoiy is affecteu
-
Biain imaging stuuies examine the healthy biain as paiticipants peifoim vaiious
memoiy tasks
-
Where |n the 8ra|n Are Memor|es Iormed?
Bienua Nilnei came to the conclusion that the hippocampus anu its aujacent tissue
help to encoue anu ietiieve long teim ueclaiative memoiies
-
Nost patients with hippocampal uamage can ietain shoit teim memoiy but cannot
foim long teim memoiies
-
They can iecall infoimation befoie theii hippocampal uamage
The hippocampus is not wheie long teim memoiies aie stoieu, just wheie they aie
encoueu
-
The ceiebial coitex plays a vital iole in encouing by piocessing infoimation fiom the
sensoiy iegisteis
-
This hypothetical binuing piocess is calleu 9'9%() $%.#%3"6-4"%.
Biffeient sensoiy iegisteis aie piocesseu in uiffeient aieas of the coitex, but aie
giauually bounu togethei in the hippocampus
-
The ceiebial coitex stoies semantic memoiies acioss wiue ianging sites -
We ietiieve anu ieintegiate these components to cieate a "unifieu memoiy"
Components of epiuosuic memoiy is stoieu acioss wiue aieas of the coitex -
Beep (semantic) piocessing tasks causes activation in specific iegions of the left
piefiontal coitex anu leaus to bettei iecall
The piefiontal coitex plays a vital iole in caiiying out the functions of woiking
memoiy
-
?0' @">>%$-9>1# -.6 ='('D(-3 =%(4'E
Bamage to the thalamus can piouuce seveie amnesia -
Be suffeieu ietiogiaue amnesia
N.A was stabbeu thiough the nose by a fencing foil which uamageu his thalamus -
Bamage to the thalamus can cause both ietiogiaue anu anteiogiaue amnesia -
Amyguala encoue emotionally aiousing anu uistuibing aspects of events -
Amyguala uamage pievent people fiom foiming conuitioneu feai iesponses -
?0' ?0-3-91# -.6 B9)<6-3-
Bas impoitant iole in foiming pioceuuial memoiies -
?0' ='('D'3319
Lxcept|ona| Memory
Noimal foigetting can uull unpleasant expeiiences of the past -
Eiiois maue often maue lowei giaues highei
Stuuents tenu to iecall highei giaues iathei than low ones -
1he Curse of Lxcept|ona| Memory
H'.4-3 2'>('#'.4-4"%.# take a vaiiety of foims, incluuing images, iueas, concepts,
anu piinciples
-
Stiuctuie of the biain has been the same since Su,uuu yeais ago, but it took SS,uuu
yeais foi cave paintings to exist anu anothei 12,uuu to uevelop wiiting
-
Alloweu the foimation of social systems, social customs, anu communication of
thought to otheis
Language evolveu as people gatheieu in laigei social units -

Language
G-.<1-<' consists of a system of iules foi combining symbols in a way that can
piouuce an infinite numbei of possible messages anu meanings
-
Allows communicatois to foim anu tiansfei mental iepiesentations to the
minu of anothei peison
!"#>3-$'9'.4 iefeis to the fact that past, futuie, anu imaginaiy events anu
objects that aie not physically piesent can be symbolically iepiesenteu anu
communicateu thiough the meuium of language
Language is #)9D%3"$7 uses sounus, wiitten signs, oi gestuies to iefei to objects,

events, iueas, anu feelings
!.
Eg. Pupjuka is not a ieal English woiu
Language anu #4(1$41('7 theie aie iules to how symbols aie combineu into
meaningful wholes
?.
Language is <'.'(-4"&'7 symbols can be combineu to geneiate an almost infinite
numbei of messages that can have novel meaning
3.
[ ;(%>'(4"'# %+ G-.<1-<' -
1he Nature and Structure of Language
A).4-E7 iules foi combination (giammai)
A1(+-$' #4(1$41(' consists of the way symbols aie combineu within a given language -
A'9-.4"$#7 iules foi connecting symbols to what they iepiesent
!''> A4(1$41('7 unueilying meaning of the combineu symbols -
Eloise ian ovei the attacking pit bull with hei Big Wheel !.
The Big Wheel uiiven by Eloise ian ovei the attacking pit bull ?.
Eg: The following sentences have uiffeient suiface stiuctuies anu syntax, but the
same ueep stiuctuie.
-
Surface and Deep Structure
Language has a hieiaichical stiuctuie (+"<] b]Z) -
English has 4u to Su
;0%.'9'#7 lowest in hieiaichy; small units of sounus that aie iecognizeu as sepaiate
in a given language
-
0ne oi moie phonemes combine into a single moipheme (eg. Telephone)
H%(>0'9'#7 above phonemes; smallest unit of meaning in a language -
Language from the 8ottom Up
Acqu|r|ng a Language
Bumans aie boin linguists -
Buman chiluien, uespite theii limiteu thinking skills, begin to mastei language eaily
in life without any foimal instiuction
-
8|o|og|ca| Ioundat|ons
Chaptei 9: Thought, Language, anu Intelligence
uecember-19-10
11:31 M
in life without any foimal instiuction
Biffeient languages have uevelopeu inuepenuently in uiffeient paits of the woilu
seem to have a common unueilying ueep stiuctuie
-
Infants aie boin with the ability to vocalize the entiie iange of phonemes -
Eg. }apanese chiluien lose the ability to uistinguish between i anu l
At 6 months of age, infants begin to lose the ability to uiffeientiate sounus that aie not
in theii language
-
0sually extenus fiom infancy to pubeity
Eg. Chiluien who giew up alone oi weie hau paients who neglecteu them weie
able to acquiie language skills if they weie youngei; chiluien who aie past
pubeity anu uoes not have a language tenu to have moie tiouble leaining a
language
Linguists claim that theie is a #'.#"4"&' >'("%6 uuiing which language is most easily
leaineu
-
Sign language follows the same patteins as vocalizeu language anu is acquiieu in the
same mannei
-
A'E !"++'('.$'#
,(%$-Q# -('- is iesponsible foi #>''$0 >(%61$4"%. -
P'(."$V'Q# -('- is iesponsible foi #>''$0 $%9>('0'.#"%. -
Bamage in eithei aiea can cause ->0-#"-, a uisiuption in speech compiehension
anuoi piouuction
-
Suggests that moie of women's language is localizeu in the iight hemispheie
fNRI stuuies by Susan Rossell suppoits this hypothesis
Nen who suffei left hemispheie stiokes aie moie likely to show seveie aphasic
symptoms than women
-
Social leaining plays a cential iole in language acquisition -
H%40'('#'7 a high pitcheu voice that motheis tenu to use with theii chiluien -
Chiluien leain too much too fast foi opeiant conuitioning
Paients aie moie inteiesteu in the ueep stiuctuie anu not the suiface
stiuctuie
Nost paients uo not coiiect theii chiluien's giammai anu language skills
Pioven to be untiue
B. F. Skinnei claims that language comes fiom opeiant conuitioning wheie paients
ieinfoice coiiect veibalization
-
By 2 yeais of age, chiluien uttei two woiu sentences calleu 4'3'<(->0"$ #>''$0 that
consist of a noun anu a veib
-
Soc|a| Learn|ng rocess
Nuch of the vocabulaiy of a language can be leaineu at any age, but masteiy of the
syntax uepenus on eaily acquisition
-
Chiluien begin to uiffeientiate theii two languages by two yeais of age anu coue
mixing is not a lasting souice of confusion
0ne concein is that chiluien will mix anu match the two languages -
Bilingual stuuents show supeiioi cognitive piocessing when compaieu to
monolinguists
-
uieatei flexibility in thinking anu bettei peifoimance in stanuaiuizeu tests coiielate
positively with bilingualism
-
Bilinguists who aie pioficient in the seconu language anu acquiieu it uuiing an eaily
age showeu piocessing in the same coitical aiea as the fiist language
-
Those who acquiie a seconu language latei on in life with speaks with less pioficiency
uses a uiffeient aiea than that of the native language
-
8|||ngua||sm: Learn|ng a Second Language
uses a uiffeient aiea than that of the native language
Eg. Since Bopi Inuians lack a past tense, they woulu have uifficulty iemembeiing
past events
Benjamin Lee Whoif: G".<1"#4"$ ('3-4"&"4) 0)>%40'#"#c language ueteimines what we

aie capable of thinking
-
Showeu a gioup of people who only uiffeientiateu two colois
They coulu uiffeientiate many hues just like people speaking any othei language
Eleanoi Rosch pioveu this false -
Linguists touay thinks that language uo no ueteimine how we think but can influence
how we think anu how efficiently we can categoiize oui expeiiences
-
Eg. 0sing "he" to iefei to mankinu in geneial makes the sentence male biaseu
Language can help enfoice steieotypes -
Coulu be because in Chinese, the language is constiucteu aiounu the base 1u
system
In English, numbeis such as twelve anu eleven uoes not coiielate well with the
base 1u system
English speaking stuuents consistently scoie lowei in mathematical skills such as

counting
-
;(%>%#"4"%.-3 40%1<04 expiesses a statement anu takes the foim of a veibal sentence
that we seem to "heai" in oui minus
-
F9-<".-3 40%1<04 consists of images that we can see, heai, oi feel in oui minus -
H%4%("$ 40%1<04 consists of mental iepiesentations of motoi movements such as
thiowing an object
-
L|ngu|st|c Inf|uences on 1h|nk|ng
Eg. "0niveisity stuuents aie intelligent people"
Nuch of oui thinking takes the piopositional foim -
2 types: A1DI'$4 anu >('6"$-4'
Piopositions consists of concepts combineu in a paiticulai way -
=%.$'>4# aie the basic units of semantic memoiy -
Eg. vegetables
Nany concepts aie haiu to be uefineu explicitly but can be uefineu by >(%4%4)>'# -
Eg. It woulu take longei to juuge whethei a penguin is a biiu than if askeu
whethei a spaiiow is a biiu. This is because spaiiows fit bettei with oui
conception of a biiu while penguins aie less so.
0sing piototypes only iequiies one to juuge the similaiities -

Eg. Befinition of a political iauical
Piototypes uiffei fiom peison to peison so theie is a uegiee of aibitiaiiness anu
inuiviuual uiffeience in piototypic concepts
-
Eg. If a cancei tieatment is saiu to be "Su% successful" as opposeu to "Su%
failuie", woulu it make a uiffeience on a peison's uecision.
People who weie tolu a tieatment is Su% successful will moie likely auministei
the tieatment to a family membei
Su% failuie makes the tieatment seem moie iisky

Bo how a pioposition is stateu affect how we solve pioblems. -
Concepts and ropos|t|ons
Scientists believe that oui capacity foi logical thinking has been honeu by
evolutionaiy foices because of its auaptive value
-
keason|ng and rob|em So|v|ng
evolutionaiy foices because of its auaptive value
Reasoning anu logic can aveit the time consuming anu hazaiuous piocess of tiial
anu eiioi
Nost piimitive foim of pioblem solving is tiial anu eiioi -

People stait with geneial piinciples assumeu to be tiue anu uses that to
ueteimine what they imply about a ceitain situation
If all humans aie moitals anu (piemise 1) !.

Sociates is a human (piemise 2) ?.
Then Sociates must be a moital (conclusion) 3.
This is consiueieu a moie valiu foim of ieasoning because if the piemises aie
tiue, so must be the conclusion
!'61$4"&' ('-#%.".< is ieasoning fiom the "top uown" -

Eg. Pavlov obseiveu that all uogs salivate when he iingeu the bell; he foimulateu
that to be classical conuitioning
Can leau to likelihoou iathei than ceitainty

F.61$4"&' ('-#%.".< is in the bottom up fashion staiting with specific facts anu
tiying to uevelop a geneial piinciple
-
Eg. 0ne obseives that when many bystanueis aie piesent, they often fail to offei
help. Scientists foimulate a theoiy that the moie bystanueis theie aie, the less
likely they aie willing to help. This is a foim of inuuctive ieasoning. Then, the
theoiy is testeu via ueuuctive ieasoning via an expeiiment to test its valiuity.
In science both appioaches aie useu to piove a theoiy in a piocess calleu

0)>%40'4"$%/6'61$4"&' ->>(%-$0
-
keason|ng
Theie aie many factois that pievent us fiom selecting the infoimation neeueu to uiaw
sounu conclusions
-
!"#4(-$4"%. D) "(('3'&-.4 ".+%(9-4"%.
The 19 black socks anu 1S blue socks aie iiielevant. You only neeu to pull S to
ensuie you have a complete set.
Eg. A uiawei contains 19 black socks anu 1S blue socks, how many uo you have to pull
to get a complete set.
-
8-"31(' 4% ->>3) 6'61$4"&' >(".$">3'#
We fail to use the knowleuge we know to apply to new pioblems -
When physics stuuents weie askeu to solve this type of pioblem in novel
mathematical iepiesentations, they weie less successful because they've only
leaineu to use it in physics pioblems.
Eg. Solving Y=mX + b pioblems -

,'3"'+ ,"-#
Tenuency to abanuon logical iules in favoi of oui own peisonal beliefs -
All things that aie smokeu aie goou foi one's health !.
Cigaiettes aie smokeu ?.
Theiefoie cigaiettes aie goou foi one's health 3.
Factual fallacy uoes not equate logical fallacy -
The piemise is false, but the logic is peifectly valiu -
Stumb||ng 8|ocks |n keason|ng
Comes in 4 stages -
rob|em So|v|ng
Bow we mentally, iepiesent, oi fiame, a pioblem can make a huge uiffeience in how -
K.6'(#4-.6".<R %( 8(-9".<R 40' >(%D3'9
Eg. Tiain-ciow anecuote, pg. S69
Bow we mentally, iepiesent, oi fiame, a pioblem can make a huge uiffeience in how
we solve the pioblem
-
Beteimine which pioceuuies anu explanations will be consiueieu !.
Beteimine which of these solutions aie consistent with the eviuence that has so fai
been obseiveu. Rule out any solutions that uo not fit the eviuence.
?.
J'.'(-4".< ;%4'.4"-3 A%314"%.#
Consiuei the iemaining solutions anu uesign a test to ueteimine whethei it leaus to a
solution
-
Eg. Watei jug pioblems pg. S69S7u -
People tenu to uevelop a 9'.4-3 #'4R a tenuency to stick to solutions that have
woikeu in the past; this can leau to less effective pioblem solving
-
?'#4".< 40' A%314"%.#
"Is theie an easiei oi moie effective way to accomplish the same objective." -
5&-31-4".< 40' 2'#134#
Eg. Social inteiaction, cooking, etc.
We know what to uo without having to engage in foimal pioblem solving
pioceuuies
;(%D3'9 #%3&".< #$0'9-# aie like mental blue piints, oi step by step sciipts foi
selecting infoimation anu solving specializeu classes of pioblems
-
Chessmastei uaiy Kaspaiov can iegulaily uefeat computeis because of his complex
mental schemas
-
Expeits have gieat many schemas to guiue them in pioblem solving in theii fielu -
Neuions anu biain function changes as one becomes an expeit at something -
;(%D3'9 A%3&".< A$0'9-#
Algoiithms aie foimulas oi pioceuuies that automatically geneiate coiiect solutions -
Eg. If you want to finu all the combination of letteis in an anagiam, theie woulu be
4u,S2u possibilities
-
Nental shoitcuts that may oi may not pioviue coiiect solutions
Eg. 0sing geneial woiu constiuction piinciples to iecombine anagiams
@'1("#4"$# aie geneial pioblem solving stiategies that we apply to ceitain classes of
situations
-
Eg. uoal is to wiite a Su page papei at the enu of the teim. Piesently u pages aie
wiitten. Bow to ieuuce this uiffeience.
H'-.#/5.6# -.-3)#"# is an example of heuiistics wheie one iuentifies uiffeiences

between the piesent situation anu one's uesiieu state anu make changes to ieuuce
these uiffeiences
-
Bieak is uown into seveial aieas such as choosing a topic, uoing ieseaich,
making a geneial outline, wiiting a fiist uiaft, anu euiting
Eg. Wiiting a papei

A1D<%-3 -.-3)#"# is when you bieak laige pioblems into subunitsinteimeuiate steps -
B3<%("409# -.6 @'1("#4"$#
Typically uecisions aie maue that has a high piobability of a positive outcome -
We apply ceitain heuiistics to foim juugments of likelihoou -
?0' 2'>('#'.4-4"&'.'## @'1("#4"$
0seu to infei how closely something oi someone fits oui piototype foi a paiticulai
concept anu theiefoie how closely they aie a membei of that class
-
B&-"3-D"3"4) @'1("#4"$#
Causes us to base juugments anu uecisions on the availability of infoimation in
memoiy
-
K.$'(4-".4)R @'1("#4"$#R -.6 !'$"#"%. H-V".<
memoiy
Eg. 911 maue people scaieu to fly anu maue businesses afiaiu to ient lanumaik
office spaces
If something is at the foiefiont of oui memoiies, it is ieauily applieu, but we may

exaggeiate the likelihoou that it coulu occui
-
The tenuency to look foi eviuence that coulu confiim theii beliefs iathei than looking
foi eviuence that coulu uisconfiim them
-
Eg. Caiu pioblem pg. 9.18 -
People tenu to iecall feeuback fiom otheis that confiims theii beliefs about
themselves
-
=%.+"(9-4"%. ,"-#
F.4'33"<'.$' is a concept, oi constiuct, that iefeis to the ability to acquiie knowleuge,
to think anu ieason effectively, anu to ueal auaptively with the enviionment
-
Inte|||gence
Fiancis ualton's woik giew out of a puiely scientific uesiie to extenu Baiwin's theoiy
of evolution to the inheiitance of mental abilities
-
Alfieu Binet's concein was the piactical one of finuing a means to iuentify "mentally
uefective" chiluien who woulu be unable to piofit fiom noimal euucational
expeiiences
-
Inte|||gence |n n|stor|ca| erspect|ve
ualton showeu thiough family tiees that eminence anu genius seemeu to occui acioss
geneiations within ceitain families
-
Be tiieu to uemonstiate a biological basis foi eminence by showing that people who
weie moie socially anu occupationally successful woulu also peifoim bettei on a
vaiiety thought measuiements
-
Bis woikeu was geneially incoiiect -
J-34%.7 d1-.4"+)".< H'.4-3 BD"3"4)
Some chiluien coulun't benefit fiom noimal euucation anu euucatois wanteu to
iuentify these chiluien as eaily as possible so that special euucation coulu be
aiiangeu foi them
Commissioneu by Fiench's Ninistiy of Euucation to uevelop the a intelligence test -

Intelligence incieases with age
The iate a which people gain mental competence is a chaiacteiistic of the peison
is faiily constant ovei time
Naue 2 assumptions about intelligence -

Eg. 8 yeai olu with a 1u yeai olu's pioblem solving skills has the mental age
of 1u
Chiluien weie testeu foi theii 9'.4-3 -<'

Askeu teacheis about what chiluien shoulu be able to uo a uiffeient ages -
ueiman psychologist William Stein cieateu a ielative scoie foi intelligence calleu
A4'(.Q# F.4'33"<'.$' =%'++"$"'.4 SFdT
-
IQ = (mental agechionological age) x 1uu -
Inciease in mental age slows uown uiamatically at about age 16
A 4u yeai olu cannot be expecteu to have twice the level of mental skill of a 2u
yeai olu
In auvanceu ages, a uecline staits to occui

}ames Flynn has uiscoveieu that theie is a iising cuive in intelligence anu people
aie piogiessively getting smaitei
Theie aie pioblems with IQ tests -

Touay's IQ is known as !'&"-4"%. Fd anu iepiesents how much stanuaiuizeu uistance -
B3+('6 ,".'4Q# H'.4-3 ?'#4#
Touay's IQ is known as !'&"-4"%. Fd anu iepiesents how much stanuaiuizeu uistance
a scoie is above oi below the mean foi that paiticulai sample
-
Became known as the A4-.+%(6/,".'4 test
Lewis Teiman tianslateu Binet's tests into English anu auueu items that weie
ielevant to Ameiican cultuie
-
Believeu that intelligence shoulu be measuieu as a uistinct set of veibal anu
nonveibal skills
A majoi competitoi came in the foim of 40' P'$0#3'( A$-3'# -

Wechslei scales fall into two classes: veibal Tests anu Peifoimance Tests -
1he Stanford-8|net and Wechs|er Sca|es
Eg. Loige-Thoinuike Intelligence Test anu the 0tis Lennon School Ability Test
uioup tests of intelligence can be useu to obtain IQ scoies fiom gioups of people at
the same time
-
Scholastic Aptituue Test (SAT)
uiauuate Recoiu Examination
0thei tests aie measuiements of specific mental skills -
B$0"'&'9'.4 4'#4 vs B>4"416' ?'#4
Aigument is that achievement test is a goou pieuictoi of futuie peifoimance in a
similai situation
Countei aigument is that not eveiyone has a hau a an equal oppoitunity to leain
Bowevei, it is uifficult to constiuct a test that is inuepenuent of pievious
leaining
Shoulu tests be measuieu foi how a much a peison alieauy knows oi hishei
potential foi leaining.
-
Nost intelligence tests touay measuie both achievement anu aptituue -
Group 1ests of Apt|tude and Ach|evement
A >#)$0%3%<"$-3 4'#4 is a methou foi measuiing inuiviuual uiffeiences ielateu to
some psychological concept, oi constiuct, baseu on a sample of ielevant behavioi
-
You neeu to take a sample
To constiuct a test, one neeus to ueciue which specific behaviois seive best as
inuicatois of intellectual abilities
-
Sc|ent|f|c Standards for sycho|og|ca| 1ests
Refeis to consistency of measuiement -
Assume that intelligence is a stable tiait, anu that 4'#4/('4'#4 ('3"-D"3"4) in the same
gioup of people shoulu be similai on uiffeient occasions
-
2'3-4"&' 4% -<', a peison's intelligence uoes not change veiy much
Coiielation of IQs 9 yeai olus anu 4u yeai olus is in the .7 to .8 iange showing a high
uegiee of stability
-
The test itself must D' ".4'(.-33) $%.#"#4'.4R meaning that all the items within a test
is measuiing the same thing
-
Scoiing instiuctions must be explicit
F.4'(I16<' ('3"-D"3"4) is when the same scoie shoulu be given even if uiffeient
psychologists giaue the same test
-
ke||ab|||ty
L-3"6"4) iefeis to how well a test actually measuies what it is uesigneu to measuie -
A test with peifect constiuct valiuity means that IQ uiffeiences tiuly measuies
uiffeiences in intelligence
=%.#4(1$4 &-3"6"4) iefeis to whethei a test is actually measuiing what its tiying to
measuie
-
Va||d|ty
uiffeiences in intelligence
Eg. An aiithmetic test shoulu incluue all the moues of opeiation anu not just
auuition
=%.4'.4 &-3"6"4): uoes the test incluue all the aspects foi the constiuct of inteiest -
IQ anu school peifoimance giaues aie in the +.6u iange foi high school stuuents
anu +.Su to +.Su foi univeisity stuuents
SATs pieuict univeisity peifoimance with coiielation of just below +.Su

To a lessei uegiee, IQ pieuicts job peifoimance with a +u.2 to +u.S coiielation
;('6"$4"&' &-3"6"4) is how highly scoies coiielate with ciiteiion measuies such as
school anu job peifoimance
-
Tests must be auministeieu in a well contiolleu enviionment to eliminate
uncontiolleu factois
!.
A collection of .%(9# (Test scoies ueiiveu fiom a laige sample) useu to
compaie anu inteipiet inuiviuual scoies
?.
A4-.6-(6"C-4"%. has 2 elements -
The veiy centei in an IQ test is given the scoie of 1uu
When noims aie collecteu foi mental skills, it foims a bell shapeu cuive known as a
.%(9-3 6"#4("D14"%.
-
Standard|zat|on and Norms
Attempts to iuentify anu measuie the abilities that unueilie inuiviuual
uiffeiences in peifoimance anu intelligence tests
Eg. If 4 uiffeient tests all use mathematical test methous, then we can
say that the unueilying factoi is "mathematical ieasoning ability"
Analyzes patteins of coiielations between test scoies in oiuei to uiscovei

clusteis of measuies that coiielate highly with one anothei but not with
measuies in othei clusteis
0ses +-$4%( -.-3)#"#

Some say that it is a single global mental ability that cut acioss all that we
woulu call thinking
0theis woulu say that it is a set of specific abilities to uo uiffeient types of

thinking
Psychometiic theoiists uisagiee about what intelligence is

;#)$0%9'4("$# is the statistical stuuy of psychological tests -
Speaiman obseiveu that math giaues anu language giaues, aiithmetic ieasoning
anu vocabulaiy abilities aie almost always positively coiielateu
Concluueu that ".4'33'$41-3 >'(+%(9-.$' "# 6'4'(9".'6 >-(43) D) e<'.'(-3

".4'33"<'.$'e S<T anu paitly by special abilities iequiieu to peifoim that
paiticulai task
?0' < +-$4%(7 ".4'33"<'.$' -# - <'.'(-3 9'.4-3 $->-$"4) -

Thuistone claimeu that coiielation in uiffeient mental tasks aie fai fiom peifect
Claimeu that peifoimance in mental tasks is moie influenceu by specific
abilities ielevant to that task than any unueilying g factoi
Claimeu that human mental peifoimance uepenus on seven uistinct abilities (pg.
S8S) known as >("9-() 9'.4-3 -D"3"4"'#
F.4'33"<'.$' -# #>'$"+"$ 9'.4-3 -D"3"4"'# -

Cuiient knowleuge about the natuie of mental abilities suggest a inteimeuiate
between Speaiman anu Thuistone's position as pioposeu by Raymonu Cattell
anu }ohn Boin
Bieaks uown Speaiman's geneial intelligence into ciystallizeu intelligence anu

=()#4-33"C'6 -.6 +31"6 ".4'33"<'.$' -
1he Nature of Inte|||gence
Bieaks uown Speaiman's geneial intelligence into ciystallizeu intelligence anu
fluiu intelligence
=()#4-33"C'6 ".4'33"<'.$'7 ability to apply pieviously acquiieu knowleuge to

cuiient pioblems; uepenus on ietiieval abilities of long teim memoiy
Bepenus on the ability to ieason abstiactly, think logically, anu manage

infoimation in woiking memoiy
831"6 ".4'33"<'.$'7 ability to ueal with novel pioblem solving situations foi
which peisonal expeiiences uoes not pioviue a solution (eg. Towei of Banoi)
Ciystallizeu intelligence geneially impioves with age anu fluiu intelligence

uecieases in late auulthoou
Some psychologists claim that intelligences may be conceiveu moie bioauly as

inuepenuent intelligences tha ielate to uiffeient auaptive uemanus
Linguistic !.
Nathematical ?.
visual spatial 3.
Nusical (ability to peiceive pitch anu ihythm) 1.
Bouy kinesthetic (ability to contiol bouy movements anu skilfully
manipulate objects)
.
Peisonal (unueistanuing ouiselves anu otheis) b.
Befines 6 uiffeient intelligences
Fiist S aie measuieu by intelligence tests
Stuuies biain uamageu people, who aie uisableu in the geneial sense but exhibit
stiiking skills in specific aieas such as the ability to memoiize television
commeicials woiu foi woiu
H134">3' ".4'33"<'.$'#7 D')%.6 9'.4-3 $%9>'4'.$"'# -

59%4"%.-3 ".4'33"<'.$' involves the ability to ieau otheis' emotions accuiately,
to iesponu to them appiopiiately, to motivate oneself, to be awaie of one's own
emotions anu to iegulate anu contiol one's own emotional iesponses
Seems to have a highei quality of life than those with highei mental
intelligence
They tenu to foim stiongei emotional bonus with otheis, enjoy gieatei success
in caieeis, maiiiage, anu chilubeaiing
59%4"%.-3 F.4'33"<'.$' -
=%<"4"&' >(%$'## 40'%("'# tiy to explain why people vaiy in intelligence by ielating
the types of inuiviuual vaiiation uesciibeu in the psychometiic appioach to the
cognitive skills
-
A4'(.D'(<Q# 4("-($0"$ 40'%()
Bis 4("-($0"$ 40'%() %+ ".4'33"<'.$' auuiesses both the psychological piocesses
involveu in intelligent behavioi anu the uiveise foims that intelligence can take
-
Biviues cognitive piocesses that contiibute to intelligent behavioi into thiee specific
classes: metacomponents, peifoimance components, anu knowleuge acquisition
components
-
Intelligent people spenu moie time fiaming pioblems anu ueveloping
stiategies than less intelligent people
Incluue pioblem solving skills such as iuentifying pioblems, foimulating

hypotheses anu stiategies, testing them logically, anu evaluating peifoimance
feeuback
H'4-$%9>%.'.4# aie the highei oiuei piocesses useu to plan anu iegulate task
peifoimance
-
;'(+%(9-.$' =%9>%.'.4# aie the actual mental piocesses useu to peifoim the task -
Cogn|t|ve rocess Approaches: rocesses Under|y|ng Inte|||gent 1h|nk|ng
Retiieving appiopiiate memoiies, making iesponses
;'(+%(9-.$' =%9>%.'.4# aie the actual mental piocesses useu to peifoim the task -
X.%:3'6<' -$W1"#"4"%. $%9>%.'.4# allow us to leain fiom expeiience by stoiing
infoimation in memoiy anu combining new insight with pieviously acquiieu
infoimation
-
B.-3)4"$-3 ".4'33"<'.$' involves the kinus of acauemically oiienteu pioblem
solving skills assesseu by tiauitional intelligence tests
!.
;(-$4"$-3 ".4'33"<'.$' iefeis to the skills neeueu to cope with eveiyuay
uemanus anu to manage oneself anu othei people moie effectively
?.
=('-4"&' ".4'33"<'.$' is the mental skills neeueu to ueal auaptively with novel
pioblems
3.
Enviionmental uemanus call foi thiee uiffeient manifestations of intelligence -
These uiffeient intelligences aie uistinct fiom one anothei -
Believes that euucational piogiams shoulu teach all thiee classes of skills -
Electiophysiological stuuies of the biain iesponses to visual anu auuitoiy stimuli
which may ieflect the speeu anu efficiency of infoimation piocessing in the biain
-
PET scans of people's biains show that lowei levels of glucose consumption in people
of highei intelligence, suggesting that the biain woiks moie efficiently anu expenus
less eneigy
-
J-34%. 2'#1(('$4'67 ".4'33"<'.$' -.6 M'1(-3 5++"$"'.$)
Inf|uences on Inte|||gence
People in uiffeient cultuies have uiffeient conceptions of intelligence baseu on the
auaptive uemanus that confiont a cultuie anu the behaviois that iequiieu to cope
with those uemanus
-
540."$ J(%1> !"++'('.$'#
Be was ciiticizeu foi violating the 0natiio Buman Rights coue
Rushton of 0W0 iepoiteu in a test that East Asians hau the highest intelligence scoies
while Afiicans hau the lowest
-
Results of intellectual uiffeiences between iaces aie mixeu, some show that East
Asians scoie highei while otheis claim that they aie the same
-
In the 0S, Asian Ameiicans scoie highei than Caucasians in stanuaiuizeu tests anu
blacks test 12 to 1S% IQ points lowei than Caucasians
-
Theie aie conceins about that these test unueiestimate the mental competence of
minoiity gioup membeis because the tests aie cultuially baseu
-
Eg. Black people weie maiginalizeu anu because of that, they uiu not have
optimizeu euucational enviionments
People attiibute the seemingly iacial uiffeiences to enviionmental factois -

Anothei factoi is that theie seems to be moie uiffeiences in within any iacial gioup
than between iacial gioups
-
A'E !"++'('.$'# ". =%<."4"&' BD"3"4"'#
Tenu to outpeifoim women in mathematical ieasoning
Nen aie bettei at visual spatial tasks anu aie moie accuiate in taiget uiiecteu skills
such as thiowing anu catching objects
-
Women peifoim bettei in fine motoi cooiuination -
Eg. Noie men play spoits that involve thiowing oi catching objects
Enviionmental: men anu women aie exposeu to uiffeient socialization as they
giow up
Attiibuteu to both enviionmental anu biological basis -

Biological explanations focuses on the effects of hoimones on biain uevelopment -
Cu|tura| and Group D|fferences |n Inte|||gence
Sex hoimones cieates uiffeientiation anu altei biain oiganization
Biological explanations focuses on the effects of hoimones on biain uevelopment -
Lxtremes of Inte|||gence
4 level classification system baseu on IQ scoies
S to S% of Noith Ameiicans aie mentally ietaiueu -
Nost people aie miluly ietaiueu an aie capable of holuing a job, maiiying, etc -
2S% of known cases of ietaiuation have biological causes -
Can also be causeu by acciuents at biith -
In Noith Ameiica, a policy of inclusion has taken place wheie ietaius aie incluueu in
iegulai classiooms but aie given special help
-
1he Cogn|t|ve|y D|sab|ed
uifteu inuiviuuals have IQ above 12u -
Chiluien will often exhibit gifteuness in one aiea but aveiage in otheis -
Tenu to ieau anu walk at an eailiei age, goou abstiact ieasoning, ieau obsessively, but
have pooi hanuwiiting
-
They iequiie special attention anu special euucation to make suie they aie not boieu -
Bowevei, a stuuy uone by Lewis Teiman show that they aie typically happy
auults with noimal social lives
They aie subject to social steieotypes such as being socially malaujusteu anu
eccentiic
-
1he Inte||ectua||y G|fted
H%4"&-4"%. is a piocess that influences the uiiection, peisistence, anu vigoi of goal
uiiecteu bhavioi
-
erspect|ves on Mot|vat|on
Not leaineu, having to uo with suivival
Ciiculai thinking - why people gieeuy. Because of instinct. Bow uo we know
gieeu is an instinct. Because people aie gieeuy.
F.#4".$4 is an inheiiteu pieuisposition to behave in a specific anu pieuictable way

when exposeu to a paiticulai stimuli
-
Eg. People aie social cieatuies because it alloweu them to shaie iesouices,
mutually piotect each othei, anu iesulteu in moie successful offspiing
uevelopment
Evolutionaiy theoiy claims that people have motives because they aie of auaptive
significance
-
Inst|nct 1heory and Lvo|ut|onary sycho|ogy
Peispiie when we aie waim, shivei when we aie colu to maintain a ceitain
inteinal tempeiatuie
@%9'%#4-#"# is a state of inteinal physiological equilibiium that youi bouy tiies to

maintain
-
Eg. Lack of watei leaus to thiist, which uiives the oiganism to obtain some watei
Bowevei, uoes not explain why people go on uiets (which incieases foou uiive)
anu go to tension causing hoiioi movies
Claik Bull's 6("&' 40'%() states that physiological uisiuptions to homeostasis

piouuce uiives which is inteinal tension that motivate an oiganism to behave in ways
that ieuuce the tension
-
nomeostas|s and Dr|ve 1heory
If something has a high enough incentive value, it can $,00 the oiganism into
action
Eg. Beioin useis use heioin because it makes them feel goou, not because of a
biologically baseu uiive
F.$'.4"&'# aie enviionmental stimuli that pull an oiganism towaiu a goal -

Eg. }ames is motivateu to piactice calculus because he believes that the
moie you stuuy the moie of a chance you will get an A, anu he places a hh
value on that A.
A cognitive explanation is calleu 'E>'$4-.$) E &-31' 40'%(), which claims that

motivation comes fiom a combination of expectancy anu the value placeu on the
goal
Biffeient people iesponu uiffeiently to the same incentives -

5E4(".#"$ 9%4"&-4"%. is peifoiming an activity to obtain an exteinal iewaiu oi to
avoiu punishment
-
F.4(".#"$ 9%4"&-4"%. is peifoiming an activity foi enjoyment -
Reseaich shows that tangible iewaius (money, piize) foi uoing an activity ieuuces
intiinsic motivation, but nontangible extiinsic iewaius (piaise) incieases intiinsic
motivation
-
Incent|ve and Lxpectancy 1heor|es
Takes a view in context of peisonality uevelopment anu functioning -
sychodynam|c and numan|st|c 1heor|es
Chaptei 1u: Notivation anu Emotion
!anuary-13-11
8:03 M
Takes a view in context of peisonality uevelopment anu functioning -
Expiesseu thiough socially acceptable behaviois
0ui uiive comes fiom unconscious motives, paiticulaily those sexual anu aggiessive
in natuie
-
Bistinguishes between 6'+"$"'.$) .''6# which is iequiieu foi physical anu
social suivival anu <(%:40 .''6# which aie uniquely human anu motivate us to
uevelop oui potential
Naslow believe that humans has a neeu foi peisonal giowth -

Naslow pioposeu a .''6 0"'(-($0) (fig. 1u.2) with ueficiency neeus at the bottom
anu giowth neeus at the top
-
Ciitics point out that piisoneis of wai iathei enuuie toituie anu pain than iat out
theii comiaues
-
Biology offeis a push to eat, but the uelicious taste offeis a pull -
nunger and We|ght kegu|at|on
2S of eneigy intake is useu to suppoit D-#-3 9'4-D%3"#9R the bouy's iesting
continuous metabolic woik of bouy's cells
H'4-D%3"#9 is the bouy's iate of eneigy (oi caloiic) utilization -

Theie aie shoit teim signals that stait meals by piouucing hungei anu stop foou
intake by piouucing satiety (no longei hungiy)
-
Aujust appetite anu metabolism to compensate foi times of oveieating oi
unueieating
Bouy monitois "long teim" signals baseu on bouy fat content -

If we eat too much oi too little, metabolism will kick in anu ietuin you to youi
oiiginal weight
Contiaiy ieseaich has shown that homeostatic mechanism makes it haiuei to

keep gaining oi losing weight but not necessaiily ietuin us to oui oiiginal
weight
Reseaicheis believe that theie is a set point aiounu which bouy mass is iegulateu -
hys|o|ogy of nunger
Bis hungiy cycle coiiesponueu with his stomach contiactions
People with neives fiom theii stomach cut oi have theii stomachs iemoveu
continueu to feel hungei
Bowevei, hungei pangs uiu not cause the feeling of hungei

A.L. Washbuin swalloweu a balloon anu eveiy time he felt hungiy, he woulu piess a
button
-
When you eat, enzymes bieak foou uown to vaiious nutiients -
0ne key nutiient is <31$%#' which is a majoi souice of immeuiately usable fuel
especially foi the biain
-
When levels uiop, the livei iesponus by conveiting stoieu nutiients back into
glucose
Sensois in the hypothalamus anu livei monitoi bloou glucose levels -

Campfielu showeu that theie is a uiop anu iise in glucose (1u%) piioi to feeling
hungei
-
Nutiitionally iich foou tenus to make us feel full fastei
Boes not mean that the stomach actually has to be filleu
A4%9-$0 -.6 ".4'#4".-3 6"#4'.4"%. aie "satiety signals"
Seveial bouy signals combine to enu out eating -
Intestines iesponu to foou by ieleasing seveial hoimones calleu peptiues that help
teiminate a meal
-
S|gna|s 1hat Start and 1erm|nate a Mea|
==X S=0%3'$)#4%V".".T is ieleaseu into youi blooustieam by the small intestine
as foou aiiives fiom the stomach
teiminate a meal
It's a backgiounu signal, it causes othei satiety factois to make us feel full fastei
Fat cells actively iegulate foou intake anu weight by secieting 3'>4"., a hoimone that
uecieases appetite anu incieases eneigy expenuituie
-
Nice with an ob gene uoes not cieate leptin; the mice ovei eat anu become obese
Cannot be helpeu with leptin injections
Nice with a ub gene piouuces leptin, but theii biains aie insensitive to leptin
anu they become obese
Leptin ieseaich came fiom mice -

Nost obese people have ample leptin in theii bloou, but theii biains seem to be
insensitive to that infoimation
-
S|gna|s 1hat kegu|ate Genera| Appet|te and We|ght
Two iegions in the hypothalamus seem to be contiolling the intake of foou -
Electiical stimulation causes them to stait eating anu lesioning causes them to
stop eating
The 3-4'(-3 40-3-91# (LB) seems to be a "hungei on" centei -

Stimulation causes iats to stop eating anu lesioning causes them to be gluttonous
The &'.4(%9'6"-3 0)>%40-3-91# (vNB) is a "hungei off" centei -
Bowevei, ieseaich shows that many neuions fiom many aieas of the biain
congiegate in the LB anu vNB, anu cutting the neuions along the tiact causes some
uuplicate effects of LB anu vNB lesions
-
Integiates seveial uiffeient shoit teim anu long teim signals that influence
metabolic anu uigestive piocesses
Nany pathways involve the >-(-&'.4("$13-( .1$3'1# which is a clustei of neuions

that stimulate oi ieuuce appetite
-
When people eat less to tiy anu lose weight, it causes the ueciease in leptin levels,
which causes an inciease in .'1(%>'>4"6' f, which incieases appetite uiastically
-
8ra|n Mechan|sms
Behavioially, eating is positively ieinfoiceu by the goou taste of foou anu negatively
ieinfoiceu by hungei ieuuction
-
Cognitively, we uevelop an expectation that eating will give us pleasuie -
Amnesia patients will accept multiple meals one aftei the othei because they've
foigotten theii last meal
0ui memoiy of oui last meal also affect how much we eat -
Beliefs such as "uon't' leave foou on youi plate" anu habits such as snacking while
watching Tv can affect how much we eat
-
Foi women, foou iestiictions come fiom the cultuial stanuaiu of beauty -
People who peiceive themselves as heavy tenu to have a lowei self esteem, but this
ielation is moie pionounceu among women than men
-
This incieases bouy shame anu anxiety, which leaus to eating iestiictions anu
uisoiueis
Fieuiickson anu Robeits's %DI'$4"+"$-4"%. 40'%() claims that Westein cultuies teach
women to view theii bouy as objects as an exteinal obseivei woulu
-
sycho|og|ca| Aspects of nunger
People aie sensitive to enviionmental stimuli such as poition size, the numbei people
piesent uuiing a meal, anu the amount that otheis eat
-
Lnv|ronmenta| and Cu|tura| Iactors
piesent uuiing a meal, anu the amount that otheis eat
Foi people in poveity, foou scaicity causes limiteu consumption -
uoou foou = moie eating
Noie foou vaiiety = won't giow tiieu of eating = eat moie
Foou taste anu vaiiety iegulates eating -
Classical conuitioning causes us to associate smell anu sight of foou with its taste anu
can tiiggei hungei
-
Neals tenu to take longei
We typically eat moie uining with othei people than alone -
Although we enjoy uiveisity, we geneially feel moie comfoitable selecting fiom moie
familiai foous
-
Between 2S to 29.9 BNI is consiueieu oveiweight anu a BNI ovei Su is consiueieu
obese
-
0ften blameu on a lack of willpowei, weak chaiactei, oi emotional uistuibances, but
ieseaich uoes not consistently finu such psychological uiffeiences between obese anu
non-obese people
-
Cbes|ty
Biffeient basal metabolic iate anu tenuency to stoie eneigy as eithei fat oi lean
tissue
Causes about 4u to 7u% vaiiation in bouy mass among men anu women
Beieuity contiibute to oui weight -
0vei 2uu genes have been iuentifieu as possible contiibutois to human obesity -
An abunuance of inexpensive, tasty, high fat foous available almost eveiywheie
Cultuial emphasis on getting the best value which contiibutes to the supeisizing
of menu items
Technological auvances that uecieases the neeu foi uaily physical activity anu
encouiage a seuentaiy lifestyle
The enviionment also plays a pait in obesity causeu by: -

Bowevei, aftei auopting the Ameiican way of life, they now have the highest
obesity anu uiabetes iates in the woilu
The Pima Inuians of Aiizona aie genetically pieuisposeu to obesity anu uiabetes, but
theii lifestyle pieventeu theii genetics fiom showing
-
J'.'# -.6 40' 5.&"(%.9'.4
Being fat piimes people to stay fat -
Fattei people have highei insulin levels which incieases the conveision of glucose
into fat
-
Weight gains makes it haiu to exeicise vigoiously -
Bieting slows uown eneigy expenuituie -
Stiunkaiu's ieseaich showeu 9S% of people who go on weight loss piogiams lose it
within a few yeais
-
!"'4".< -.6 P'"<04 G%##
Sex is a biological "iepiouuctive uiive" -
People usually have sex foi pleasuie -
In auolescents, both genueis citeu peei piessuie moie than sexual giatification -
Nany women finu theii fiist sexual inteicouise uisappointing -
Wiight founu that most women vieweu sex as an unenjoyable maiital uuty -
Sexua| Mot|vat|on
A iepiesentative sample of 18 to S9 yeai olu Ameiicans have sex with theii paitneis -
Sexua| 8ehav|or: atterns and Changes
A iepiesentative sample of 18 to S9 yeai olu Ameiicans have sex with theii paitneis
at least a few times a month
-
Single auults who cohabit aie the most sexually active -
Single auults who uo not cohabit aie the least active -
Nen fantasize about sex moie than women uo -
2S% of men anu 1u% of women mastuibate one oi moie times pei week -
Nen tenu to be eailiei exposeu to sexual inteicouice -
Changing social noims, tienu towaiu sexual activity at a youngei age, anu a
tenuency to uelay maiiiage have contiibuteu to an inciease in piemaiital sex
Nay be leveling off shoitly uue to a cultuial emphasis on the uepth of

ielationships anu the inciease in STIs
Piemaiital sex is on the inciease -

Nonitoieu 1u,uuu episoues in which volunteeis mastuibateu, hau inteicouise,
anu othei sexual activities
Nasteis anu }ohnson began a stuuy of 694 men anu women unuei laboiatoiy
conuitions
-
1he hys|o|ogy of Sex
Nost people go thiough a 4 stage #'E1-3 ('#>%.#' $)$3' when sexually aiouseu -
Bloou flow incieases to aiteiies in anu aiounu the genital oigans, nipples, anu
women's bieasts
Penis anu clitoiis become eiect anu vagina becomes lubiicateu

Buiing 'E$"4'9'.4 >0-#', aiousal builus iapiuly !.
Buiing the >3-4'-1 >0-#' iespiiation, heait iate, vasocongestion, anu muscle tension
continue to builu until theie is enough muscle tension to giiggei oigasm
?.
in males, ihythmic contiaction of inteinal oigans anu muscle tissues
suiiounuing the uiethia pioject semen oui of the penis
u.
In females, oigasm involves ihythmic contiactions of the outei thiiu of the
vagina
|.
Buiing the %(<-#9 >0-#' 3.
Physiological aiousal uecieases iapiuly anu genitals ietuin to theii noimal
conuitions
u.
Nales entei a ('+(-$4%() >'("%6 which they aie tempoiaiily incapable of
anothei oigasm
|.
2'#%314"%. >0-#' 1.
?0' A'E1-3 2'#>%.#' =)$3'
Contiols the pituitaiy glanu which secietes <%.-6%4(%>".# into the bloou
stieam
This affects the iate at which the <%.-6# seciete -.6(%<'.# (such as
testosteione) anu '#4(%<'.# (such as estiauiol)
Bypothalamus plays a key iole in sexual motivation -

In males, the embiyo foims testes about 8 weeks aftei conception
Yeais latei, the hypothalamus incieases the ielease of sex hoimones as the male
ieaches pubeity
In females, the lack of anuiogens causes the uevelopment of female sex paits
Sex hoimones have %(<-."C-4"%.-3 '++'$4# that uiiect the uevelopment of male anu
female chaiacteiistics
-
Sex hoimones have -$4"&-4"%.-3 '++'$4# that stimulate sexual uesiie anu behavioi -
Natuie males have ielatively constant sex hoimone secietion anu theii uesiie to have
sex is laigely goveineu by the piesence of enviionmental stimuli
-
In females, they follow an "estius" cycle anu aie only sexually ieceptive uuiing -
@%(9%.-3 F.+31'.$'#
In females, they follow an "estius" cycle anu aie only sexually ieceptive uuiing
peiious of high estiogen secietion
-
Boimonal suige of pubeity iesults in incieaseu sexual motivation -
In men anu women, anuiogens appeai to have the piimaiy influence on sexual uesiie -
1he sycho|ogy of Sex
Among 18 to S9 yeai olus, Su% men fantasize about sex once a uay, 1S of women -
Fantasy alone can tiiggei genital eiection anu oigasm in some people -
People who aie moie sexually active tenu to fantasize moie
Nen anu women fantasize at least occasionally uuiing sexual inteicouise -
A'E1-3 8-.4-#)
Psychological factois can cause inhibition in sex -
Nany people have tiouble becoming oi staying aiouseu uue to stiess, fatigue, anu
angei
-
1u% of men iepoit uifficulty maintaining eiection anu 2u% of women have
tiouble becoming lubiicateu anu aiouseu
A'E1-3 6)#+1.$4"%. iefeis to chionic, impaiieu sexual functioning that uiestiesses a

peison
-
!'#"('R B(%1#-3R -.6 A'E1-3 !)#+1.$4"%.
Cu|tura| and Lnv|ronmenta| Inf|uences
Naiquesan people let theii babies watch them have sex anu help a uistiesseu
chilu by mastuibating them
When they ieach auolescence, the auults instiuct them in sexual techniques anu
has inteicouise with them
Chiluhoou sexuality is suppiesseu in oui cultuie but is peimitteu anu encouiageu in

otheis
-
=1341(-3 M%(9#
Eg. A lovei's caiess, watching a paitnei unuiess
The enviionment affects sexuality thiough sexually aiousing stimuli -
Both genueis showeu the stiongest aiousal when eiotic stoiies focuseu on the
female chaiactei
Nen anu women expeiience sexual aiousal to uesciiptions of explicit sex, but not to
uesciiption uevoiu of sexual content
-
B(%1#".< 5.&"(%.9'.4-3 A4"913"
Nost poinogiaphy consumeis aie men, although 1S of people who have puichaseu
oi ienteu X-iate viueo tapes aie women
-
2u% of 1S to 44 yeai olu Noith Ameiican women iepoit that they have expeiienceu
foiceu sexual inteicouise at least once in theii lives
-
Nost iapes aie not committeu by stiangeis -
Poin that uepicts iapes; shows that sex is impeisonal; men can hae sex when
they want it; women like being uominateu anu coeiceu into sex;
Nen who watch poin will leain thiough watching it

The #%$"-3 3'-(.".< 40'%() shows that people leain thiough obseivation -
The $-40-(#"# >(".$">3' claims that people have natuially aggiessive anu sexual
impulses anu that watching uepictions of aggiessive content will ietuin us to oui
noimal state anu ueciease sexually aggiessive behavioi
-
Coiielational stuuies uo not have cleai suppoit foi eithei viewpoint -
uioup 1: non-sexual talk show
In a stuuy, univeisity stuuents weie uiviueu into 4 gioups -
;%(.%<(->0)R A'E1-3 L"%3'.$'R -.6 A'E1-3 B44"416'#
uioup 1: non-sexual talk show
uioup 2: consensual sex
uioup S: iape myth wheie fiist theie was iesistance, but woman staits to like it
aftei
uioup 4: iape
In a latei unielateu expeiiment, people who weie in gioup S anu gioup 4 showeu
incieaseu aggiession towaius a female confeueiate but not a male confeueiate
-
Poinogiaphy's impeisonal uepiction of sex contiibutes to the occuiience of iape -
Refeis to one's emotional anu eiotic piefeience foi paitneis of a paiticulai sex -
Sexua| Cr|entat|on
Sexual oiientation has S uimensions: self iuentity, sexual attiaction, anu actual sexual
behavioi
-
S% of Noith Ameiican men anu 1% of women iuentify themselves as homosexuals oi
bisexuals
-
;('&-3'.$' %+ !"++'('.4 A'E1-3 N("'.4-4"%.#
0ne psychouynamic theoiy pioposeu that male homosexuality uevelops when boys
giow up with a weak, ineffectual fathei anu iuentify the mothei as the uominant one
-
Behavioiist suggest that homosexuality is a conuitioneu iesponse uevelopeu by
associating auolescent sexual uiges with the piesence of same sex paitneis
-
Alan Bell concluueu that theie is no paiticulai phenomenon that iesults in
homosexual oi heteiosexual uevelopment
-
In chiluhoou, homosexuals feel uiffeient fiom membeis of theii own sex anu aie moie
likely to engage in genuei non confoiming behaviois
-
Bomosexual giils in Biazil, Peiu, Phillipines, anu 0niteu States weie twice as likely to
be iuentifieu as tomboys
-
48, 16, anu 6 foi giils
In gay men, theie is S2% concoiuance among iuentical twins, 22% foi fiateinal, anu
11% foi auoptive
-
Some males aie insensitive to theii own anuiogens anu some females have an
atypical builu up of anuiogens
Pienatal exposuie to sex hoimones can influence sexual oiientation -

Enviionmentally, it is possible that biology only ueteimines basic peisonality types,
but uiffeient peisonality styles steei chiluien towaiu uiffeient socialization
expeiiences which ueteimines sexual oiientation
-
!'4'(9".-.4# %+ A'E1-3 N("'.4-4"%.
Ach|evement Mot|vat|on
Attiacteu to the thiill of victoiy in masteiing skills oi outpeifoiming othei
people
0niveisity stuuents with a high motivation foi success focus on masteiy

goals anu peifoimance appioach goals
H-#4'( <%-3#7 intiinsic motivation such as wanting to leain as much as

possible
;'(+%(9".< ->>(%-$07 stiive to outpeifoim classmates

H%4"&' +%( A1$$'## !.
Bave peifoimance appioach goals anu also >'(+%(9-.$'/-&%"6-.$' goals
(feai of peifoiming pooily)
8'-( %+ 8-"31(' ?.
People stiive foi success foi two uiffeient ieasons -
H%4"&-4"%. +%( A1$$'##7 ?0' ?0("33 %+ L"$4%()
(feai of peifoiming pooily)
The combination of feai of failuie anu peifoimance-avoiuance goals impaii
task peifoimance because it causes anxiety which makes infoimation
piocessing less effective
People with stiong neeu foi achievement (especially those with high motivation foi
success anu low on feai of failuie) aie ambitious anu peisist longei aftei encounteiing
uifficulty than most othei people
-
Those with high achievement motivation (.''6 -$0"'&'9'.4) tenu to entei moie
piestigious occupations
-
Competitive situations ueciease low neeu achieveis' task enjoyment, but aie
beneficial to high neeu achieveis
-
They peiceive themselves as peisonally iesponsible foi the outcome
They peiceive some iisk of not succeeuing
Theie is an oppoitunity to ieceive peifoimance feeuback
Bigh neeu achieveis aie most likely to stiive haiu foi success when: -
In teims of iisk management, neeu achieveis tenu to choose the inteimeuiate
uifficulty task while feai of failuie people tenu to choose the easy task oi the most
uifficult task (wheie success if unexpecteu)
-
Peiception of task uifficulty counts because people have uiffeient abilities foi vaiious
activities
-
B$0"'&'9'.4 M''6# -.6 A"41-4"%.-3 8-$4%(#
Bigh neeu foi achievement uevelops when paients encouiage anu iewaiu
achievement but uo not punish failuie
-
Feai of failuie is seems to uevelop when successful achievement is taken foi gianteu
by paients but failuie is punisheu
-
Noith Ameiican anu Euiopean cultuies stiess peisonal achievement -
China anu }apan nuituie collectivism, anu caie about theii paients' expectations of
acauemic success than uo Ameiican stuuents
-
8-9"3) -.6 =1341(-3 F.+31'.$'#
Mot|vat|on |n the Workp|ace
Not tiue, also foi masteiy, giowth, anu satisfying inteipeisonal ielationships
Tayloi (1911) claimeu that woikeis aie motivateu almost entiiely by money -
In }apan, employees auopt a concept of Kaizen (continuous impiovement),
encouiaging woikeis to uevelop skills anu inciease piouuctivity
The company, in ietuin, assumes iesponsibility foi the employee's welfaie,

piomote them slowly, anu aie willing to ietain them foi life
The company becomes an integial pait of the woikei's iuentity

Cultuial factois influence woik motivation -
Why do eop|e Work?
}ob piouuctivity anu job satisfaction aie weakly ielateu -
Bissatisfieu woikeis tenu to be absent moie often anu have a highei tuinovei
iate
Absenteeism anu tuinovei -

a%D A-4"#+-$4"%. -.6 ;'(+%(9-.$'
Lnhanc|ng Work Mot|vat|on
a%D '.("$09'.4 piogiams aie an attempt to inciease intiinsic motivation by making
jobs moie fulfilling anu pioviuing woikeis with oppoitunities to giow
-
Skill vaiiety: vaiiety of tasks must be peifoimeu that iequiie uiffeient skills
}obs aie most intiinsically satisfying when: -
5.("$0".< -.6 2'6'#"<.".< a%D#
Skill vaiiety: vaiiety of tasks must be peifoimeu that iequiie uiffeient skills
Task iuentity: a whole piouuct is completeu fiom beginning to enu
Task significant: task shoulu have a stiong impact
Autonomy: woikei has some fieeuom to ueteimine woik pioceuuies anu
scheuule
}ob feeuback: job has cleai feeuback about peifoimance effectiveness

}ob eniichment has piomoteu bettei woik outcomes in manufactuiing plants, white
collai anu police oiganizations, anu othei woik settings
-
Leaining theoiy pieuicts that peifoimance will inciease when ieinfoiceis aie maue
contingent on piouuctivity
-
0nion National Bank pays its woikeis foi the numbei of accounts openeu -
0thei employeis useu piaise anu iecognition to ieinfoice uesiieu employee behaviois -
H%6"+)".< 5E4'(.-3 F.$'.4"&'#
uoal setting is a motivational technique that has incieaseu employee piouuctivity as
well as 9-.-<'9'.4 D) %DI'$4"&'# (combination of goal setting with employee
paiticipation anu feeuback)
-
Neet with manageis at least once a yeai to cieate goals anu how to follow
thiough with them
Employee paiticipation is a seconu component of NB0 -

Pioviues oppoitunities to iecognize success anu encouiages a seaich foi new
methous to ieach them
Thiiu component of NB0 is objective feeu back -

NB0 has incieaseu piouuctivity by 97% in 7u case stuuies -
J%-3 A'44".< -.6 H-.-<'9'.4 D) NDI'$4"&'#
Eg. Achievement anu affiliation goals may conflict when you have to choose
between stuuying oi paitying
Notivational goals sometimes conflict -

Appioach anu avoiuance aie two conflicting tenuencies -
When sometimes attiact us we tenu to ->>(%-$0 it -
When sometimes iepels us we tenu to -&%"6 it -
Eg. 2 uesiiable caieei paths
Selecting one means losing anothei
B>>(%-$0/->>(%-$0 $%.+3"$4 involves opposition between two attiactive
alteinatives
-
Eg. Choosing to stuuy foi a boiing subject oi not stuuy anu fail the exam
B&%"6-.$'/-&%"6-.$' $%.+3"$4 is when a peison faces two unuesiiable alteinatives -
Eg. Wanting to open the uooi to get out, but is afiaiu of getting shockeu by
the uooi
Being attiacteu anu iepelleu by the #-9' <%-3

As we appioach the uesiieu goal, oui uesiie to avoiu it both get stiongei as we
get neaiei to it
B>>(%-$0/-&%"6-.$' $%.+3"$4 -
Eg. Choosing to watch Tv foi immeuiate incentive oi stait woiking on an essay
to focuses on futuie incentive; wiiting the essay has lessei motivation because it
is fuithei away
!'3-) 6"#$%1.4".< iefeis to the ueciease (uiscount) in the value of a futuie incentive -
!'+'.#"&' -&%"6-.$'7 uecision makei piociastinates anu avoius coming to
giips with the uecision
Some methous of coping with motivational conflict can be malauaptive -

Mot|vat|ona| Conf||ct
giips with the uecision
59%4"%.# aie positive oi negative feeling states consisting of a pattein of cognitive,

physiological, anu behavioial ieactions to events that have ielevance to impoitant
goals oi motives
-
Involve states of aiousal anu can tiiggei patteins of action
Lazaius claims that theie is always a link between motives anu emotions
because we ieact emotionally only when oui motives anu goals aie giatifieu,
thieateneu, oi fiustiateu
Notivation anu emotion aie closely linkeu -

Some theoiists suggest that motives opeiate as inteinal stimuli that eneigize a
behavioi anu emotions aie ieactions to events that ielate to impoitant goals
-
1he Nature and Iunct|ons of Lmot|on
Eg. 0ui uecision iegaiuing fighting oi fleeing is intensifieu oui emotions of angei
oi feai
Signals that something impoitant is happening anu uiiect oui attention to that event -
Negative emotions tenu to naiiow attention anu action tenuencies so that the
oiganism can iesponu to a thieatening situation with a focuseu set of iesponses
-
Positive emotions aiise unuei conuitions of safety anu goal attainment bioauen oui
thinking anu behavioi so that we exploie, consiuei new iueas, tiy out new ways to
achieve goals, play, anu savoi what we have
-
Responu with caietaking behavioi
Eg. Auults feel uistiesseu, uistuibeu anu sympathetic when babies ciy
Emotions aie a foim of communication anu affect how otheis behave towaiu us -
1he Adapt|ve Va|ue of Lmot|on
Emotions aie iesponses to exteinal oi inteinal eliciting stimuli !.
Emotional iesponses iesult fiom out inteipietation oi $%<."4"&' ->>(-"#-3 of
these stimuli, which gives the situation its peiceiveu meaning anu significance
?.
0ui D%6"'# ('#>%.6 >0)#"%3%<"$-33) to oui appiaisal. We become physically
"stiiieu up", as in feai, joy, oi angei, oi we may expeiience uecieaseu aiousal, as
in uepiession
3.
Emotions incluue D'0-&"%( 4'.6'.$"'#] Some aie 'E>('##"&' D'0-&"%(# (eg.
Exhibiting suipiise, smiling with joy). 0theis aie ".#4(19'.4-3 D'0-&"%(#, ways
of uoing something about the stimulus that aiouseu the emotion (eg. Stuuying
foi an anxiety aiousing test, fighting back in self uefense, iunning away.)
1.
Emotions we have shaie 4 common featuies -
1he Nature of Lmot|on
Emotions aie iesponses to situations, people, objects, oi events -
Stimuli that tiiggei cognitive appiaisals anu emotional iesponses aie not always
exteinal; they can be inteinal stimuli
-
Feai iesponses to snakes anu spiueis happen moie easily than feai of floweis
Innate biological factois help ueteimine which stimuli have the gieatest potential to
aiouse emotions
-
Eg. Bais thiough the nose may stimulate sexual aiousal in one cultuie anu
uisgust in anothei
Cultuies have uiffeient ways to setting the bai foi the goou anu the bau -
53"$"4".< A4"913"
Cognition is involveu in oui subjective inteipietation of uiffeient stimuli -
B>>(-"#-3 ;(%$'##'#
Appiaisal is ielateu to what we think is uesiiable oi unuesiiable foi us oi foi the -
?0' =%<."4"&' =%9>%.'.4
Appiaisal is ielateu to what we think is uesiiable oi unuesiiable foi us oi foi the
people we caie about
-
Eg. A tiuck coming towaius you, you woulu automatically feel feai anu get out
the way
We may not be consciously awaie of it; some appiaisals involve little moie than an
almost automatic inteipietation of sensoiy input
-
As we uevelop cognitively, oui appiaisals aie moie likely to be tieu to language -
Cognitive appiaisal help explain that people have uiffeient emotions to the same
stimuli
-
=1341(' -.6 B>>(-"#-3
In a stuuy involving 27 cultuies, ieseaicheis founu stiong cioss cultuial similaiities in
the types of appiaisals that evokeu joy, feai, angei, sauness, uisgust, shame, anu guilt
-
Bespite this, similai appiaisals weie involveu iegaiuless of cultuie
Ameiicans felt moie happiness, anu piiue moie fiequently than }apanese oi Bong
Kong people
-
Tahitians: being alone causes feai because it gives bau spiiits a chance to bothei
the peison
0tku Inuit: alone is a foim of social iejection anu evokes feelings of sauness anu
loneliness
Westein society: may see alone time as a goou bieak fiom theii fast paceu
lifestyle
Same situations can evoke uiffeient appiaisals uepenuing on cultuie -

,(-". A4(1$41('# -.6 M'1(%4(-.#9"44'(#
Emotion involves impoitant inteiactions between coitical anu subcoitical aieas -
Stimulation of ceitain paits of the limbic system causes aggiession anu iemoval
of it causes the lack of aggiession
Subcoitical aieas such as the hypothalamus, the amyguala, the hippocampus, anu
othei limbic system stiuctuies play majoi ioles in emotions
-
The ability to iegulate emotion uepenus heavily on the executive functions of the
>('+(%.4-3 $%(4'E
-
The amyguala helps cooiuinate anu tiiggei physiological anu behavioial iesponses to
emotion aiousing situations
-
The coitex evaluates the infoimation thiough the "thinking" pait of the biain -
0pon ieceiving infoimation, the thalamus can tiansfei the input uiiectly to the
amyguala which allows a fastei ieaction
-
Fig. 4S9 -
A conscious one uue to the coitex
An unconscious one uue to the amyguala
Be Loux suggests that some people can have two simultaneous emotional ieactions to
the same event
-
Removing a iats visual coitex meant that the iat can't consciously peiceive
light. Bowevei, when a light is paiieu with an electiic shock, the iat leaineu
to feai it because of the amyguala
The amyguala has the ability to leain things

Nany of oui emotional iesponses aie baseu on pievious leaining expeiiences -
The hippocampus uamage causes memoiy impaiiment, but they can still be classically
conuitioneu to emotional iesponses even though they cannot consciously leain the
connection between the CS anu the 0CS
-
Those with amgyuala uamage, but okay hippocampus can uesciibe the CS-0CS
contingency but uoes not uevelop conuitioneu feai
-
1he hys|o|og|ca| Component
contingency but uoes not uevelop conuitioneu feai
Bopamine activity appeais to unueilie some pleasuiable emotion as well as
enuoiphins
-
Seiotonin anu noiepinephiine play a iole in angei -
Similai patteins weie uisplayeu by lesions anu stiokes
It is noteu that when electiic cuiient knockeu out the left hemispheie (iight
hemispheie in chaige) patients hau catastiophic ieactions; conveisely, when the iight
hemispheie was knockeu out, the left hemispheie took chaige anu piouuceu happy
anu even euphoiic ieactions
-
People felt happy emotions hau moie left hemispheie activity
When people felt sau oi othei negative emotions aie evokeu, the iight
hemispheie became moie active
Baviuson anu Fox useu EEu to measuie the fiontal lobe activity as people expeiienceu
uiffeient emotions
-
Those with moie iight hemispheie uominance weie moie likely to become upset
than those with left hemispheie uominance
People have uiffeient iesting hemispheiic uominance -

@'9"#>0'("$ B$4"&-4"%. -.6 59%4"%.
The sympathetic neivous system piouuces the fight oi flight iesponse thiough the
enuociine system anu aiouses the bouy in meie seconus
-
In feai anu angei, bloou goes to uiffeient places
Complex anu subtle emotions such as jealousy anu tenueiness uo not involve uistinct
patteins of aiousal while autonomic patteins such as feai anu angei shows subtle
uiffeiences
-
This leu to lie uetectois because when someone is lying, they shoulu have an
inciease in anxiety
Still flaweu; someone lying can iemain calm anu someone telling the tiuth
can be anxious
This is measuieu with a >%3)<(->0

We cannot easily contiol autonomic neivous system activation with exposuie to
emotion evoking stimuli
-
B14%.%9"$ -.6 @%(9%.-3 ;(%$'##'#
1he 8ehav|ora| Component
We can often infei that someone is angiy, sau, feaiful, oi happy on the basis of his oi
hei 'E>('##"&' D'0-&"%(#
-
Eg. Sympathizing with the chaiacteis in a movie
Sometimes othei peoples' emotional uisplays can evoke emotional iesponses in us in
a piocess known as '9>-40)
-
5E>('##"&' ,'0-&"%(#
Eu. Both people anu wolves bai theii teeth when they aie angiy because it
shows that they aie feiocious anu makes them less likely to be attackeu
Baiwin aigueu that emotional uisplays aie piouucts of evolution because they helpeu
suivival
-
Ceitain expiessions such as iage anu teiioi aie similai acioss a vaiiety of
cultuies
Blinu chiluien expiess these emotions so it iules out obseivational leaining

Bumans have innate, oi +1.6-9'.4-3 '9%4"%.-3 >-44'(.# -
The basic emotions aie assumeu to apply acioss all cultuies but appeai latei in a
chilu's uevelopment than uo the positive anu negative effect obseiveu in infants
-
The thiiu level consists of moie subtle emotions ueiiveu fiom basic emotions -
5&%314"%. -.6 59%4"%.-3 5E>('##"%.
Eg. Westein societies uiffeientiate between passionate love, fiienuship
love, possessive love, etc. while in Inuia theie is only mothei love anu eiotic
love
These emotions aie moie heavily influenceu by cultuial leaining

The thiiu level consists of moie subtle emotions ueiiveu fiom basic emotions -
We tenu to concentiate on what the face tells us -
0nly monkeys, apes, anu humans have enough well uevelopeu facial muscles to
piouuce a laige numbei of facial expiessions
-
Facial expiessions aie measuieu by complicateu systems such as the Facial Action
Couing System (FACS)
-
Eg. The eyes pioviue the most impoitant cues foi feai anu sauness anu the
mouth is a majoi cue foi happiness anu uisgust
Biffeient paits of the face pioviue the best inuicatois of uiffeient emotions
Common loie says that eyes can tell the most, but othei paits of the face aie at least
equally impoitant
-
People within the same cultuie can expiess emotions uiffeiently -
Eg. Ciying can be because a loveu one just uieu, oi because you just won a lotteiy
ticket
The same expiession can be useu to vaiying ciicumstances -

Peihaps it has a gieatei auaptive significance foi women because they aie
usually the caietakeis in the family
Nen who woik in piofessions that emphasize these skills (psychotheiapy,

uiama, ait) aie as accuiate as women
Women aie geneially moie accuiate juuges of emotional expiessions than men -
In basic emotions (happiness, uisgust, suipiise, etc) theie is high agieement acioss
cultuies
-
Natsumoto anu Willingham's analysis of athletes aftei winning theii golu metals show
that facial expiessions that aie uisplayeu spontaneously in an emotion evoking
situation can be consiueieu univeisal
-
8-$"-3 5E>('##"%. %+ 59%4"%.
Eg. Thumbs up in uieece is equivalent to the miuule fingei in Noith
Ameiica
Ceitain gestuies, bouy postuies, anu physical movements can convey uiffeient
meanings in uiffeient cultuies
!"#>3-) (13'# aie the noims foi emotional expiession within a given cultuie -
Eg. The }apanese uoes not like to uisplay emotion in public
The Bisplay iules of a paiticulai cultuie uictate when anu how paiticulai emotions
aie to be expiesseu
-
=1341(-3 !"#>3-) 213'#
Anxious stuuent finuing a way to cope with an impenuing test
F.#4(19'.4-3 D'0-&"%(# aie uiiecteu at achieving some goal -
Noving towaiu otheis (eg. Love) !.
Noving away fiom otheis (eg. Feai, ievulsion) ?.
Noving against otheis (angei) 3.
Belplessness 1.
Subnission .
Instiumental behavioi fall into S bioau categoiies -
As physiological aiousal incieases to an optimal level, peifoimance impioves, but
beyonu that level, fuithei inciease impaiis peifoimance
-
Task complexity affects the optimal aiousal level -
F.#4(19'.4-3 ,'0-&"%(#
As complexity incieases, the level of optimal aiousal foi maximum peifoimance
uecieases
Task complexity affects the optimal aiousal level -

Anxiety may cause people to unueipeifoim in complex situations such as aii
tiaffic contiol
In physical tasks, muscle tension can inteifeie with the skilful execution of
complex movements
Foi complex tasks, high emotionality can inteifeie with the ability to attenu to anu
piocess infoimation effectively
-
Interact|ons Among the Components of Lmot|on
We know we aie afiaiu only because oui bouily ieactions tell us so
This theoiy claims that the bouy infoims the minu; oui physiological ieactions
ueteimine oui emotions
-
1he Iames-Lange Somat|c 1heory (1890)
Yet people feel emotion immeuiately, which means that the }ames-Lange theoiy
is inconsistent
People's bouies uo not iesponu instantaneously to an emotional stimulus; seveial

seconus may pass befoie signs of physiological aiousal appeai
-
The =-..%./,-(6 40'%() pioposeu that when we encountei an emotion aiousing
situation, the thalamus simultaneously senus sensoiy messages to the ceiebial coitex
anu to the bouy's inteinal oigans
-
1he Cannon-8ard 1heory (1927)
Even aftei the sevei, animals still exhibiteu emotional iesponses, suppoiting his
theoiy ovei that of }ames anu Lange
Cannon seveieu the neives that pioviue feeuback fiom inteinal oigans to the biain -
People who have spinal injuiies anu a paialyzeu uiu not feel a uiffeience in the
intensity of theii emotional feeuback
-
?0' 2%3' %+ B14%.%9"$ 8''6D-$V
This is because holuing the pencil in theii teeth puts the paiticipants into a
smiling facial expiession
Eg. Those who helu pencils in theii teeth felt happiei than those who helu
pencils in theii lips
The muscles in the face plays a key iole in ueteimining the natuie anu intensity of
emotion that we expeiience
-
Cooling the bloou incieases positive affect, wheieas waiming it piouuces
negative effect
Accoiuing to the &-#$13-( 40'%() %+ '9%4"%.-3 +''6D-$V, tensing facial muscles

alteis the tempeiatuie of bloou enteiing the biain by contiollin gthe volume of aii
inhaleu thiough the nose
-
?0' 8-$"-3 8''6D-$V @)>%40'#"#
Focuses on the way in which cognitions anu physiological iesponses inteiact -
Lazaius emphasizes that all emotional iesponses iequiie some soit of appiaisal,
whethei we aie awaie of that appiaisal oi not
-
Eg. You see a beai anu it causes feai
This uiffeis fiom the Cannon-Baiu theoiy because the Cannon-Baiu theoiy claims that
one's emotional iesponse uepenus on the stimuli
-
The Cognitive Affective theoiy claims that when you see a beai, you may have
uiffeient appiaisals anu may elicit emotions of awe
-
Cogn|t|ve Affect|ve 1heor|es
uiffeient appiaisals anu may elicit emotions of awe
Intensity of physiological aiousal tells us how stiongly we aie feeling something
Situational cues give us the infoimation we neeu to tell us what we aie feeling
Schachtei's 4:% +-$4%( 40'%() %+ '9%4"%. states that aiousal anu cognitive labelling
baseu on situational cues aie the ciitical ingieuients in emotional expeiience
-
M-41(' -.6 M1(41(' -
=("4"$-3 >'("%67 an age iange in which ceitain expeiiences must occui foi
uevelopment to pioceeu noimally along a ceitain path
-
A'.#"4"&' >'("%67 an optimal age iange foi ceitain expeiiences, but if they occui at
othei ages, noimal uevelopment is still possible
-
=%.4".1"4) &'(#1# 6"#$%.4".1"4)7 uevelop is a continualgiauual fashion oi in
uistinct stages
-
A4-D"3"4) &'(#1# $0-.<'7 Bo oui chaiacteiistics iemain consistent as we age -
No change: ability piesent at biith constant thioughout lifespan !.
Continuous change: ability not piesent at biith uevelops slowly ovei the
lifespan
?.
Stages: ability piogiesses in stages with iapiu shifts fiom a lowei level to a
highei one
3.
Inveiteu 0-shapeu function: emeiges at biith, peaks at an oluei age, anu
uisappeais ovei time
1.
0-shapeu function: ability piesent eaily in life, uisappeais tempoiaiily, anu
ie-emeiges latei
.
S uiffeient uevelopmental patteins -
Pioblem: people in uiffeient age gioups (cohoits) may peifoim uiffeiently
because they giew up in uiffeient time peiious; IE. Those giew up in the 4u's
may not have hau gieat access to euucation anu nutiition
=(%## #'$4"%.-3 6'#"<.7 compaie people of uiffeient ages at the same point in time -
Pioblem: People move, uiop out of the stuuy, anu uie; Also, if one finus a pattein
(intelligence uiops at age 6u), is this uue to the unique expeiience of the
paiticulai cohoit.
A'W1'.4"-3 !'#"<.7 test seveial age cohoits as they age

G%.<"416".-3 !'#"<. is iepeating the test foi the same cohoit as it giows oluei -
Ma[or Issues and Methods
S stages -
J'(9".-3 A4-<'7 fiist 2 weeks of uevelopment when the speim feitilizes the egg -
;3-$'.4-7 contains membianes that allow nutiients to pass fiom the mothei's
bloou to the umbilical coiu
K9D"3"$-3 =%(67 contains bloou vessels that caiiy these nutiients anu oxygen to
the embiyo
0igans begin to foim in this stage; heait staits beating by week 8

59D()%."$ A4-<'7 extenus fiom the enu the geiminal stage: the placenta anu the
umbilical coiu uevelop in this stage
-
24 weeks: eyes open
29 weeks: fetus attains the -<' %+ &"-D"3"4)7 can suivive outsiue the womb
shoulu a piematuie biith occui
8'4-3 A4-<'7 staits in week 9 till biith -

renata| Deve|opment
XX: female -
XY: Nale -
Genet|cs and Sex Determ|nat|on
Chaptei 11: Bevelopment of the Life Span
!anuary-31-11
10:33 AM
XY: Nale -
Testes piouuce anuiogens which is linkeu to male pattein of oigan
uevelopment
If TBF is not piesent, testes uo not foim anu female chaiacteiistics aie
uevelopeu
Tiiggeis testes uevelopment at 6 to 8 weeks

Y chiomosome contains the TBF gene which tiiggeis male sexual uevelopment -
Placenta pievents many uangeious substances fiom ieaching the embiyo
?'(-4%<'.# aie enviionmental agents that cause abnoimal pienatal uevelopment -
Stiess hoimones can cioss the placenta anu piolongeu stiess can cause piematuie
biith, infant iiiitability, anu attention ueficits
-
Beioin anu cocaine usei's babies often boin auuicteu anu go thiough a withuiaw
peiiou
-
8'4-3 B3$%0%3 A).6(%9' aie a gioup of abnoimalities iesulting fiom pienatal
exposuie to alcohol which incluue facial abnoimalities, small malfoimeu biaines, anu
small statuie
-
Najoi cause of mental ietaiuation -
Not all fetuses exposeu to alcohol have FAS, some show no symptoms -
Less seveie pioblems (executive function, leaining, etc) aie known as Fetal Alcohol
Effects
-
The most sensitive peiiou is uuiing sensitive peiious of fetal biain giowth, aiounu the
enu of the fiist month anu uuiing the last two months of piegnancy
-
Buiing the thiiu tiimestei, infants have highei heait iate anu gieatei bouy movement
when they heai a louu noise
-
Fetuses can leain: they leain to stop iesponuing to a constant sounu oi a sounu that is
iepeateu uuiing fetal uevelopmen
-
Lnv|ronmenta| Inf|uences
Infancy and Ch||dhood
1he Amaz|ng Newborn
New boin babies have pooi visual acuity anu have a veiy small visual fielu -
Paiticulai iesponsive to mothei's face, voice, anu smell which enhances its
access to foou, waimth, anu social stimulation
Within minutes, they aie able to tuin to face visual, auuio, anu tactile stimuli -
Piefeiieu complex patteineu images ovei unpatteineu
Recognizes haiiline because of theii pooi visual acuity
Piefeis mothei's face ovei stiangei's face
;('+'('.4"-3 3%%V".< >(%$'61('7 show them 2 stimuli at the same time anu see
which one they have a viewing piefeience
-
When piesenteu the stimulus again with some othei stimulus, they piefei the
new stimulus
L"#1-3 0-D"41-4"%. >(%$'61('7 same stimulus is piesenteu iepeateu until the infants
looking time ueclines
-
Infants aie able to iecognize uiffeient coloi -
M': D%(. A'.#-4"%. -.6 ;'($'>4"%.
Newboins aie able to uisciiminate uiffeient sounus anu get boieu of the same
stimulus
-
When the touch was piesenteu, the infant tuins towaiu the ieseaichei
If milk was not followeu, they sometimes get upset
Reseaichei followeu a touch on the heau with the ueliveiy of milk
Newboins iapiuly acquiie classically conuitioneu iesponses -
M':D%(. G'-(.".<
If milk was not followeu, they sometimes get upset
This helps infants iuentify people anu engage them in social exchange
Reseaicheis have got infants to imitate theii behavioi -
visual fielu expanus to auults size by 6 months olu -
visual acuity impioves to 2u1uu by 6 months anu 2u2u by 4 yeais of age -
Impiessive at biith uisappeais in 2nu month of life but ieappeais at 4 to S
months of age
0 shapeu function exists foi sounu localization -

Eg. Can uiffeientiate between "bah" anu "uah"
Can uiffeientiate phenomes not founu in theii native language
Auuitoiy pattein peiception is ielatively auvanceu anu they aie bale to uiffeientiate
one woiu fiom anothei (phenomes) by 1 to 2 months of age
-
Possible that humans' communication system was composeu of melouies iathei
than woius
In the fiist half yeai of life infants peiceive music as auults uo, looking foi consonant
sounus ovei uissonant sounus
-
Sensory-erceptua| Deve|opment
H-41(-4"%. is the genetically piogiammeu biological piocess that goveins oui
giowth
-
='>0-3%$-16-3 ;(".$">3'7 tenuency foi uevelopment to pioceeu in a heau
to foot uiiection
!.
;(%E"9%6"#4-3 ;(".$">3'7 uevelopment begins along the inneimost paits
of the bouy anu continues to the outeimost paits
?.
Physical anu motoi uevelopment follows seveial piinciples -
Infant biain is about 2S% of matuie size, by 6 months it is Su% of matuie size
Cells become laigei, axons uevelop myelin sheaths,
The biain stem uevelops fiist (heaitbeat anu bieathing)
Fiontal coitex (highei cognitive thought) uevelops last
Bevelops in an oiueily fashion
S yeai olus have ieacheu 9u% of auult biain size
Little size changes between S anu 1u yeais of age although matuiation continues
in making new synapses
Biain giows the fastest -

Some have auaptive value such as bieathing, anu sucking
0theis have less auaptive behavioi such as giasping objects, attempting to swim
in watei, tiying to walk when helu upiight
2'+3'E'# aie automatic inboin behaviois eliciteu by specific stimuli piesent at biith -
Biops out aftei 2 months anu ieappeais aiounu 12 months when Noith
Ameiican infants attempt to walk
Notoi skill such as walking follow a 0-shapeu uevelopment -

hys|ca|, Motor, and 8ra|n Deve|opment
Biet can cause malnutiition which can stunt giowth anu biain uevelopment -
Infants who aie iegulaily massageu gain weight moie iapiuly anu show fastei
neuiological uevelopment
They neeu physical contact fiom theii caiegiveis -

,"%3%<) #'4# 3"9"4# %. '.&"(%.9'.4-3 ".+31'.$'#7 nutiients alone won't make an
infant 7 feet tall
-
5.&"(%.9'.4-3 F.+31'.$'# $-. D' ;%:'(+137 nuituiing enviionments fostei
physical, sensoiy motoi, anu psychological giowth
-
,"%3%<"$-3 -.6 5.&"(%.9'.4-3 +-$4%(# ".4'(-$47 Eniicheu enviionments enhance -
5.&"(%.9'.4-3 -.6 =1341(-3 F.+31'.$'#
,"%3%<"$-3 -.6 5.&"(%.9'.4-3 +-$4%(# ".4'(-$47 Eniicheu enviionments enhance
biain uevelopment
-
Cogn|t|ve Deve|opment
The biain builus #$0'9-# which aie oiganizeu patteins of thought anu action -
B##"9"3-4"%. is the piocess by which new expeiiences aie incoipoiateu into
existing schemas
Insteau of calling a hoise a "big uoggie", he iealizes that the hoise uoesn't
act like a uog at all
This imbalance causes the new expeiience to change existing schemas

Eveiytime a schema changes, the chilu's peiception of the woilu changes as
well
B$$%99%6-4"%.7 piocess by which new expeiiences cause schemas to change

Cognitive uevelopment occuis as we acquiie new schemas, anu oui existing schemas
become moie complex
-
A'.#%("9%4%( A4-<'
Lasts fiom biith to age 2, infants unueistanu theii woilu thiough sensoiy expeiiences
anu motoi inteiactions with objects
-
Reflexes aie the eailiest schemas -
As infants age, they iealize that they can make things happen such as banging spoons,
taking objects apait
-
Befoie 6 months, if you take a toy away fiom a chilu, it is as if the object hau
uisappeaieu
-
By 8 months, they've uevelopeu %DI'$4 >'(9-.'.$'7 the ability to unueistanu that
an object continues to exist even when it uisappeais fiom sight
-
They begin to speak at about age 1 anu use theii language to iepiesent objects,
actions, anu neeus
-
;('%>'(-4"%.-3 #4-<'
Entei aiounu age they iepiesent the woilu symbolically thiough woius anu mental
images
-
0nueistanu concepts such as objects aie the same oi uiffeient -
They become able to think about the past anu the futuie anu become bettei at
anticipating the consequences of theii actions
-
Boes not unueistanu the concept of $%.#'(&-4"%., piinciple that object mass anu
volume aie conseiveu
-
Chiluien's thinking uisplay "(('&'(#"D"3"4)7 uifficulty in ieveising an action -
Chiluien has $'.4(-4"%.: focusing on only one aspect of the situation, they uon't pay
attention to height anu wiuth, etc
-
Bisplay -."9"#97 attiibuting life like qualities to natuial events (the sky is ciying) -
Eveiyone peiceives things the same way that they uo
Reflects '<%$'.4("#97 uifficulty viewing the woilu is anothei peison's peispective -
=%.$('4' N>'(-4"%.-3 #4-<'
Lasts fiom age 7 to 12 -
0nueistanu ieveisibility anu uisplay less centiation
Chiluien can peifoim basic mental opeiations conceining pioblems that involve
tangible objects anu situations
-
Can oiganize things fiom shoitest to tallest
0nueistanu seiial oiuei -
Able to uiaw a map to school
Can foim mental iepiesentations -
;"-<'4Q# A4-<' H%6'3
Able to uiaw a map to school
If askeu to uiaw thiiu eye anywheie on theii bouy they woulu uiaw S eyes in a
iow because they aie limiteu to the fact that eyes appeai on theii face
Bas uifficulty in hypothetical thinking anu aie iigiu -

8%(9-3 N>'(-4"%. A4-<'
Inuiviuuals aie able to think logically anu systematically about both conciete anu
abstiact pioblems, fiom hypotheses, anu test them in a thoughtful way
-
Begin aiounu age 11 to 12 -
Bettei answei foi Siu eye pioblem
Begin to think moie flexible when tacking hypothetical pioblems -
Testing his theoiies aiounu the woilu has shown that Piaget's cognitive tasks have
shown that the geineial cognitive abilities associateu with Piaget's foi stages appeai
to occui in the sam eoiuei acioss cultuies
-
Eg. In unueiuevelopeu societies, chiluien tenu to show an age uelay in theii
thought
Bowevei, ieseaicheis have founu that cultuie influences cognitive uevelopment -

Baillaigeon uemonstiateu that a 4 month olu uisplayeu a basic giasp of object
peimanence when they weie testeu on special tasks
Noie eviuence has shown that chiluien acquiie many cognitive skills at ages youngei
than Piaget hau postulateu
-
A chilu may peifoim at the pieopeiational level on some tasks anu solve othei
tasks at a conciete opeiational level
Cognitive uevelopment within each stage seems to pioceeu inconsistently -

B##'##9'.4 %+ ;"-<'4Q# ?0'%()7 A4-<'#R B<'#R -.6 =1341('
Emphasizeu that chiluien live in a social woiu anu that cognitive uevelopment occuis
in a socio-cultuial context
-
Aftei some help }uanita gets it but Ray uoesn't
vygotsky says they weien't on the same cognitive level to begin with
If Ray anu }uanita have similai cognitive test scoies anu both have pioblem with
conseivation
-
vygotsky intiouuces the concept of C%.' %+ >(%E"9-3 6'&'3%>9'.47 The uiffeience
between what a chilu can uo inuepenuently, anu what the chilu can uo with assistance
fiom auults oi moie auvanceu peeis
-
This shows functions that have not matuieu yet but aie in the piocess of matuiation -
People can pioviue expeiiences anu feeuback that move a chilu's cognitive ability
foiwaiu within limits
-
Baving oluei siblings also stimulate cognitive uevelopment -
L)<%4#V)7 ?0' A%$"-3 =%.4'E4 %+ =%<."4"&' !'&'3%>9'.4
Cognitive uevelopment is best examineu within an infoimation piocessing fiamewoik -
When they compaie 2 things, they uo not seaich systematically foi ielevant
uetails
Pieschooleis have pioblems with cognitive flexibility anu selective attention

Chiluien have pooiei infoimation seaich stiategies -
Eg. When askeu to soit a set of caius baseu on shape oi coloi, they aie able to uo
so; but when they aie askeu to switch fiom soiting one type to anothei, they fail
at uoing so
Zelazo showeu that chiluien have pooi cognitive flexibility -

F.+%(9-4"%. >(%$'##".< #>''6 impioves uuiing chiluhoou especially fiom ages 8 to
12
-
F.+%(9-4"%. ;(%$'##".< B>>(%-$0'#
12
0luei chiluien uses bettei memoiy techniques such as iepetition anu chunking
H'9%() $->-D"3"4"'# expanu gieatly uuiing chiluhoou -
0luei chiluien uisplay gieatei awaieness of theii own mental piocesses than uo
youngei chiluien
H'4-$%<."4"%. is an awaieness of one's own cognitive piocesses -

Reseaicheis who auopt an infoimation piocessing appioach believe that cognitive
uevelopment is a continuous, giauual appioach in which the same set of piocessing
abilities become moie efficient ovei time
-
Neo-Piagetian theoiists believe that chiluien acquiie new moues of piocessing as they
age
-
0theis auopt a combination of giauual inciease anu stages -
?0'%() %+ 9".6 iefeis to a peison's beliefs about how the minu woiks -
Auults assume that the minu exists, anu it consists of vaiious mental states such as
knowleuge, feeling, uesiies, intentions, etc.
-
Scenaiio: Susie places a canuy bai insiue a gieen box anu leaves; the canuy is
taken out of the box anu put insiue a ieu bag; Susie comes back, wheie will she
look.
2 yeai olus will say that she will look insiue the ieu bag because they assume
that she knows what they know
4 yeai olus will say that she will look in the gieen box because Susie uoesn't
know
Chiluien unuei 6 oi 7 have veiy little unueistanuing of how the minu woiks have
uifficulty infeiiing what otheis aie thinking
-
When askeu if they peekeu insiue a box that they weien't supposeu to look at,
1S lieu anu saiu they uiun't
8u% of S yeai olus lieu

Bowevei, they hau uifficulty with follow-up questions
As chiluien ieach S yeais olu, they uevelop the ability to lie -
Infants make infeiences about the auult's knowleuge, intentions, anu peispectives -
?0'%() %+ H".67 =0"36('.Q# K.6'(#4-.6".< %+ H'.4-3 A4-4'#
A majoi goal of socialization to help chiluien iecognize iight anu wiong baseu on the
noims of social conuuct
-
Mora| Deve|opment
S Levels of moial ieasoning -
Beinz's wife was uying foim cancei. A iaie uiug might save hei, but the uiuggist
who maue the uiug foi $2uu woulu not sell it foi less than $2,uuu. Beinz tiieu
haiu, but he coulu only iaise $1,uuu. The uiuggist iefuseu to give Beinz the uiug
foi that piice even though Beinz piomiseu to pay the iest latei. So Beinz bioke
into the stoie to steal the uiug.
Beinz uilemma: -
Stage 1: focuseu on punishment; Beinz shoulu steal the uiug because if his wife
uies, he will get into tiouble
u.
Stage 2: focuseu on iewaius; Beinz shoulu steal the uiug because his wife can
keep him company
|.
;('$%.&'.4"%.-3 H%(-3 2'-#%.".<7 baseu on anticipateu punishment oi iewaiu !.
Stage S: seeks to gain otheis appioval: people will think Beinz is a bau peison if
he uoesn't steal the uiugs
u.
=%.&'.4"%.-3 H%(-3 2'-#%.".<7 confoimity to social customs anu piinciples ?.
X%03D'(<Q# A4-<' H%6'3
he uoesn't steal the uiugs
u.
Stage 4: laws anu uuties aie meant to be follow; Beinz shoulu steal the uiug
because its his uuty to take caie of his wife
|.
Stage S: iecognizing both societal laws anu inuiviuual iights into account;
stealing bieaks the law, but is justifiable foi saving a life
u.
Stage 6: baseu on abstiact ethical piinciples of justice that aie consiueieu
univeisal; Saving life comes befoie financial gain even if the peison is a stiangei,
thus stealing the uiug is moially acceptable
|.
;%#4$%.&'.4"%.-3 H%(-3 ('-#%.".<7 baseu on well thought out moial piinciples 3.
J'.6'(R =1341(' -.6 H%(-3 2'-#%.".<
As we age fiom chiluhoou to auolescence, moial ieasoning changes fiom
pieconventional to conventional levels
-
In auulthoou, postconventional ieasoning is ielatively uncommon -
Levels aie in oiuei -
Ciitics point out that the piinciple is biaseu because othei cultuies highest moial
values can be baseu on piinciples such as benevolence, non-violence, anu
iespect foi all life
Postconventional ieasoning occuis moie often among Westeinizeu, foimally

euucateu, miuule oi uppei class people than othei settings
-
Caiol uilligan aigueu that Kohlbeig's emphasis on "justice" is a male peispective -
uenuei bias shows mixeu iesults -
People with highei moial ieasoning uoes not necessaiily uisplay moie moial behavioi -
ersona||ty and Soc|a| Deve|opment
5("V#%.Q# ;#)$0%#%$"-3 ?0'%()
Peisonality uevelops thiough confionting a seiies of eight majoi >#)$0%#%$"-3 #4-<'#
each with a uiffeient ciisis ovei how we view ouiselves
-
,-#"$ 4(1#4 &'(#1# D-#"$ 9"#4(1#47 SY 4% \T fiom the caie of paients, how
auequately oui neeus aie met, ueteimine whethei we uevelop a basic tiust of
mistiust of the woilu
B14%.%9) &'(#1# #0-9' -.6 6%1D47 S\ 4% ^T chiluien become ieauy to

sepaiate themselves fiom theii paients anu exeicise theii inuiviuuality; if
paients aie haish uuiing toilet tiaining oi aie iestiictive, chiluien uevelop
shame anu uoubt about theii abilities anu latei lacks the couiage to be
inuepenuent
F."4"-4"&' &'(#1# <1"347 (S to S) chiluien aie cuiious about the woilu; if they aie
helu back oi punisheu about theii uesiies, theii cuiiosity becomes suppiesseu
F.61#4() &'(#1# ".+'("%("4)7 (6 to pubeity) Chiluien who expeiience anu piiue

anu encouiagement in masteiing tasks uevelop "inuustiy," a stiiving to achieve;
iepeateu failuie anu lack of piaise foi tiying leaus to a sense of infeiioiity
4 ciisis chiluhoou anu infancy -

B44-$09'.4
This suuuen biologically piimeu foim of attachment is known as "9>(".4".<
Piesents a ciitical peiiou
The only thing that baby uucks will follow is the fiist object they see within 24 houis
of biith
-
In humans, theie is no ciitical peiiou, but theie is a #'.#"4"&' >'("%6 in the fiist
few yeais of life that make us sensitive to attaching to oui caiegiveis
B44-$09'.4 iefeis to the stiong emotional bonu that uevelops between chiluien anu
theii piimaiy caiegiveis
-
few yeais of life that make us sensitive to attaching to oui caiegiveis
When given a wiie suiiogate with foou anu a cloth suiiogate without foou,
the monkey became attacheu to the cloth mothei
=%.4-$4 $%9+%(4 is moie impoitant in fosteiing attachment than the

piovision of nouiishment
Baiiy Bailow pioveu this to be false

Foi many yeais people assumeu that the infant caiegivei bonuing iesulteu piimaiily
fiom the mothei's iole in satisfying the infant's neeu foi nouiishment
-
F.6"#$("9".-4' -44-$09'.4 D'0-&"%(7 newboins ciy, smile, anu voclaize
towaiu eveiyone which evokes caiegiving auults
!"#$("9".-4' -44-$09'.4 D'0-&"%(7 aiounu S months, infants uiiect theii

attachment towaiu familiai caiegiveis moie than stiangeis
A>'$"+"$ -44-$09'.4 D'0-&"%(7 by 7 to 8 months, infants uevelop theii fiist

meaningful attachment to a specific caiegivei
Bowlby pioposeu that attachment uuiing infancy occuis in thiee phases -

As infants become moie attachment focuseu, 2 anxieties occui -
A4(-.<'( -.E"'4)7 uistiess ovei contact with unfamiliai people emeiging aiounu 6 to
7 months anu enuing aiounu 18 months
-
A'>-(-4"%. -.E"'4)7 uistiess ovei being sepaiateu fiom a piimaiy caiegivei, peaks
aiounu 12 to 16 months
-
L-("-4"%.# ". B44-$09'.4
An infant fiist plays a toy in the piesence of the mothei. Then, a stiangei enteis
the ioom anu inteiacts with the chilu, while the mothei leaves. Latei, the
stiangei leaves anu the chilu is alone. Then the mothei ietuins.
H-() B".#:%(40 6'&'3%>'6 40' A4(-.<' A"41-4"%. ?'#4 SAA?T foi examining infant
attachment
-
Bistiesseu when she leaves anu happy when she ietuins
In the mothei's piesence, the infant is #'$1('3) -44-$0'6, moves aiounu the ioom
anu ieact positively to stiangeis
-
B.E"%1# ('#"#4-.4 infants aie feaiful when the mothei is piesent, uemanu hei
attention, anu aie highly uistiesseu when she leaves
Bon't seek contact when she ietuins, but won't iesist if she initiates it
B.E"%1# -&%"6-.4 infants show few signs of attachment anu seluom ciy when
the mothei leaves
2 types of ".#'$1(' -44-$0'6 -

0sually, chiluien who is bettei attenueu tenu to be secuiely attacheu -
B44-$09'.4 -.6 3-4'( D'0-&"%(
Eaily attachment has long teim influences on chiluien's aujustment -
Elementaiy school chiluien who aie secuiely attacheu aie bettei aujusteu socially,
have a highei self esteem, anu aie bettei behaveu in school
-
Insecuiely attacheu chiluien aie moie likely to have behavioial pioblems, be oveily
aggiessive, anu show attention seeking behavioi
-
F#%3-4' 9%.V')# -.6 $0"36('.
When they become auults, they cannot copulate piopeily
Some hau to be aitificially inseminateu, anu weie abusive towaiu theii fiist
boins
When exposeu to othei monkeys, monkeys iaiseu alone weie inuiffeient, teiiifieu, oi
aggiessive
-
victoi, the Wilu Boy of Aveyion, showeu seveie impaiiment anu only limiteu iecoveiy
aftei iemeuial tiaining
-
B44-$09'.4 !'>("&-4"%.
0nceitain whethei he was oiiginally ciazy
aftei iemeuial tiaining
Cognitive uevelopment of a thiee yeai olu anu language skills of a two yeai
olu
At age 7, they weie founu to be emotionally anu socially ietaiueu

With theii fostei paients, they became attacheu, anu theii IQ incieaseu to
noimal levels anu became well aujusteu auolescents
In Czechoslovakia, two twins weie foiceu to live in isolation beginning at 18 months -

victoi was oluei, which meant less neuial plasticity
Twins weie caieu foi in a home with youngei, non thieatening pieschool
chiluien
Why uiu they iecovei but not victoi. -

=0"36('. 2-"#'6 ". N(>0-.-<'#
Ceausescu oiphanage in Romania: chiluien iaiseu in ueploiable conuitions in a state
iun oiphanage
-
Nany chiluien auopteu by Canauian families -
Aftei 1 yeai, the late auopteu oiphans weie moie insecuiely attacheu than eaily
auopteu ones
Aftei two yeais, the thiee gioups uiu not uiffei on paiental iepoit, but when
assesseu on a sepaiation ieunion pioceuuie, the late auoptees uisplayeu moie
insecuie attachment behaviois
Compaieu S gioups matcheu foi age anu sex: eaily (befoie 4 months of age) anu late
(aftei 4 months of age)
-
In highei quality oiphanages, howevei, when they aie auopteu, they foim healthy
attachments with theii auoptive paients
-
Infancy is a sensitive peiiou to which initial attachment to caiegivei foims -
?0' !-)$-(' =%.4(%&'(#)
6u% of Ameiican anu Canauian chiluien aie caieu foi uuiing the uay by someone
othei than a paient
-
Bowevei, if negative factois compounu - uaycaie is pooi, chilu spenus
many houis theie, paients not sensitive to chilu at home - the iisk of
insecuie attachment incieases
B44-$09'.47 as measuieu by the SST, uaycaie uoes not seem to uisiupt infants
attachment to theii paients
N40'( ;-('.4 =0"36 F.4'(-$4"%.#7 compaieu to non uaycaie kius, infants anu
touuleis in uaycaie aie slightly less engageu anu sociable towaiu theii motheis
In uppei anu miuule income families, this seems to have veiy little caiiy
ovei effect
G%.< ?'(9 5++'$4#7 Infants anu pieschooleis fiom low income families who
ieceive high quality uaycaie tenu to be bettei aujusteu socially anu peifoim
bettei in elementaiy schools than theii peeis
Effects of uaycaie -
A4)3' %+ ;-('.4".<
P-(940 &# 0%#4"3"4)
2'#4("$4"&'.'## &# >'(9"##"&'.'##
Two uimensions of paiental behavioi -
Waim paients communicate love anu caiing foi the chilu anu iesponu with gieatei
sensitivity anu empathy to the chilu's feelings
-
Bostile paients expiess iejection anu behave as if they uiu not caie about the chilu -
B140%("4-4"&' >-('.4#7 contiolling but waim; establish cleai iules that aie enfoiceu
consistently anu iewaiu chiluien's compliance with waimth anu affection; high
-
consistently anu iewaiu chiluien's compliance with waimth anu affection; high
expectations, caiing anu suppoitive; most positive chiluhoou outcomes
B140%("4-("-. >-('.4#7 exeit contiol with a colu, uniesponsive, oi iejecting
ielationship; lowei self esteem, less populai with peeis anu peifoim moie pooily in
school
-
F.613<'.4 >-('.4#7 waim anu caiing but uoes not pioviue guiuance anu uiscipline
that helps chiluien leain iesponsibility anu concein foi otheis; immatuie anu self
centeieu
-
M'<3'$4+13 >-('.4#7 pioviue neithei waimth noi iules anu guiuance; chiluien most
insecuiely attacheu; love achievement motivation; uistuibeu ielationships with peeis
-
These tienus continue thiow auolescence anu high school -
Chiluien who aie moie iiiitable, hostile, anu have a uifficult tempeiament tenu
to elicit haishei anu less waim paienting behaviois
These stuuies uo not elicit causation -

A chilu's uevelopment is the iesult of many compounueu factois such as genetics,
enviionment, as well as paienting
-
J'.6'( F6'.4"4) -.6 A%$"-3"C-4"%.
Paients play a iole in helping chiluien uevelop a <'.6'( "6'.4"4), a sense of male oi
femaleness
-
J'.6'( $%.#4-.$) is the unueistanuing that being male oi female is a peimanent
pait of a peison
-
As genuei iuentity uevelops, chiluien acquiie #'E (%3' #4'('%4)>'#, beliefs about
what is appiopiiate foi boys anu giils
-
A%$"-3"C-4"%. is the piocess by which the acquiie beliefs, values, anu behavioi fiom a
gioup
-
A'E 4)>".< involves tieating otheis uiffeiently baseu on whethei they aie female oi
male
-
Fatheis tenu to steei theii male infants away fiom activities that aie steieotypically
feminine
-
At a science museum, paients aie moie likely to explain the uisplays to boys than
giils, paients assume that male chiluien have a highei aptituue foi science anu math
-
In obvious anu subtle ways, the enviionment ieinfoices oui behavioi in sex
appiopiiate behavioi
-
By age 7 to 8, steieotyping has been fiimly implanteu, chiluien thinks that males anu
females have uiffeient peisonalities anu shoulu have uiffeient occupations
-
As chiluien entei junioi high, they uisplay moie flexibility in thinking about genuei -
Ado|escence
Bypothalamus stimulates the pituitaiy glanu to inciease hoimone seciete with
causes physical giowth
Speeus matuiation of >("9-() >0)#"$-3 $0-(-$4'("#4"$# (iequiieu foi

iepiouuction)
Also piouuces #'$%.6-() #'E $0-(-$4'("#4"$# (non iepiouuctive physical

featuies such as facial haii anu boobs)
Auolescence begins at >1D'(4), a peiiou of iapiu matuiation when a peison becomes

capable of iepiouuction
-
H'.-($0' is the fiist menstiual flow -
Foi boys, pubeity begins with the piouuction of speim anu the fiist ejaculation -
0ccuis aiounu 12 to 1S foi giils anu 14 foi boys in Noith Ameiica -
Boimones that steei pubeity can affect moou anu behavioi -
hys|ca| Deve|opment
Eaily matuiation has moie positive outcomes foi boys than foi giils because it
helps with theii physical stiength anu size anu contiibute to theii populaiity anu
self image
Eaily matuiing giils, on the othei hanu, tenu to inciease eating uisoiueis,
smoking, uiinking, anu having pioblems in school
Boimones that steei pubeity can affect moou anu behavioi -

Noie easily think about abstiact anu hypothetical issues fiom social justice to
the meaning of life
Piaget's final stage of cognitive uevelopment, +%(9-3 %>'(-4"%.-3 40".V".<R is

attaineu in auolescence
-
Bowevei, peifoimance uiffeis foi uiffeient types of ieasoning anu paitly uepenus on
foimal schooling anu exposuie to abstiact scientific tasks
-
BD#4(-$4 2'-#%.".< BD"3"4"'#
Eg. Ny paients uon't get me u)
Tenu to oveiestimate the uniqueness of theii feelings anu expeiiences known as
the >'(#%.-3 +-D3'
!.
They feel that eveiyone is noticing how they look anu what they uo known as the
"9-<".-() -16"'.$'
?.
Auolescent thinking can be highly self focuseu in eaily teenage yeai (B6%3'#$'.4
'<%$'.4("#9)
-
Noie egocentiic teens tenu to unueiestimate negative consequences of iisky
behaviois such as unsafe sex anu uiinking
-
A%$"-3 ?0".V".<
Soc|a| and ersona||ty Deve|opment
Can iesolve positively, leauing to a stable sense of iuentity
Can iesolve negatively, leauing to confusion ovei one's iuentity anu values
Auolescents go thiough an "6'.4"4) &'(#1# (%3' $%.+1#"%. -
Nany young men aie in a state of "6'.4"4) 6"++1#"%.7 have not gone thiough an
iuentity ciisis, anu iemain uncommitteu to a coheient set of values oi ioles
-
Eg. Auopting peei oi paiental values without giving them much thought
Some auolescents aie in +%('$3%#1('7 auopting anu iuentity without going thiough a
ciisis
-
Want to establish a cleai iuentity but uon't know which way to go
H%(-4%("197 status in which they aie cuiiently expeiiencing ciisis but have yet to
iesolve it
-
Auopteu a coheient set of values anu aie puisuing goals to which they aie
committeu
F6'.4"4) B$0"'&'9'.47 gone thiough a ciisis anu successfully iesolveu it -

uenuei, ethnicity, anu membei of a social gioup
Bow we view oui peisonality anu othei chaiacteiistics
0ui goals anu values peitaining to aieas we view as impoitant, such as family
anu peei ielations, caieei, ieligion, anu so foith
Iuentity has multiple components -

Eg. Those in inuiviuualistic societies iefei to I as an autonomous inuiviuuals
sepaiating me foim othei people
Cultuie plays an impoitant iole in iuentity foimation -

A'-($0 +%( F6'.4"4)
In the 7us, S6% of Ameiican teens iepoiteu as getting along veiy well with
Nost auolescents uo okay with theii paients -
2'3-4"%.#0"># :"40 ;-('.4#
In the 7us, S6% of Ameiican teens iepoiteu as getting along veiy well with
paients anu 41% iepoiteu as getting along faiily well
Nost conflict aiise fiom choies, neatness, anu beutime anu aie usually low in intensity -
Auolescents agieeu with theii paients' iight to "make the iules" but moie foi
some issues than otheis
0luei auolescents felt it was less appiopiiate foi paients to make iules
uiils believeu theii paients woulu giant them autonomy at a latei age than boys
uiu
Theie was somewhat moie conflict with motheis than fatheis, but iegaiuless of
genuei, ethnic gioup, oi age, conflict was low with both motheis anu fatheis
Fuglini's stuuy shows that -

Paient teen conflict is coiielateu with othei signs of stiess -
They also iepoiteu gieatei hopelessness, lowei self esteem, anu lowei life
satisfaction
Teens who iepoiteu moie conflict hau highei levels of school misconuuct, anu moie
antisocial behavioi
-
Conflict uecieaseu when paients accuiately peiceiveu theii teens' cognition anu affect -
Auolescents spenu moie time with peeis than uoing any othei activity anu
iuentify moie with peeis than auults
Noie likely in Noith Ameiica than Euiope oi Asia, wheie teens have a stiongei
emphasis on family
Teens like to spenu time hanging out with theii fiienus -

Auolescent fiienuships aie moie intimate than at pievious ages anu involve gieatei
shaiing of pioblems anu bettei mutual unueistanuing
-
In choosing fiienus, auolescents tenu to select peeis who aie similai to themselves -
The amount of time spenu with a gioup uecieases anu time spent with inuiviuual
fiienus incieases
-
Peei ielations play a pait in sepaiating fiom paients anu establishing one's own
iuentity
-
Bowevei, peei piessuie against committing misueeus can typically have
stiongei effects in inhibiting misconuuct
Peei piessuie incieases the iisk of misconuuct such as cheating anu skipping school -
;''( -.6 8("'.6#0"> 2'3-4"%.#0">#
Adu|thood
Young auults aie at the peak of theii physical, sexual, anu peiceptual functioning -
Nax muscle stiength is ieach at age 2S to Su -
Eg. visual fielus begin to shiink in the 2us anu late auulthoou causes tunnel
vision
Physical status typically uecline at miu life -

Nuscle become weakei anu stiffei -
Basal metabolic iate, iate at which bouy conveits foou into eneigy, slows anu
piouuces a tenuency to gain weight
-
Women go thiough menopause anu men's feitility giauually ueclines in miuule age -
In young auulthoou, 8u% of the young auult's bouy is lean bouy mass (bone, muscle,
oigans) while by age 7u, this has become Su-Su
-
By age 9u, the biain has lost S to 1u% of its eaily auult weight uue to loss of neuions
as we age
-
hys|ca| Deve|opment
Nany theoiists claim that a fifth cognitive stage exists calleu >%#4 +%(9-3 40%1<04 in
which people can ieason logically about opposing points of view anu accept
-
which people can ieason logically about opposing points of view anu accept
contiauiction anu ieconcilable uiffeiences
;'($'>41-3 #>''6 (ieaction time) ueclines steauily aftei the miu thiities
H'9%() +%( M': 8-$41-3 F.+%(9-4"%. ueclines uuiing auulthoou anu finu it
moie uifficult to iemembei new seiies of numbeis, names anu faces
A>-4"-3 H'9%() ueclines with age (wheie things anu places aie), iemains
constant in auulthoou but staits to uecline in the sixties
2'$-33 ueclines moie stiongly than iecognition

Cognitive function ueclines thioughout miuule anu late auulthoou -
F.+%(9-4"%. ;(%$'##".< -.6 H'9%()
IQ scoies begin to uecline noticeably beginning between age Su anu 4u -
831"6 ".4'33"<'.$'R such as inuuctive ieasoning anu spatial oiientation, ueclineu
steauily aftei age
=()#4-3"C'6 F.4'33"<'.$', such as memoiizing facts, peakeu aiounu miuule

auulthoou anu begin to uecline in late auulthoou
In a Cioss sectional ieseaich: -

It is questionable whethei oluei auult actually have less fluiu intelligence oi they lack
it because they may have hau less exposuie to scientific pioblem solving in school
-
Nost abilities aie ielatively stable oi incieases slightly thioughout auulthoou
Longituuinal anu cioss sectional stuuies both show that fluiu intelligences begin
to uecline at a gage eailiei than the ciystallize intelligence
Schaie et al. ian a longituuinal stuuy that showeu that theie is not eaily uecline in
eithei fluiu oi ciystallizeu intelligence
-
Age causes a slowei iesponse anu may take longei to leain something -
F.4'33'$41-3 =0-.<'#
The peiceiveu uecline is heavily influenceu by ceitain auults who hau
uispiopoitionately high intellectual ueclines
-
7u% of paiticipants maintaineu theii level of function between 67 anu 74, 6S%
maintaineu it between 74 anu 81
-
People with above aveiage euucation, cognitively stimulating job, maiiying an
euucateu spouse, anu hau stimulating hobbies aie moie likely to maintain theii
intelligence
-
Low physical activity levels weie associateu with cognitive uecline, especially in fluiu
intelligence
-
0ne stuuy got seniois to play Tetiis five houis a week foi S weeks, anu afteiwaius,
they hau bettei ieaction speeus than those who uiu not play
-
K#' "4 %( G%#' "47 H-".4-".".< =%<."4"&' 81.$4"%.".<
Wisuom is uefineu as having basic knowleuge about human natuie anu social
ielationships; having pioceuuial knowleuge to make uecisions, give goou auvice, anu
hanule conflicts; unueistanuing past, piesent anu futuie aspects of ielationships
between family fiienus anu people at woik; being able to ueal with unceitainty, given
that the futuie can't be fully known
-
It showeu that wisuom iose steauily fiom 1S to 2S anu then iemaining ielatively
stable thiough age 7S
0luei auults (aveiage 7S) uisplayeu supeiioi social ieasoning

In a test, paiticipants weie given a situation to assess -
This stuuy is cioss sectional anu only longituuinal stuuies can solve this pioblem
piopeily
-
N36'( D14 P"#'(O
Auults follow a #%$"-3 $3%$V, a set of cultuial noims conceining the optimal age iange -
Soc|a| and ersona||ty Deve|opment
Auults follow a #%$"-3 $3%$V, a set of cultuial noims conceining the optimal age iange
foi woik, maiiiage, paienthoou, anu othei majoi life expeiiences
-
Reseaicheis view auult social uevelopment as a piogiession thiough age ielateu
stages
-
This is a peiiou when many people foi close fiienuships, fall in love, anu maiiy
Young auults go thiough ".4"9-$) &# "#%3-4"%. wheie they choose to open
themselves to anothei peison to foim close ielationships
-
People achieve geneiativity by uoing things foi othei people such as iaising
chiluien anu volunteeiing
Niuule auulthoou biings issues of <'.'(-4"&"4) &# #4-<.-4"%. -

They ieview the meaning of theii life
Some will feel a sense of completion anu success while othei iegiet not living
theii lives in a moie meaningful way
Auults ovei 6u accentuates the ".4'<("4) &# 6'#>-"( ciisis -

A4-<'# -.6 =("4"$-3 5&'.4#
Successful maiiiages aie chaiacteiizeu by emotional closeness anu physical intimacy,
positive communication anu pioblem solving, agieement on basic values anu
expectations, anu a willingness to accept anu suppoit changes in the paitnei
-
=%0-D"4-4"%.
Living togethei without being maiiieu -
In families 71% aie maiiieu, 14% aie common law, 1S% aie single paient families -
The piobability of maiiiage fiom cohabitation uepenus paitly on the socioeconomic
status of the man
-
Not causal, those who cohabit befoie maiiiage aie uiffeient psychologically
Piemaiital cohabitation is associateu with a highei iisk of maiital uiscoiu anu
subsequent uivoice
-
P0-4Q# 3%&' <%4 4% 6% :"40 "4O =1341(' -.6 9-(("-<'
Stuuy shows that people fiom Westein countiies aie less likely to uo so while
pooiei countiies aie moie in favoi of the iuea
Suppose a peison has eveiything you want in a mate, but you uiu not love them,
woulu you maiiy them.
-
Stuuents fiom collectivistic countiies aie moie likely to believe that love is a
pieiequisite to maiiiage
-
H-("4-3 #-4"#+-$4"%.R >-('.40%%6R -.6 40' '9>4) .'#4
Naiiiage satisfaction uecline in the fiist few yeais -
Women aie moie likely to leave theii jobs, spenu moie time paienting, anu feel
that theii spouse is not helping enough
Bisagieement of laboi uivision anu paienting is a majoi contiibutoi in maiital

satisfaction
Naiital satisfaction uecieases in the yeai oi two aftei the fiist chilu is boin -
Longituuinal stuuies uiu not finu a iebounu in late auulthoou maiital satisfaction
anu poses a challenge to the myth of the empty nest
% of couples iepoiting that they aie veiy satisfieu typically is highest befoie oi just as
the fiist chilu is boin, uiops in chilu ieaiing yeais, anu incieases in the yeais aftei all
the chiluien have left home
-
Naiiieu people aie happiei, have lowei iates of chionic illness, uepiession, anu stiess
anu live longei than unmaiiieu auults
-
B44-$09'.4 2'&"#"4'6
Attachment foi auults is similai to infants in that they aie uisplayeu in secuie,
avoiuant, anu iesistant attachment styles
-
Auults with a uispiopoitionate behavioial pioblems have a histoiy of insecuie -
H-(("-<' -.6 8-9"3)
Auults with a uispiopoitionate behavioial pioblems have a histoiy of insecuie
attachment
-
5#4-D3"#0".< - =-(''(
A caieei makes us money but also uefines a pait of who we aie -
Woik gives us an outlet foi achievement anu feelings of success, gives us stiuctuie,
counteiacts boieuom, anu is a significant souice of social inteiaction
-
In chiluhoou till the miu twenties, we entei a giowth stage of caieei inteiests wheie
we foim initial impiessions about the types of jobs we woulu oi woulu not want to uo
-
This is followeu by the 'E>3%(-4"%. #4-<' wheie we foim tentative iueas about a
piefeiieu caieei anu puisue the necessaiy euucation oi tiaining
-
Nany univeisity stuuents cannot accuiately pieuict theii futuie occupation -
Fiom miu twenties to miu foities, people entei an '#4-D3"#09'.4 >0-#' uuiing
which they begin to make theii maik
-
People like to change caieeis at least once aftei giauuating fiom univeisity -
0luei woikeis tenu to be moie satisfieu than youngei woikeis
By the enu of that peiiou, people entei a 9-".4'.-.$' #4-<' that continue thiough
the iest of miuule anu late auulthoou
-
Youngei woikeis aie moie inteiesteu in salaiy anu auvancement while oluei woikeis
seek job secuiity
-
In the 6'$3".' #4-<'R one's investment in woik tenus to ueciease anu we eventually
ietiie
-
This is piimaiily uue to chilubiith
Can also be causeu by having to caie foi elueily paients
Women goes thiough ".4'((%3' $%.+3"$4 wheie they tiy to juggle the uemanus of
caieei anu family
All maiiieu women expeiience caieei gaps oi postponeu a caieei until theii thiities
foi family ieasons
-
H"6/3"+' =("#"#
They begin to focus on moitality anu iealize that some of theii life's uieams
peitaining to caieei, family, anu ielationships woulu not come tiue
Levinson's longituuinal stuuy of 8S men anu women founu that many expeiienceu a
tuibulent miu life tiansition between age 4u anu 4S
-
Satisfaction with life uiu not vaiy with age
People in miuule age uiu not have highei iates of uivoice, suiciue, uepiession , oi
feelings of meaninglessness, oi emotional instability
0veiall, theie is no tuimoil filleu ciisis in miu life -

2'4"('9'.4 -.6 J%36'. f'-(#
Nany oluei auults look foiwaiu to ietiiement to moie leisuie time, volunteei woik,
anu othei woik oppoitunities
-
Noie likely to ietiie if spouse was not woiking anu maiiiage was satisfying
Becision to ietiie uepenus on feelings about the job, leisuie inteiests, physical health
anu family ielationships
-
!'-40 -.6 !)".<
!'."-37 iefusal to cope with impenuing ueath !.
B.<'( ?.
,-(<-".".<7 Please let me live to see my gianu chilu 3.
!'>('##"%. 1.
B$$'>4-.$'7 iesigning to a sense of peacefulness .
Teiminally ill patients expeiience stages as they cope with impenuing ueath -
This is not the coiiect way to face ueath anu is not expeiienceu by eveiybouy -
Elueily people aie moie accepting of theii own ueaths than any othei age gioup -
Elueily people aie moie accepting of theii own ueaths than any othei age gioup -
Soc|a| 1h|nk|ng and ercept|on
Eg. Biu Bill ciiticize Cail because he is iuue, oi was he piovokeu.
In eveiyuay life we often make -44("D14"%.#R juugments about the causes of oui own
anu othei people's behavioi
-
;'(#%.-3 &'(#1# A"41-4"%.-3 B44("D14"%.#
;'(#%.-3 S".4'(.-3T -44("D14"%.# infei that people's behavioi is causeu by theii
chaiacteiistics
A"41-4"%.-3 S'E4'(.-3T -44("D14"%.# infei that aspects of the situation cause a

behavioi
To unueistanu the way people behave, it involves eithei peisonal oi situational

attiibutions
-
=%.#"#4'.$)7 if the iesponse is consistent ovei time !.
!"#4".$4"&'.'##7 Is Ait the only class she finus boiing, oi uoes she finu all
hei classes boiing.
?.
=%.#'.#1#7 Bow uo othei people iesponu. Bo othei stuuents finu Ait class
boiing.
3.
S types of infoimation ueteimine the attiibution we make Eg. Kim finuing Ait class
boiing)
-
If all iesponses aie high, then the couise is actually teiiible (situational attiibution) -
If consistency is high, but uistinctiveness anu consensus is low, then Kim is oveily
ciitical
-
B44("D14"%.-3 ,"-#'#
Eg. When tolu stuuents to ieau a passage against oi foi Castio, anu tolu them
that theii position was chosen by the uebate coach, the stuuents believeu that it
was the still the position of the wiitei. The ieaueis uon't pay sufficient attention
to this situational factoi
81.6-9'.4-3 -44("D14"%. '((%(7 we unueiestimate the impact of the situation anu

oveiestimate the iole of peisonal factois when explaining othei people's behavioi
-
When people have time to ieflect on theii juugments oi aie highly motivateu to be
caieful, the funuamental attiibution eiioi is ieuuceu
-
Bepiesseu people, often uisplay the opposite attiibutional pattein, taking too
little cieuit foi success anu too much cieuit foi failuie
When explaining oui own behavioi we tenu to piotect oui self esteem by uisplaying a
#'3+/#'(&".< D"-#: making ielatively moie peisonal attiibutions foi successes anu
moie situational attiibutions foi failuie
-
=1341(' -.6 B44("D14"%.
Cultuial influences affect how we peiceive the social woilu -
Nany stuuies show that attiibution behaviois aie unique of the Westeinizeu woilu -
Nouesty is highly valueu in China anu univeisity stuuents take less cieuit foi
theii success
Cultuie influences oui own behavioi -

8%(9".< -.6 H-".4-".".< F9>('##"%.#
;("9-$) &# 2'$'.$)7 B(' 8"(#4 F9>('##"%.# H%(' F9>%(4-.4O
;("9-$) '++'$4 iefeis to oui tenuency to attach moie impoitance to the initial
infoimation that we leain about a peison
-
B44("D14"%.7 ;'($'"&".< 40' =-1#'# %+ ,'0-&"%(
Chaptei 16: Behavioi in a Social Context
lebruary-12-11
2:33 M
We tenu to be most aleit to infoimation we peiceive fiist
Initial infoimation may shape how we peiceive subsequent infoimation
New infoimation can change oui opinion but it has to woik haiuei to oveicome
the initial impiession because
Eg. If an athlete with high expectations foi him peifoims below aveiage, the
coach can attiibute it to fatigue, uiop in motivation, insteau of his intiinsic ability
infoimation that we leain about a peison

Foiming quick juugments was helpful in evolution because it helps us uistinguish
fiienu fiom foe
-
2'$'.$) '++'$4# take ovei as piimacy effect uecieases anu we place gieatei
impoitance on iecent infoimation
-
H'.4-3 A'4# -.6 A$0'9-#7 A''".< P0-4 P' 5E>'$4 4% A''
Eg. When you meet a peison who is uesciibeu as colu, aloof, anu uistant, you view the
peison that way if he uoesn't talk much anu avoiu eye contact. If you uesciibeu the
peison as shy, the same behavioi can be attiibuteu to shyness.
-
The uesciiption of the peison cieates a schema about how the peison is likely to
behave
-
Eg. When paiticipants weie askeu to juuge the potential anu intelligence of a giil,
they weie eithei tolu she comes fiom an uppei miuule class white collai family
oi a lowei class blue collai family. People juugeu hei abilities lowei thought she
came fiom the lattei. These paiticipants steieotypeu the uiffeient classes of
paients
A #4'('%4)>' is a geneialize belief about a gioup oi categoiy of people anu is a

poweiful type of schema
-
A'3+/813+"33".< ;(%>0'$"'#7 =('-4".< P0-4 P' 5E>'$4 4% A''
Bis ieaction may have come fiom youi behavioi
Eg. The peison uesciibeu as colu, uistant, anu aloof. Youi behavioi towaiu him
may change in subtle ways such as smiling less, stanuing fuithei away, oi giving
up eailiei.
A #'3+ +13+"33".< >(%>0'$) is when people's eiioneous expectations leau them to act
towaiu otheis in a way that biings about the expecteu behavioi
-
An B44"416' is a positive oi negative evaluative ieaction towaiu a stimulus, such as a
peison, action, object, oi concept
-
!% N1( B44"416'# F.+31'.$' N1( ,'0-&"%(
A Chinese couple tiaveleu to ovei 2uu hotels but was only uenieu seivice one. When
latei askeu, 9u% stateu that they woulu not seive Chinese people in theii hotel.
-
It appeais that theie is little eviuence that attituues pieuict behavioi -
Stephan Kiaus concluueu that attituues pieuict behavioi in a mouest uegiee -
S factois help explain attituue anu behavioi -
Financial incentives, confoimity anu obeuience piessuie may leau people to
behave in ways that aie at ouus with theii innei conviction
The 40'%() %+ >3-..'6 D'0-&"%( is that oui intention to engage in behavioi is

stiongest when we have a positive attituue towaiu that behavioi
When subject noims (what othei people think we shoulu uo) suppoit oui
attituues anu we believe that the behavioi is unuei contiol we aie most likely to
elicit the behavioi
Attituues influence behavioi moie stiongly when counteiacting situational factois aie
weak
!.
Attituues have a gieatei influence on oui behavioi when we aie awaie of them anu
when they aie stiongly helu
?.
ueneial attituues aie bettei at pieuicting geneial classes of behavioi, anu specific 3.
B44"416'# -.6 B44"416' =0-.<'
ueneial attituues aie bettei at pieuicting geneial classes of behavioi, anu specific
attituues aie bettei at pieuicting specific behaviois
3.
!%'# N1( ,'0-&"%( F.+31'.$' N1( B44"416'#O
We uevelop attituues that aie consistent with the way we behave -
Eg. Stuuents weie askeu to uo an extiemely boiing expeiiment anu then hau to tell
the next paiticipant that the expeiiment was veiy inteiesting. They weie eithei given
$1, $2u, oi no money foi it. Afteiwaiu, they weie askeu to iate theii expeiiment.
-
Those who ieceiveu $1 hau the gieatest iating of task enjoyableness -
When two oi moie cognitions contiauict, the peison expeiiences $%<."4"&'
6"##%.-.$' anu becomes motivateu to ieuuce it (eg. I am a tiustful peison anu I
just tolu anothei stuuent a boiing task was inteiesting)
It pieuicts that in oiuei to ieuuce uissonance, people will change one of theii
cognitions oi auu new cognitions
Those given $2u uollais aie auuing the cognition that $2u justifies the lie
Those give $1 uollai hau no ieal monetaiy gains anu convinceu themselves the
task was enjoyable to biing theii cognition in line with theii lie
The 40'%() %+ $%<."4"&' 6"##%.-.$' states that people stiive foi consistency in theii
cognition
-
It only piouuces uissonance if oui actions aie baseu on fiee will anu not coeicion
Bissonance is maximizeu when the behavioi thieatens oui sense of self woith oi
piouuces negative consequences that weie foieseeable
Behavioi inconsistent with oui attituue is calleu $%1.4'(-44"416".-3 D'0-&"%( -

People can ieuuce theii uissonance by iationalizing theii attituues, oi making
excuses
Bissonance uoes not always leau to attituue change -

A'3+/;'($'>4"%.
People infei otheis' attituues by obseiving how they behave -
The #'3+ >'($'>4"%. 40'%() states that we make infeiences abut oui own attituues in
obseiving how we behave
-
0ne obseives how one has acteu, anu infei how one must have felt to have behaveu in
this fashion
-
When stuuents weie askeu to wiite something goou about a nasty tasting uiink,
they showeu gieatei physiological aiousal
The uissonance theoiy assumes that we expeiience heighteneu physiological aiousal

(tension piouuceu by uissonance) when we engage in counteiattituuinal behavioi
-
Reseaich shows that the uissonance theoiy bettei explains why people change theii
views aftei behaving in ways that openly contiauict theii attituues
-
When the counteiattituuinal behavioi uoes not thieaten one's self image, it cieates
less aiousal
-
;'(#1-#"%.
When a $%991."$-4%( ueliveis a 9'##-<' thiough a $0-..'3 to an -16"'.$' within
a suiiounuing $%.4'E4
-
=%991."$-4%( $('6"D"3"4) is how believable the communicatoi is anu is essential in
effective peisuasion
-
Those who aie an expeit, piesenting a tiuth, anu piesenting a point contiaiy to
his oi hei inteiest is the most peisuasive
Cieuibility has 2 majoi components: 'E>'(4"#' anu 4(1#4:%(40".'## -

Communicatois who aie attiactive, likable, anu similai to us also peisuaue us moie
effectively
-
0veiall, a 4:% #"6'6 ('+14-4"%.-3 ->>(%-$0 (piesent a siue anu then iefuting the
oppositions aigument) is moie effective
-
0veiall 9%6'(-4' 6'<('' %+ 6"#$('>-.$) with the auuience is bettei than taking an -
The moie expeit anu cieuible the communicatoi, the most uisciepant the
aigument can be
0veiall 9%6'(-4' 6'<('' %+ 6"#$('>-.$) with the auuience is bettei than taking an
extieme
-
?0' B16"'.$'
Theie aie two ioutes to peisuasion, $'.4(-3 (%14' 4% >'(#1-#"%. wheie people think
caiefully about the message anu aie influence because they finu the aiguments
compelling. The >'(">0'(-3 (%14' 4% >'(#1-#"%. occuis when people uo not
sciutinize the message, but aie influenceu by the speakei's attiactive ness oi the
message's emotional appeal
-
The cential ioute is moie effective when it will actually affect us in some way -
Some enjoy analyzing issues, otheis piefei not to spenu much mental effoit
People uiffei in theii neeu foi cognition -
People with a low neeu foi cognition aie moie stiongly influenceu by peiipheial cues
such as attiactiveness of the speakei
-
Soc|a| Inf|uence
Bikeis ioue fastei in a competition than against a clock
Stuuies inuicate that the meie piesence of a coactoi oi a passive, silent auuience tenu
to enhance peifoimance
-
Peifoimance on leaining tasks woiseneu when coactois weie piesent -
As aiousal incieases, we become moie likely to peifoim oui uominant iesponse
When a task is uifficult, oui uominant iesponse is to make eiiois, but when the
task is well leaineu oui iesponse is to peifoim the task coiiectly
Zajonc explains that the piesence of otheis incieases oui aiousal -

Piouuces small but ieliable effects on human peifoimance
This is calleu #%$"-3 +-$"3"4-4"%., an incieaseu tenuency to peifoim one's uominant
iesponse in the piesence of otheis
-
?0' H'(' ;('#'.$' %+ N40'(#
Some aie laws, but otheis aie unspoken iules
A%$"-3 .%(9# aie shaieu expectations about how people shoulu think, feel, anu
behave
-
Eg. Spouse, policemen, piofessoi
A%$"-3 (%3'# aie a set of noims that chaiacteiizes how people in a given social
position ought to behave
-
2%3' $%.+3"$4 can occui when noims accompanying uiffeient ioles clash -
=1341(' -.6 M%(9 8%(9-4"%.
Even ianuom gioups can foim noims -
When people weie put into uiffeient expeiiments anu uiscusseu theii expeiience,
theii ietelling of theii expeiience conveigeu anu foimeu a gioup noim
-
A%$"-3 M%(9#7 ?0' 213'# %+ 40' J-9'
=%.+%(9"4) is the aujustment of inuiviuual behaviois, attituues, anu beliefs to a gioup
stanuaiu
-
P0) !% ;'%>3' =%.+%(9
F.+%(9-4"%.-3 #%$"-3 ".+31'.$' is when we believe that otheis have accuiate
knowleuge anu that what they aie uoing is iight
-
M%(9-4"&' #%$"-3 ".+31'.$' is the awaiu that comes fiom being accepteu by othei
people while avoiuing theii iejection
-
Some of the confeueiates gave wiong answeis on puipose to see if the
In Asch's line expeiiment, a gioup weie askeu to uo a simple visual task, but only one
peison was a ieal paiticipant
-
=%.+%(9"4) -.6 ND'6"'.$'
Some of the confeueiates gave wiong answeis on puipose to see if the
paiticipant confoims to the obvious wiong answei
14 of the paiticipants nevei confoimeu, 14 confoimeu fiequently, anu the iest

confoimeu once oi a few times
0veiall, paiticipants confoimeu S7% of the time

Paiticipants suiveyeu afteiwaius wanteu to avoiu making waves anu avoiu
iejection
8-$4%(# ?0-4 B++'$4"&' =%.+%(9"4)

Bowevei, fuithei gioup size inciease uiu not make a uiffeience
uioup size: confoimity incieaseu fiom about S to SS% as gioup size incieaseu fiom 1
to S oi 4 confeueiates
-
Piesence of a uissentei: When one confeueiate uisagieeu with the otheis, this gieatly
ieuuces the ieal paiticipants' confoimity even if the uissentei gave an incoiiect
answei
-
If money was given foi coiiect answeis, canuiuates aie less likely to confoim -
Fiom 19Su to 199u, the oveiall level of confoimity has uecieaseu -
Confoimity tenus to be gieatei among ieseaich paiticipants fiom collectivist cultuies -
H".%("4) F.+31'.$'
Bissenting minoiity may cause the majoiity membeis to change theii view, at
least on a piivate level
Ninoiity influence is stiongest when it maintains a highly consistent ovei time

Ninoiity influence is the stiongest when it is veiy committeu to its point of view -
ND'6"'.$' 4% B140%("4)
Theie seems to be a tiansfei of iesponsibility when someone gives you an malevolent
oiuei anu you aie likely to follow it if it came fiom an authoiity figuie
-
8-$4%(# ?0-4 F.+31'.$' !'#4(1$4"&' ND'6"'.$'
Remoteness of the victim: If the leainei was out of sight, the teachei was moie likely
to shock him
-
Closeness anu legitimacy of the authoiity figuie: obeuience was highest when the
authoiity figuie was close anu peiceiveu as legitimate
-
0beuience incieases when someone else uoes the uiity woik
Cog in a wheel: If the paiticipant only hau to peifoim some othei aspect of the task
anu is not the one flipping the switch
-
Peisonal chaiacteiistics: Religion, affiliation, occupation, euucation, length of militaiy
seivice, anu psychological chaiacteiistics of obeuient vs uisobeuient paiticipants, but
uiffeiences weie weak oi non-existent
-
G'##%.# G'-(.'67 8(%9 40' @%3%$-1#4 4% B"(3".' A-+'4)
By aiianging situations appiopiiately, most people can be inuuceu to follow oiueis
fiom an authoiity they peiceive as legitimate, even when theii actions haim innocent
people
-
Buiing the holocaust, each Nazi felt as though they weie cogs in a wheel anu lessens
theii peisonal iesponsibility foi mass muiuei
-
!'4'$4".< -.6 2'#"#4".< =%9>3"-.$' ?'$0."W1'#
Compliance techniques aie stiategies that may manipulate you into saying yes when
you want to say no
-
0sing unsoliciteu favois in hopes you will feel piessuieu to iesponu in kinu
M%(9 %+ 2'$">(%$"4) involves the expectation that when otheis tieat us well, we
shoulu iesponu in kinu
-
The seconu iequest becomes like a compiomise foi the initial iequest anu
!%%(/"./40'/+-$' 4'$0."W1'7 a peisuauei makes a laige iequest expecting iejection,
anu then piesents a smallei iequest
-
The seconu iequest becomes like a compiomise foi the initial iequest anu
iefusal of the fiist may make you feel guilty
Asking foi a small iequest fiist anu then follow up with a laigei one
Bettei than uiiectly asking foi the laigei iequest
8%%4/"./40'/6%%( 4'$0."W1'# -
Telling a cai is $8uuu, but asks the managei anu says he can only sell it foi
$84uu
Baving committeu, one feels easiei to iationalize the auueu costs anu feel
obligateu to the peison to whom you've maue the commitment
G%:D-33".<7 peisuauei commits you peifoim a behavioi, but iight befoie the
behavioi, he incieases the cost of that same behavioi
-
Theie aie many cases wheie ciowus tell a uistiesseu peison to jump fiom a tall
builuing
-
uustav LeBon suggesteu that the anonymity that exists in mobs leaus to a loss of
peisonal iuentity anu a weakening of iestiaint that piompt people to peifoim
behavioi they woulu not inuiviuually - this is known as 6'".6"&"61-4"%.
-
Anonymity outsiue the gioup enhances the inuiviuual's iuentity with the gioup
anu to confoim with gioup noims
Anonymity to outsiueis was the key, conuitions that make an inuiviuual feel less
iuentifiable to people outsiue the gioup ieuuce feelings of accountability
-
People weie moie likely to encouiage a potential suiciue jump when the gioup was
laige anu it was uaik outsiue
-
In the Stanfoiu Piison Stuuy, the guaius became moie ciuel anu tough when they
iuentify with othei guaius
-
Reuucing anonymity anu incieasing public accountability may be the most basic
appioach to counteiacting ueinuiviuuation
-
=(%:6 ,'0-&"%( -.6 !'".6"&"61-4"%.
A%$"-3 G%-+".<7 8-"3".< 4% ;133 )%1( N:. P'"<04
When in a laigei gioup, theie is a ueficit between theii auueu peisonal effoit
anu total gioup effoit
Ringelmann stuuieu how much weight a man can pull -

The tenuency foi people to expenu less inuiviuual effoit when woiking in a gioup
than woiking alone is calleu #%$"-3 3%-+".<
-
0n a collective task people will put foith effoit only to the extent that they expect
theii effoit to contiibute to obtaining a valueu goal
People believe that inuiviuual peifoimance within the gioup is not being
monitoieu
The task (goal) has less value oi meaning to the peison

The gioup is less impoitant to the peison
The task is simple anu the peison's input is ieuunuant with that of othei
gioup membeis
Social loafing is moie likely to occui when:

Collective effoit mouel: -
Fatigue incieases with social loafing anu we aie moie likely to fieeloau of the gioup
when we aie tiieu
-
Inuiviuualistic cultuies exhibit moie social loafing than people fiom collective
cultuies
-
All male gioups uisplay stiongei loafing than all female gioups oi mixeu sex gioups,
possibly because women aie moie conceineu with gioup outcome
-
The whole is less than the sum of its paits -
Social loafing uisappeais when inuiviuual peifoimance is monitoieu oi when -
J(%1> F.+31'.$'# %. ;'(+%(9-.$' -.6 !'$"#"%. H-V".<
Social loafing uisappeais when inuiviuual peifoimance is monitoieu oi when
membeis highly value theii gioup oi the task goal
-
0n the othei enu, some membeis may engage in social compensation wheie they will
woik haiuei in a gioup than alone if they expect that theii colleagues uon't have the
ability oi will slack off
-
J(%1> ;%3-("C-4"%.7 J%".< 4% 5E4('9'#
uioups aie often calleu upon to make uecisions because they aie moie conseivative
anu less likely to go off the ueep enu
-
Theii final attituue is likely to be moie conseivative
This is tiue only if the gioup membeis aie conseivative to begin with -
Bowevei, if the gioup's view is moie libeial anu iiskiei, the gioup's uecision tenus to
be moie libeial oi iiskiei
-
This is known as <(%1> >%3-("C-4"%.: when a gioup of like minueu people uiscuss
anu issue, the aveiage opinion of gioup membeis tenus to become moie extieme
-
M%(9-4"&' #%$"-3 ".+31'.$' is that inuiviuuals who aie attiacteu to a gioup may be
motivateu to auopt a moie extieme position to gain the gioup's appioval
-
The F.+%(9-4"%. #%$"-3 ".+31'.$' is when people heai aiguments suppoiting theii
cause that they have not heaiu befoie which valiuates oiiginal position
-
J(%1>40".V7 A1#>'.6".< =("4"$-3 ?0".V".<
The tenuency foi gioup membeis to suspenu ciitical thinking because they aie
stiiving to seek agieement
-
Is unuei high stiess to ieach a uecision
Is insulateu fiom outsiue input
Bas a uiiective leauei who piomotes his oi hei peisonal agenua
Bas high cohesion, ieflecting a spiiit of closeness anu ability to woik well
togethei
uioup think is moie likely to occui when a gioup -

Some membeis aie unuei uiiect piessuie to stop iocking the boat -
Some seive as minu guaius be pieventing negative infoimation fiom ieaching the
gioup
-
The membeis begin to uisplay self censoiship which cieates an illusion of unanimity
in which each membei comes to believe that eveiyone else seems to agiee with the
uecision
-
Soc|a| ke|at|ons
P0) !% P' B++"3"-4'
0ffeis gieatei access to sexual mates, moie piotection fiom pieuatois, laboi
uivision, anu the passing of knowleuge
Some theoiists aigue that ovei the couise of evolution, inuiviuuals who aie
pieuisposeu to affiliate aie moie likely to suivive anu iepiouuce than those who weie
ieclusive
-
A%$"-3 $%9>-("#%.7 compaiing oui beliefs, feelings, anu behaviois to those of
othei people to help us ueteimine whethei we aie eliciting a noimal iesponse
Ciaig Bill suggests that, psychologically, we affiliate foi 4 basic ieason: to obtain
positive stimulation, ieceive emotional suppoit, to gain attention, anu to peimit social
compaiison
-
0niveisity stuuents who scoieu high on a peisonality test of .''6 +%( -++"3"-4"%.
maue moie fiienus uuiing the semestei than stuuents who scoieu low
-
People with high neeu foi affiliation shows stiongei psychological sense of
community, the feeling of being pait of a laigei collective anu being engageu with
-
B++"3"-4"%. -.6 F.4'(>'(#%.-3 B44(-$4"%.
community, the feeling of being pait of a laigei collective anu being engageu with
otheis in puisuing common goals
Noie likely to bonu with stiangei aftei majoi uisasteis
Feai inuucing situations inciease oui uesiie to be with otheis
0pen heait suigeiy patients piefei othei ioommates who hau open heait
suigeiy
We piefei to be with people who have been thiough the same feaiful situation
Situational factois can affect oui tenuency to affiliate -
F."4"-3 B44(-$4"%.
Attiaction is the fiist step in most fiienuship anu iomantic ielationships -
Stuuents in fixeu seating is moie likely to make new fiienus with stuuents
neaiby
We inteiact with people who aie physically closei (pioximity) -

H'(' 'E>%#1(' '++'$47 iepeateu exposuie to a stimuli typically incieases oui liking
foi it as long as they aie not unpleasant anu we aie not oveisatuiateu
-
This might be because we like the fact that people with similai attituues valiuate
oui view of the woilu
People aie most often attiacteu to otheis who aie similai to themselves incluuing
psychological attiibutes, similaiity of attituues, beliefs, anu values
-
When opposite people attiact, it is typically foi a shoit peiiou of time anu what we
finu appealing now can be founu unappealing in the futuie
-
Reinfoiceu by populai meuia
This may be causeu by the steieotype that "what is beautiful is goou" anu we
assume that attiactive people have moie positive peisonality chaiacteiistics
than unattiactive people
Nen anu women's iateu uesiiability foi a paitnei is highly coiielateu with physical
attiactiveness
-
In movies, goou looking chaiacteis weie poitiayeu as moie intelligent, moial, anu
sociable than less attiactive chaiacteis
-
People aie often juugeu by the company they keep, anu by associating with attiactive
people, we can boost oui self esteem
-
Nost people aie likely to have a uating paitnei whose level of attiactiveness is similai
to oui own - 9-4$0".< '++'$4
-
This coulu be because the moie attiactive people aie matcheu up fiist anu aie taken -
Compaieu to women, men show moie inteiest in shoit teim mating anu peiceive
shoit teim mates as moie uesiiable
-
P0-4 !% H'. -.6 P%9'. A''V ". - H-4'
Nen typically piefei youngei women, wheieas women piefei oluei men -
Nen place gieatei value on a potential mate being physically attiactive anu possessing
goou uomestic skills
-
Women piefei men with mate's eaining potential, status, anu ambitiousness -
Women typically has less powei, lowei wages, anu less access to iesouices than
men uo
Nen aie geneially socializeu as bieauwinneis anu women aie typically

homemakeis
The #%$"-3 #4(1$41(' 40'%() pioposes that men anu women uisplay uiffeient mating
piefeiences because society uiiects them into uiffeient social ioles
-
Self uisclosuie (shaiing inneimost thoughts anu feelings) plays a key iole in
fosteiing close ielationships
The #%$"-3 >'.'4(-4"%. 40'%() states that ielationships piogiess as inteiactions

between people become bioauei, involving moie aieas of theii lives anu ueepei,
involving moie intimate anu peisonally meaningful aieas
-
fosteiing close ielationships
Noie emotional involvement anu extensive self uisclosuie is associateu with

gieatei emotional involvement anu ielationship satisfaction
Rewaius incluue companionship, emotional suppoit, anu satisfaction of othei

neeus
Costs may incluue effoit spent to maintain the ielationship, aiguments anu
conflict, etc.
The outcome is the iewaius minus the costs

The #%$"-3 'E$0-.<' 40'%() states that the couise of a ielationship is goveineu by
the cost anu iewaius the paitneis expeiience
-
Compaiison level: the outcome that a peison has giown to expect in
ielationships anu it influences the peison's satisfaction with the piesent
ielationship
!.
Compaiison level foi alteinatives: focuses on potential alteinatives to the
ielationship anu it influences the peison's uegiee of commitment
?.
0utcomes aie evaluateu against two stanuaius -
S types of love: paiental love, eiotic (sexual) love, self love, love foi humanity, anu
love of uou
-
?)>'# %+ G%&'
;-##"%.-4' 3%&' involves intense emotion, aiousal, anu yeaining foi the paitnei -
=%9>-##"%.-4' 3%&' involves affection, ueep caiing about the paitnei's well being,
anu a commitment to being theie foi otheis
-
Both types contiibute to satisfaction in long teim iomantic ielationships -
Fig 16.26, the tiiangulai theoiy of love -
The 4("-.<13-( 40'%() %+ 3%&' focuses on intimacy, commitment, anu passion -
G%&'
The $%<."4"&' -(%1#-3 9%6'3 %+ 3%&', the passionate component of love has
inteiacting cognitive anu physiological components
-
This mouel suggests that emotional aiousal is actually causeu by othei factois
anu can be misinteipieteu as love
This is known as 4(-.#+'( %+ 'E$"4-4"%.7 aiousal uu to one souice is peiceiveu as

being uue to anothei souice
We expeiience high aiousal in the piesence of someone who we peiceive as attiactive

anu uesiiable
-
When paiticipants aie tolu to go on a biiuge with an attiactive expeiimentei, the
aiousal fiom the biiuge was misinteipieteu as love foi the expeiimentei
-
?0' =%<."4"&' B(%1#-3 H%6'37 P0) !%'# H) @'-(4 ;%1.6
We piejuuge people - uislike them oi holu negative beliefs about them because
they aie a pait of a gioup
;('I16"$' iefeis to a negative attituue towaiu people baseu on theii membeiship in a

gioup
-
!"#$("9".-4"%. iefeis to oveit behavioi: it involves tieating people unfaiily baseu on
the gioup to which they belong
-
N&'(4 -.6 =%&'(4 ;('I16"$'7 @-&' ?"9'# =0-.<'6O
0veit piejuuice has ueclineu ovei the past few uecaues -
As soon as you see each paii, the task is to piess a key as quickly as possible
In theoiy, people woulu ieact quickei if the peiceiveu woius weie associateu
with each othei
uieenwalu uevelopeu the "9>3"$"4 -##%$"-4"%. 4'#4 in which a seiies of woiu paiis
such as black-pleasant anu white-pleasant flasheu on a computei scieen
-
;('I16"$' -.6 !"#$("9".-4"%.
with each othei
A piejuuiceu peison woulu piess black-pleasant slowei than white-pleasant

=%<."4"&' 2%%4# %+ ;('I16"$'
This can help us ieact to the enviionment quickly anu help us pieuict otheis'
behavioi
To oiganize anu simplify oui woilu, we have a noimal peiceptual tenuency to

categoiize objects anu people
-
Categoiization leaus to in gioup anu out gioup peiceptions -
F. <(%1> +-&%("4"#97 a tenuency to favoi in gioup membeis anu attiibutes moie
positively
-
N14<(%1> 6'(%<-4"%.7 a tenuency to attiibute moie negative qualitites to them than
us
-
We tenu to think of people as hispanic oi black anu not theii subgioups such as
Cuban-Ameiican
N14 <(%1> 0%9%<'.'"4)7 out gioup membeis aie moie similai to one anothei than
in gioup membeis
-
Categoiization anu in gioup biases leau us to iesponu quickly to out gioup membeis
baseu on peiceiveu gioup chaiacteiistics - steieotypes - iathei than baseu on theii
inuiviuual chaiacteiistics
-
They can attiibute a black peison's success on special auvantages, tiemenuous
effoit, anu goou luck anu not his intiinsic ability
When someone acts in contiast to theii steieotype, people can eithei change theii
steieotypes oi explain the exception's behavioi in othei ways
-
H%4"&-4"%.-3 2%%4# %+ ;('I16"$'
The ('-3"#4"$ $%.+3"$4 40'%() is that competition foi limiteu iesouices fosteis
piejuuice
-
Piejuuice is stiongei when theie is a peiceiveu thieat to one's in-gioup
Eg. Bisciimination towaiu blacks is not ielateu to peisonal gain, but the belief
that white people as a gioup aie in uangei of being taken ovei
In 0S anu Euiope, hostility towaiu minoiity gioups inciease when economic

conuitions woisen
-
People expiess moie piejuuice aftei theii self esteem is thieateneu
Self esteem is both peison anu in gioup
When someone thieatens the gioup, oui self esteem is thieateneu as well
The #%$"-3 "6'.4"4) 40'%() states that piejuuice stems foim a neeu to enhance oui
self esteem
-
@%: ;('I16"$' =%.+"(9# F4#'3+
The inteiviewei sat fuithei away, conuucteu shoitei inteiviews, anu maue moie
speech eiiois when the applicants weie black
Latei ieseaich shows that when an applicant was tieateu with uisciimination, he
tenueu to make moie speech eiiois, iateu the inteiviewei as less fiienuly anu
was less composeu
This shows that the inteiviewei's initial steieotype causeu the inteiviewei to
peifoim woise which confiims the inteiviewei's initial steieotype
In an expeiiment, a white univeisity paiticipant is askeu to inteiview a black oi white

peison foi a position
-
Eg. uiven that "blacks aie not as intelligent as whites", black univeisity stuuents
who take intelligence tests peifoim woise
A4'('%4)>' 40('-4 pioposes that steieotypes cieate a feai anu self consciousness
among steieotypeu gioup membeis that they will "live up" to othei people's
steieotypes
-
If the test was piesenteu in a neutial way, the peifoimance becomes less
pionounceu
who take intelligence tests peifoim woise
2'61$".< ;('I16"$'
Engage in sustaineu close contact !.
Bave equal status ?.
Woik to achieve a common goal that iequiies coopeiation 3.
Aie suppoiteu by bioauei social noims 1.
5W1-3 #4-41# $%.4-$47 piejuuice between people is most likely to be ieuuceu when
they
-
Bowevei, follow-up stuuies showeu that uesegiegation piogiams uiu not ieuuce
iacial piejuuice anu in some cases even incieaseu
Conuition of equal status is not met, peipetuateu both gioups' negative

steieotypes of one anothei
Peisonal contact between inteigioup membeis uiu not occui

Classioom focuseu on inuiviuual iathei than gioup leaining
Inteigioup contact was not supppoiteu by social noims
Why.
In the case of Biown vs. Boaiu of Euucation, the iuling calleu that school segiegation
baseu solely on iace violates the constitutional iights of iacial minoiities
-
When inteigioup contact was placeu in piopei conuitions wheie multiiacial gioups
helpeu each othei, uisciimination uecieaseu (I"<#-: >(%<(-9T
-
Auopting a common iuentity with each othei also helps ieuuce piejuuice among
gioup membeis
-
P0) !% ;'%>3' @'3>O
Socialization, moueling, anu ieinfoicement play a key iole in fosteiing pio social
behavioi anu attituues
-
The .%(9 %+ ('$">(%$"4) states that we shoulu iecipiocate when otheis tieat us
kinuly
-
The .%(9 %+ #%$"-3 ('#>%.#"D"3"4) states that people shoulu help otheis anu
contiibute to the welfaie of the society
-
Eventually we inteinalize pio-social noims anu values as oui own, enabling
poweiful self ieinfoiceis such as piiue, self-piaise, anu feelings of satisfaction
We aie ieinfoiceu with appioval when we auheie to these noims anu ieceive
uisappioval when we uo not
-
Chiluien aie moie likely to be pio-social when they aie iaiseu by paients with high
moial stanuaius
-
Batson's '9>-40) -34(1"#9 0)>%40'#"# states that altiuism exists anu it is
piouuceu by empathy
B34(1"#9 is the uesiie to aiu anothei without concein foi oneself -

Female stuuent was much moie willing to take the paitnei's place in getting
electiically shockeu if theii values weie similai
Female stuuents' empathy foi anothei female paiticipant was incieaseu oi uecieaseu
by leauing them to believe that hei values weie similai oi uissimilai to theii own
-
Belping them means uecieasing oui own uistiess
The .'<-4"&' #4-4' ('3"'+ 9%6'3 pioposes that high empathy causes us to feel
uistiess when we leain of othei's suffeiing
-
P0'. !% ;'%>3' @'3>O
Bystanuei will not help unless they notice the situation !.
Latane anu Bailey view bystanuei inteivention as a S step piocess -
;(%/A%$"-3 ,'0-&"%(7 @'3>".< N40'(#
Bystanuei will not help unless they notice the situation !.
We uo this by social compaiison, seeing how eveiyone else is ieacting
Beciuing whethei oi not the situation is an emeigency; is someone ieally in
uangei.
?.
Theie is a uiffusion of iesponsibility when othei aie piesent; "if I uon't help then
someone else will"
3.
Self efficacy (confiuence): we believe that oui effoit to help will yielu effective
iesults
1.
Inteivention may not happen if the peiceiveu costs aie too high such as negative
social consequences, appeaiing fooling by acting inappiopiiately
.
Noie inhibition if the stiangeis aie stiangeis anu not fiienus
,)#4-.6'( '++'$47 the piesence of multiple bystanueis inhibits each peison's
tenuency to help
-
People aie moie likely help when they aie in a goou moou -
Assisting otheis easy oui guilt
;('/'E"#4".< <1"34R feeling guilty foi something we iecently uone incieases helping -
0bseiving a 0'3>+13 (%3' 9%6'3 such as uonating bloou, incieases pio-social behavioi -
P0%9 !% P' @'3>O
Similaiity: we tenu to help people that aie similai to us in uiess, attituues, nationality,
oi othei chaiacteiistics
-
uenuei: women aie moie likely to ieceive help than men if the bystanuei is male. Nen
aie women aie equally likely to be helpeu by female bystanueis
-
Peiceiveu iesponsibility: people aie moie likely to ieceive help when theii neeu foi
aiu is vieweu as beyonu theii contiol.
-
This iiiational blaming ieuuces the people's feelings of iesponsibility to help
The I1#4 :%(36 0)>%40'#"# holus that people want to view the woilu as faii, anu they
peiceive that people get what they ueseive to get
-
F.$('-#".< ;(%/#%$"-3 D'0-&"%(
Nixeu iesults; outcome piobably uepenus on the peisonal iewaius that
volunteeis expeiience anu theii incieaseu awaieness of human neeus
Nanuatoiy volunteeiism -
Showing viueo to high school stuuents with othei high school kius giving bloou
incieaseu uonation by 17% vs a noimal appeal to uonation
Exposuie to pio-social mouels -

Beveloping feelings of empathy anu connecteuness help uevelop pio-social behavioi -
Leaining about factois that hinuei bystanuei inteivention may inciease the tenuency
to help someone in uistiess
-
,"%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(# ". B<<('##"%.
Animals can be selectively bieu ovei geneiations to be less aggiessive
Iuentical twins iaiseu in uiffeient householus with uiffeient social enviionments
aie moie similai in theii aggiessive patteins
uenetics paitially explains aggiession -

Aggiession helpeu oui ancestois compete foi mate, foou, anu sheltei which incieases
oui genetic viability
-
Aggiession incieases when the hypothalamus is stimulateu -
Bestiuction of ceitain aieas of the amyguala will ueciease aggiession -
Biffeient foims of aggiession involve uiffeient neuial ciicuits -
Aggiession involves activity of the +(%.4-3 3%D' which plays a iole in impulse contiol -
In humans anu animals with low levels of #'(%4%.". may be moie impulsive -
B<<('##"%.7 @-(9".< N40'(#
In humans anu animals with low levels of #'(%4%.". may be moie impulsive -
In humans, the association between aggiession anu testosteione is weakei anu
less consistent
In animals, highei levels of testosteione contiibute to gieatei social aggiession:

unpiovokeu acts uesigneu to establish a uominance hieiaichy among membeis
-
B&'(#"&' 5.&"(%.9'.4-3 A4"913"7 ,')%.6 8(1#4(-4"%.
Fiustiation is when a stimulus inteifeies with oui piogiess towaiu a goal, often
contiibutes to aggiession
-
Fiustiation inevitably leaus to aggiession !.
All aggiession is the iesult of fiustiation ?.
The +(1#4(-4"%. -<<('##"%. 0)>%40'#"# states that -
Both asseitions have been uispioveu -
People may exhibit uespaii, iesignation, oi othei non aggiessive ways to ueal
with the conflict
Fiustiation uoes inciease the iisk of veibal oi physical aggiession, but it is not the
only outcome
-
Fiustiation can be causeu by a wiue iange of stimuli such as pain, anu piovocation -
When people feel ciowueu anu feel little contiol ovei the situation, they iepoit
highei stiess, which inciease stiess hoimones, anu become less toleiable
towaius fiustiation
Ciowuing can tiiggei aggiession -

Assaults, iapes, family uistuibances, iiots, incieases uuiing the summei months
Beat incieases iisk of fiustiation -
G'-(.".< 4% B<<('##7 2'".+%($'9'.4 -.6 H%6'33".<
Aggiession is influenceu by leaining; if non aggiessive animals aie consistently
victoiious in fights with weakei animals, they become aggiessive
-
If the animal suffeis a seiies of uefeat eaily on, it becomes submissive -
Chiluien become incieasingly aggiessive if a positive outcome was achieveu -
The Bobo uoll expeiiment uemonstiates that chiluien leain how to aggiess fiom
othei iole mouels
-
;#)$0%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(# ". B<<('##"%.
Eg. Blaming the victim foi imagineu wiongs, theieby convincing themselves that
the victim ueseiveu it
Behumanize the victims

Believing that otheis aie uoing moie iepulsive things
People uevelop seveial types of #'3+/I1#4"+"$-4"%. to make it psychologically easiei to
aggiess towaiu otheis
-
The -44("D14"%. %+ ".4'.4"%.-3"4) affects how we iesponu to piovocation -
If we peiceive that someone's negative behavioi towaiu us was intenueu oi
contiollable, we aie moie likely to become angiy anu ietaliate
-
0ui uegiee of '9>-40) foi otheis influence how we ieact to piovocation -
If someone offenus us anu apologizes, oui likelihoou of foigiving uepenus on how
much we can unueistanu theii viewpoint
-
People with ieuuceu fiontal lobe activity may impaii theii ability to contiol
aggiessive impulses
People have uiffeient -D"3"4) 4% ('<13-4' '9%4"%.# -

Fieuu believeu that human aggiession is instinctive anu that aggiessive impulses
builu up ovei time anu eventually has to be ieleaseu, anu builus up again
-
In a society that punishes aggiession, to channel it, one must channel them into
=-40-(#"# is an act that uischaiges aggiession anu tempoiaiily ieuuces oui impulse to
aggiess
-
In a society that punishes aggiession, to channel it, one must channel them into
socially acceptable foims of aggiession such as veibal uebates, vigoious
exeicise, spoits, hunting, etc
Anothei way is to uischaige them vicaiiously thiough watching otheis behaving

violently
0vei time as piessuie builus up, they exploue anu eiupt into violence
1u yeai olu boy stabbeu hei sistei 8u times aftei she changeu the channel
Aftei the aggiessive outbuist they ieveit to theii foimei passive state
Sometimes, meek anu unasseitive people commit ciimes anu aie uesciibeu to have
%&'( $%.4(%33'6 0%#4"3"4) showing little immeuiate ieaction to piovocation
-
Reseaich shows that physical exeicise anu watching violent poinogiaphy makes it
easiei foi people to commit violent acts
-
H'6"- L"%3'.$'7 =-40-(#"# &'(#1# A%$"-3 G'-(.".<
Theie is ioughly 8u% chance of violence on Tv channels -
Accoiuing to the psychouynamic theoiy, movie anu Tv violence shoulu be a cathaitic
pot of golu
-
4u% of violent inciuents on Tv weie initiateu by the goou guys whom the
vieweis see as an attiactive iole mouel
7S% of violent scenes containeu no iemoise oi punishment

0nly 1S% poitiayeu long teim negative consequences to violence
Social leaining theoiists believe that it is a souice of moueling foi ciimes -
Bunuieus of stuuies concluue that the social leaining view is geneially coiiect anu
that people act moie violently when theie is a iole mouel
-
Ameiican chiluien who have watcheu gieatei amounts of violence at age 8 is moie
likely to be violent at age Su
-
vieweis leain new aggiessive behaviois thiough moueling
vieweis come to believe that aggiession usually is iewaiueu, oi at least, is iaiely
punisheu
vieweis become uesensitizeu to the sight anu thought of violence

vieweis' feai of becoming a taiget of ciime oi violence incieases
Neuia violence exeits its effects in multiple channels -
Boys tenu to be moie susceptible to meuia violence effects that giils -
Aggiessive behaviois usually occui when theie is a negative stimuli -
The piesence of a cue similai to the movie they weie watching tiiggeis highei iates of
violence
-
;'(#%.-3"4) is the uistinctive anu ielatively enuuiing ways of thinking, feeling, anu
acting
-
[ $0-(-$4'("#4"$#
Components of iuentity that uistinguish a peison fiom otheis !.
Behavioi causeu piimaiily by inteinal factois ?.
Behaviois tenu to fit togethei in a meaningful pattein, suggesting an innei peisonality
that guiues behavioi
3.
What Is ersona||ty?
1he sychodynam|c erspect|ve
Fieuu was convinceu that it hau to uo with painful memoiies anu feelings that
weie iepiesseu oi pusheu out of awaieness
When patients ie-expeiienceu these uieauful memoiies, theii symptoms often

impioveu
Fieuu stuuieu unuei }ean Chaicot in tieat a uisease calleu 1564&'*.56 "7*%&'.# -
Be became awaie of the unconscious minu's iole anu engageu in hypnosis, uieam
analysis, anu fiee association to tiy to tap into it
-
;#)$0"$ 5.'(<) -.6 H'.4-3 5&'.4#
Eg. Sexual eneigy may be ieleaseu thiough sex oi othei activities such as
fantasizing
Instinctive uiives geneiate >#)$0"$ '.'(<)R which poweis the minu anu constantly
piesses foi uiiect oi inuiiect ielease
-
Conscious: mental events that we aie awaie of
Pieconscious: memoiies, thoughts, feelings, anu images that we aie unawaie at
the moment but can be calleu into awaieness
0nconscious: most impoitant pait of the minu; a uynamic iealm of wishes,

feelings, anu impulses that lies beyonu oui awaieness
Nental events can be 156*1.5,*L $'&156*1.5,*L 5' ,6156*1.5,* -

Ireud's sychodynam|c 1heory
Biviueu peisonality into S stiuctuies
Exists totally within the unconscious minu
0nly stiuctuie piesent at biith anu is the souice of all psychic eneigy
0peiates baseu on the >3'-#1(' >(".$">3' anu seeks immeuiate giatification
iegaiuless of iational consiueiations
F6 !.
Piimaiily in the conscious level
2'-3"4) >(".$">3'7 tests ieality anu ueciues when the iu can safely uischaige its
impulses
5<% ?.
Iueals aie inteinalizeu thiough paients anu society
Bevelops at 4 oi S anu is the iepositoiy foi the values anu iueals of society
Stiives to contiol instincts of the iu anu tiies to block out giatification
peimanently
A1>'('<% 3.
?0' A4(1$41(' %+ ;'(#%.-3"4)
Chaptei 12 Notes
March-13-11
10:37 AM
peimanently
Night cause a peison to expeiience guilt when having sex because they have
inteinalizeu the thought that sex is uiity
=%.+3"$4R B.E"'4)R -.6 !'+'.#'

Peisonality is the inteiaction between the iu tiying to uischaige its instinctive
eneigies anu the opposing foices fiom the ego anu supeiego
-
Anxiety causes the ego to ueal with the pioblem at hanu -
When iealistic stiategies fail, ego iesoits to 6'+'.#' 9'$0-."#9# that ueny oi uistoit
ieality
-
Repiession is when the ego pievents anxiety aiousing memoiies, feelings, anu
impulses foim enteiing into consciousness
Repiesseu thoughts can be expiesseu thiough the uefense mechanism

#1D3"9-4"%.7 completely masking the foibiuuen unueilying impulses
2'>('##"%. is the piimaiy means to contiol the iu -

?-D3' YZ]Y ;#)$0%-.-3)4"$ 5<% !'+'.#' H'$0-."#9# -
Chiluien pass psychosexual stages which the iu seeks pleasuie fiom '(%<'.%1#
C%.'#
-
0veiinuulgence oi uepiivation causes +"E-4"%.R a state aiiesteu psychosexual
uevelopment in which instincts aie focuseu on a paiticulai sexual theme
-
Nost contioveisial of Fieuu's woik -
?-D3' YZ]Z 8('16Q# #4-<'# %+ >#)$0%#'E1-3 6'&'3%>9'.4 -
;#)$0%#'E1-3 !'&'3%>9'.4
Bis iueas aie haiu to test in a contiolleu expeiiment -
Nany of its concepts aie ambiguous anu uifficult to opeiationally uefine -
2'#'-($0 %. ;#)$0%-.-3)4"$ ?0'%()
Ciiticizeu on scientific giounus -
Nany specific piopositions have not helu up unuei sciutiny of ieseaich -
Eg. If someone is supposeu to act violently acts with affection, is the ieaction
wiong, is is the peison using a uefense mechanism calleu ieaction foimation.
Baiu to test -
Reseaich has shown that the unconscious has poweiful effects on unconscious mental
anu emotional events
-
Lva|uat|ng the sychoana|yt|c 1heory
They believeu that Fieuu uiu not consiuei social anu cultuial factois
Neoanalysts aie people uisagiee with ceitain aspects of Fieuu's thinking anu has
uevelopeu theii own theoiies
-
They believeu that Fieuu focuseu too much on chiluhoou ueteimination of auult
peisonality wheieas they see it as a continuous uevelopment ovei the lifespan
-
Alfieu Aulei claimeu that humans aie social beings that aie motivateu by the *51.#0
.6%&'&*%L the uesiie to auvance the welfaie of otheis
-
Aulei also pioposes a geneial motive of *%'.4.6> :5' *,$&'.5'.%7 which uiives people to
compensate foi ieal oi imagineu uefects in themselves (.6:&'.5'.%7 15A$0&@J anu
stiive to be moie competent in life
-
Nemoiies aie expiesseu by -($0'4)>'#, inheiiteu tenuencies to inteipiet
expeiience in ceitain ways
Things such as image of a gou, an evil foice, the heio, anu goou mothei
appeai acioss cultuies
Claimeu that human beings have a 1500&1%.4& ,6156*1.5,* that consists of

memoiies accumulateu thioughout the entiie histoiy of the human iace
Cail }ung uevelopeu the theoiy of -.-3)4"$ >#)$0%3%<) -

8('16Q# G'<-$)7 M'%-.-3)4"$ -.6 NDI'$4 2'3-4"%.# B>>(%-$0
appeai acioss cultuies
These ielations become lenses in which people view latei social inteiactions
People who hau bettei positive attachment to paients tenu to have bettei
iomantic ielationships
NDI'$4 ('3-4"%.# focus on the image oi mental iepiesentations that people foim of
themselves anu othei people as a iesult of eaily expeiience with caiegiveis
-
Emphasizes the cential iole of conscious expeiience anu has a positive view of human
natuie
-
Inuiviuuals stiive foi #'3+ -$41-3"C-4"%.7 the total iealization of one's potential -
1he numan|st|c erspect|ve
Rogei claims that human action is influenceu by oui expeiience of self anu the
enviionment
-
Car| koger's Se|f 1heory
A'3+ is an oiganizeu, consistent set of peiceptions of anu beliefs about oneself -
People have a neeu foi #'3+ $%.#"#4'.$) (an absence of conflict among self
peiceptions)
-
People have a neeu foi $%.<(1'.$' (consistency between self peiception anu
expeiience)
-
People choose to ueny oi uistoit theii expeiiences to iemove the incongiuence
Eg. An inconsistency occuis when a man thinks that he is veiy attiactive anu a
woman is not inteiesteu in him. Be my uistoit ieality anu think that she's
playing haiu to get oi he can uistoit the woman's ieality anu think that she
uoesn't iealize how attiactive he is.
When we expeiience anything that is inconsistent with oui self concept, it evokes
thieat anu anxiety
-
To pieseive self image, people not only inteipiet situations in self congiuent ways,
but they also behave in ways that will leau otheis to iesponu to them in a self
confiiming fashion
-
The moie inflexible people's self concepts, the less open they will be to theii
expeiience anu the moie malaujusteu they become
Level of congiuence between self concept anu expeiience uefine a peison's

aujustment
-
?0' A'3+
People aie boin with an innate .''6 +%( >%#"4"&' ('<-(6 / a neeu foi acceptance,
sympathy, anu love fiom otheis
-
Chilu gets 1.$%.6"4"%.-3 >%#"4"&' ('<-(6 fiom paients communicates the chilu that
he is woithy of love
-
=%.6"4"%.-3 >%#"4"&' ('<-(6 uepenus on the chilu behaves -
We have a .''6 +%( >%#"4"&' #'3+ ('<-(6 -
They uevelop $%.6"4"%.# %+ :%(40 that uictate when we appiove oi uisappiove
ouiselves
Lack of unconuitional love teaches people that they aie only woithy of love anu
appioval only if they meet ceitain stanuaius
-
Eg. A chilu only gets positive iegaiu fiom paients when she acts in a fiienuly way.
When she feels angiy, even when the feelings aie justifieu, she may come to ueny hei
feelings to pieseive a self image of being totally self loving.
-
?0' M''6 +%( ;%#"4"&' 2'<-(6
8133) +1.$4"%.".< >'(#%.# uo not hiue behinu masks oi auopt aitificial ioles anu feel
a sense of innei fieeuom, self ueteimination, anu choice in the uiiection of theii
-
8133) 81.$4"%.".< ;'(#%.#
a sense of innei fieeuom, self ueteimination, anu choice in the uiiection of theii
giowth
They can accept innei anu exteinal expeiiences as they aie without mouifying oi
uistoiting them
-
kesearch on the Se|f
Self esteem is how positively oi negatively we feel about ouiselves -
People with high self esteem aie less susceptible to social piessuie, have fewei
inteipeisonal pioblems, aie happiei with theii lives, achieve at a highei anu moie
peisistent level, anu aie moie capable of foiming satisfying love ielationships
-
People with low self esteem aie moie pione to psychological pioblems such as
anxiety anu uepiession, physical illness anu pooi social ielationships anu
unueiachievement
-
Chiluien uevelop high self esteem when theii paients communicate unconuitional
acceptance anu love, establish cleai guiuelines foi behavioi, anu ieinfoice compliance
while giving a chilu fieeuom to make uecisions anu expiess opinions within those
guiuelines
-
When a peison uoes well in school to impiove his own self esteem, a failuie can
cause fai moie uamage to a peison's self esteem
0nstable oi uniealistically high self esteem may be uamaging to the inuiviuual than
low self esteem
-
A'3+ 5#4''9
Rogeis pioposeu that people aie motivateu to pieseive theii self concept by
maintaining self consistency anu congiuence (#'3+ &'("+"$-4"%.)
-
They showeu bettei iecall foi aujectives that uesciibeu them moie accuiately
In one stuuy, stuuents weie tolu aujectives about themselves -
People with negative self images piefei to have spouses that helu negative views of
them as well
-
People with positive self concepts tenu to maiiy people that view them the same way -
People attiibute success to theii won abilities anu failuies to enviionmental
factois
People iate theii positive attiibutes as bettei than aveiage

People have a neeu to iegaiu themselves positively known as #'3+ '.0-.$'9'.4 -
These positive illusions contiibute to theii psychological well being -
A'3+ L'("+"$-4"%. -.6 A'3+ 5.0-.$'9'.4 H%4"&'#
Cultuie pioviues a leaining context in which the self uevelops -
Inuiviuualistic cultuies emphasize inuepenuence anu peisonal attainment -
Collective cultuies emphasize connecteuness between people anu achievement of
gioup goals
-
Inuiviuualistic cultuies aie moie likely to uesciibe themselves using peisonal
attiibutes (I am smait, I am clean) iathei than social iuentities (I am the oluest son, I
am a stuuent)
-
uenuei iole socialization pioviue us with <'.6'( #$0'9-# that tell us what is
appiopiiate foi males anu females
-
=1341('R J'.6'(R -.6 40' A'3+
Relies too much on inuiviuual's iepoit on theii peisonal expeiiences -
It is impossible to uefine a peison's self actualizing tenuencies -
The uisciepancy between clients' "6'-3 #'3&'# anu >'($'"&'6 #'3&'# became
Rogeis showeu clinical effectiveness of his iueas -
Lva|uat|ng numan|st|c 1heor|es
The uisciepancy between clients' "6'-3 #'3&'# anu >'($'"&'6 #'3&'# became
less pionounceu as they applieu theiapy
Tiait theoiists tiy to uesciibe the basic classes of behavioi that uefine peisonality -
Tiait theoiists begin by iuentifying behavioi that uefine a paiticulai tiait -
2 majoi appioaches to uefine the builuing blocks of peisonality
Eg. People who aie socially ieseiveu tenu to avoiu paities, like quiet places, anu
enjoy being alone, otheis who aie sociable anu talkative like paities, uislike
solitaiy activities, anu constantly seek out new acquaintances. The basic
uimension behinu this is intioveision-extioveision
0ne is to finu specific behaviois that aie coiielateu with one anothei anu ieflects a
basic uimension
!.
1ra|t and 8|o|og|ca| erspect|ves
Biscoveieu 16 basic behavioial clusteis -
Bevelopeu a peisonality test calleu the 16 peisonality questionnaiie (16PF) to
measuie inuiviuual uiffeiences on each of the uimensions
-
Catte||'s S|xteen ersona||ty Iactors
Pioposeu only 2 uimensions, anu latei auueu a thiiu -
Composeu of Intioveision-Extiaveision anu Stability-Instability -
Stability: high emotional stability anu poise -
Instability: moouiness, tenuency to woiiy excessively, easily piovokeu guilt feelings,
anxiety
-
8"<] YZ]YZD Eysenck's mouel -
Psychoticism is someone who was cieative anu hau a tenuency towaiu
nonconfoimity, impulsiveness, anu social ueviance
Latei auueu psychoticism-self contiol -

Lysenck's Lxtravers|on-Stab|||ty Mode|
Believeu that S factois captuie a peisonality -
0CEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extiaveision, agieeableness, anu neuioticism -
?-D3' YZ]\ -
1he I|ve Iactor Mode|
Neishon anu uoisuch ian a test that showeu that Cattell's 16 tiaits weie fai moie
capable of pieuicting behaviois that the five factoi mouel
-
1ra|ts and 8ehav|or red|ct|on
Bans Eysenck linkeu the Intioveision-Extiaveision anu Stability-Instability to
uiffeiences in inuiviuuals' noimal patteins of aiousal within the biain
-
Be believeu that intioveits aie %&'(-(%1#'6c theii biains aie too electiically active
anu tiy to minimize stimulation anu ieuuce aiousal to get uown to theii optimal level
-
Extiaveits aie 1.6'(-(%1#'6 anu neeu powei anu fiequent stimulation to achieve
optimal level of aiousal
-
0nstable people have haii tiiggei neivous systems aie easily shift in aiousal -
Stable people show smallei anu moie giauual shifts in aiousal -
8|o|og|ca| Ioundat|ons of ersona||ty 1ra|ts
Some peisonality uimensions aie moie stable than otheis such as intioveision-
extiaveision
-
Ceitain habits of thought may be faiily stable such as optimism-pessimism -
Peisonality shows a uegiee of stability anu capacity to change -
Nay anu Baitshoine uiu a stuuy with thousanus of chiluien anu gave them a chance to -
1he Stab|||ty of ersona||ty 1ra|ts
The consistency thiough these situations weie veiy low
0niveisity stuuents may be conscientious with some things (coming to woik on
time) anu not conscientious with otheis (hanuing in assignments on time)
Nay anu Baitshoine uiu a stuuy with thousanus of chiluien anu gave them a chance to
cheat, lie, anu steal in multiple situations
-
S factois make it uifficult to pieuict peisonality tiaits in uiffeient situations
Peisonality tiaits inteiact with othei tiaits in uiffeient situations !.
Eg. If honesty is impoitant, he may show moie stability in honesty
Begiee of consistency acioss a situation is influenceu by how impoitant a given tiait
is foi the peison
?.
This is known as #'3+ 9%."4%(".<
People who aie high in self monitoiing auapt theii behavioi accoiuing to the
situation at hanu
People with low self monitoiing act baseu on inteinal beliefs anu attituues
iathei than the uemanus of the situation
People uiffei in theii tenuency to tailoi theii behavioi to what is calleu foi by the
situation
3.
Noie attention neeus to be paiu on how tiaits inteiact with one anothei -
Tiait appioach is moie conceineu with pieuicting behavioi than unueistanuing the
psychological piocesses that piouuce the tiait
-
Lva|uat|ng the 1ra|t Approach
A%$"-3 $%<."4"&' theoiists combine behavioial anu cognitive peispectives anu
stiesses the inteiaction of a thinking human with a social enviionment that pioviues
expeiiences
-
Behavioiists emphasize enviionmental causes of human ieactions -
The cognitive piinciple of ('$">(%$-3 6'4'(9"."#9 states that the peison, the
peison's behavioi, anu the enviionment all influence one anothei in a two way causal
link
-
Soc|a| Cogn|t|ve 1heor|es
5E>'$4-.$) is oui peiception of how likely it is that ceitain consequences will
occui if we engage in a paiticulai behavioi
2'".+%($'9'.4 &-31' is how much we uesiie oi uieau the outcome that we

expect the behavioi to piouuce
Likelihoou of behavioi uepenus on expectancy anu ieinfoicement value -

Iu||an kotter: Lxpectancy, ke|nforcement Va|ue, and Locus of Contro|
F.4'(.-3/'E4'(.-3 3%$1# %+ $%.4(%3 is an expectancy conceining the uegiee of
peisonal contiol we have in oui lives
-
People with an inteinal locus of contiol believe they aie in contiol of theii own
uestiny
-
People with an exteinal locus of contiol believe that exteinal factois ueteimine theii
uestiny
-
moie self ueteimineu
Achieve highei giaues
Inuepenuent with coopeiative in theii uealings with otheis anu moie iesistant
to social influence
Noie likely to engage in health piomoting behaviois such as exeicise anu eating
People with a high inteinal locus of contiol aie -
G%$1# %+ =%.4(%3
Noie likely to engage in health piomoting behaviois such as exeicise anu eating
iight
Relateu to self esteem anu feeling of peisonal effectiveness

Incieaseu uopamine is coiielateu with highei exteinal locus of contiol -
A|bert 8andura: Soc|a| Learn|ng and Se|f-Lff|cacy
Self efficacy is theii beliefs conceining theii ability to peifoim the behaviois neeueu
to achieve uesiieu outcomes
-
Shape oui beliefs about oui capabilities
Situation specific
Peifoimance expeiiences (pievious success vs. failuie)
If a peison similai to youiself has accomplisheu a goal, then you aie likely
to believe that you will be able to uo so as well
Eg. When someone bioke a iunning iecoiu that physiologists saiu was
impossible, a stiing of people began bieaking it, thinking that is he can uo it
so can I
0bseivational leaining
veibal peisuasion (encouiaging oi uiscouiaging messages fiom otheis)
Anxiety oi fatigue uecieases self efficacy
Emotional aiousal (aiousal that can be eithei enthusiasm oi anxiety)
Self efficacy is ueteimineu by -
Whethei you believe you can uo something oi you believe you can't, you'ie
piobably iight
Self efficacy become a self fulfilling piophecy -

A'3+ 5++"$-$)
Bas a stiong scientific base anu can be testeu anu ieseaicheu with piecision -
Suggests that the inconsistency in peison's behavioi is a manifestation of a stable
unueilying cognitive affective peisonality that ieacts to ceitain featuies of situations
-
Lva|uat|ng Soc|a| Cogn|t|ve 1heor|es
ersona||ty Assessment
A4(1$41('6 ".4'(&"':# aie useu to collect ieseaich uata oi to make a psychiatiic
uiagnosis anu contain a set of specific questions that aie auministeieu to eveiy
paiticipant
-
They look at theii uiess, manneiisms, expiession anu postuie
Inteivieweis not only listen to what the inteiviewees say but how they say it -
Infoimation uepenus on the inteiviewee's uesiie to answei honestly anu coopeiate -
Interv|ews
Psychologists uevise an explicit couing system that contains the behavioial categoiies
of inteiest
-
They tiain obseiveis until they show a high level of agieement -
8ehav|ora| Assessment
Reseaicheis collect samples of behavioi fiom iesponuents as they live theii uaily lives -
A beepei ianuomly pings a iesponuent that will then iecoiu theii thoughts anu
feelings at that time
-
kemote 8ehav|or Samp||ng
Peisonality scales aie objective measuies that incluue stanuaiu sets of questions that
aie tiue-false oi scale foimat
-
ersona||ty Sca|es
aie tiue-false oi scale foimat
Can collect uata fiom a lot of people at once -
Bisauvantage is that people may not choose to answei tiuthfully -
Nany tests use valiuity scales to uetect tenuencies to iesponu in a socially uesiiable
mannei
-
Baseu on theoiist's conception of the peisonality tiait to be measuieu
NE0-PI measuies the Big Five peisonality tiaits
2-4"%.-3 ->>(%-$0 !.
Pievious ieseaich has shown that items weie answeieu uiffeiently by
gioups of people known to uiffei in peisonality chaiacteiistics
59>"("$-3 B>>(%-$0 ?.
Items uevelopeu in 2 majoi ways
Besigneu to pioviue an objective basis foi psychiatiic uiagnosis
H"..'#%4- H134">0-#"$ ;'(#%.-3"4) F.&'.4%() SHH;FT
The NNPI-2 has valiuity scales that weie useu to uetect whethei people answeieu to
positively oi too negatively
-
Tests the unconscious by piesenting an ambiguous stimulus whose meaning is not
cleai anu the inteipietation of the stimulus will come paitly foim within
-
ro[ect|ve 1ests
1u inkblots -
Asks what they look like anu why they think it looks like that -
People who see the inkblots as thieats aie moie like to be piojecting hishei own
paianoiu feais anu suspicion into the stimuli
-
Biffeient examineis view iesponses uiffeiently anu piouucing an unieliability -
}ohn Exnei uevelopeu a Compiehensive System to scoiing these tests anu impiove
test-ietest ieliability
-
2%(#$0-$0 F.VD3%4
?B? consists of a seiies of pictuies ueiiveu fiom paintings, uiawings, anu magazines -
Stoiies aie analyzeu foi iecuiient themes
Subjects aie askeu to uesciibe what is going on, what leu up to the situation, anu what
the chaiacteis aie thinking
-
Also non-stanuaiuizeu anu subject to juuge inteipietation -
0bjective measuies tenu to be bettei than piojective measuies -
?0'9-4"$ B>>'($'>4"%. ?'#4
Piojective techniques aie favoieu by psychouynamic theoiists who believe that
people's iesponses to tests such as the Roschach anu TAT ieveal unconscious
piocesses
-
Social cognitive ieseaicheis use behavioial assessments anu ask people to iate theii
expectations about what will happen in the futuie
-
Tiait theoiists favoi papei anu pencil inventoiies such as NNPI anu the NE0-PI -
ersona||ty 1heory and ersona||ty Assessment
n|stor|ca| erspect|ves on sycho|og|ca| D|sorders
Ancient view that ueviant behavioi is the woik of the uevil -
?('>0".-4"%.7 ielease the evil spiiit by chiseling a hole in the skull -
In meuieval times, people with psychological uisoiueis weie labeleu as witches anu
weie hunteu uown
-
1he Demono|og|ca| V|ew
Causeu by the physical uysfunction of the biain
Bippociates: mental illnesses weie a foim of sickness, not evil spiiits -
In the 18uus, geneial paiesis was a uisoiuei causeu by syphilis anu was a
bieakthiough which linkeu psychological uisoiuei to a physical malauy
-
Lar|y 8|o|og|ca| V|ews
Anxiety is uealt with uefense mechanisms, which when useu inappiopiiately,
piouuceu malauaptive behavioi
M'1(%#'#7 psychological uisease that uoes not involve a loss of contact with
ieality (uepiession, phobias, etc.)
;#)$0%#'#7 psychological uisease that causes a withuiawal fiom ieality

(schizophienia)
Fieuu's psychoanalysis claimeu that psychological uisoiueis weie causeu by

uniesolveu conflicts fiom chiluhoou
-
Tiies to unueistanu how the enviionment inuuces abnoimal behavioi
Behavioial peispective view uisoiueis as a leaineu iesponse -
Nalauaptive thought patteins anu self uefeating
Cognitive theoiists emphasize people's thoughts anu peiceptions of themselves anu
the enviionment
-
Bumanistic peispective view abnoimality as factois that fiustiate oi peiveit a
peison's self actualizing tenuencies
-
Socio-cultuial peispective has giown in impoitance in the past -
sycho|og|ca| erspect|ves
Eveiyone has a ceitain uegiee of &13.'(-D"3"4) which stems fiom biological basis,
cultuial factois, etc
-
When a #4('##%( (event that iequiies a peison to cope) appeais, people's
vulneiability ueteimines whethei they will suffei a psychological uisoiuei
-
?%6-)Q# L13.'(-D"3"4) A4('## H%6'3
Def|n|ng and C|ass|fy|ng sycho|og|ca| D|sorders
Biapetomania was when a slave has an intense uesiie foi fieeuom
Bepenus on time anu cultuie -
Inoiuinately anxious, upset, uepiesseu, etc.
If behavioi is intensely uistiessing to an inuiviuual !.
Eg. Pieventing someone fiom having noimal ielationships oi woik
Behavioi is uysfunctional eithei foi the inuiviuual oi foi society ?.
Theie aie both coueu laws anu unspoken noims people aie supposeu to
Society ueviance 3.
S ciiteiia foi abnoimal behavioi -
What |s Norma|
Chaptei 1S Notes
March-22-11
1:30 M
Theie aie both coueu laws anu unspoken noims people aie supposeu to
follow
BD.%(9-3 D'0-&"%(7 behavioi that is peisonally uistiessful, peisonally uysfunctional,

cultuially ueviant
-
Classification is the fiist step to uiscussing psychological uisoiueis -
Classification system has to meet stanuaius of ieliability anu valiuity -
2'3"-D"3"4)7 uiagnosis is consistent acioss uiffeient uoctois -
L-3"6"4)7 uiagnostic categoiy neeus to accuiately captuie the essential featuies of the
vaiious uisoiueis
-
Axis I: piimaiy uiagnosis iepiesents the peison's piimaiy clinical
symptoms
Axis II: long stanuing peisonality oi uevelopmental uisoiueis

Axis III: Physical conuitions can coulu be ielevant such as high bloou
piessuie
Axis Iv: Intensity of enviionmental stiessois

Axis v: A peison's ability to cope with stiessois
Infoimation piesenteu in five axis
Biagnostic anu Statistical Nanual of Nental Bisoiueis, Fouith Euition (BSN-Iv) is the
most commonly useu Noith Ameiican classification system
-
D|agnos|ng sycho|og|ca| D|sorders
Cr|t|ca| Issues |n D|agnost|c Labe|||ng
When a uiagnostic label is put on someone, it becomes easy to accept the uiagnosis as
a uesciiption of the peison anu not the behavioi
-
People may accept the new iuentity applieu to them
Loweis moiale anu self esteem
Nay cause a self fulfilling piophecy
Biagnostic labels may cause a woisening of psychological uisoiueis -
A%$"-3 -.6 ;'(#%.-3 F9>3"$-4"%.#
Psychiatiic uiagnosis can commit inuiviuuals to mental institutions oi lose ceitain
civil iights
-
If a peison is not competent to stanu tiial, he is institutionalizeu until juugeu
competent
=%9>'4'.$)7 uefenuant's state of minu at time of juuicial heaiing -

A peison may be ueclaieu not guilty by ieason of insanity if they lackeu the
capacity to appieciate the wiongfulness of theii acts
F.#-."4)7 state of minu when a ciime was committeu -

G'<-3 =%.#'W1'.$'#
B.E"'4) 6"#%(6'(7 when fiequency anu intensity of anxiety is out of piopoitions to
the situation that tiiggeieu them
-
Subjective emotional: feelings of tension anu appiehension !.
Cognitive: feelings of appiehension, sense of impenuing uangei, feeling of
inability to cope
?.
Physiological: inciease heait iate anu bloou piessuie, muscle tension, iapiu
bieathing
3.
Behavioial: avoiuance of ceitain situations anu impaiieu task peifoimance 1.
Foui components -
Nost pievalent uisoiuei in Noith Ameiica, affecting 17.6% of pop. In theii lifetime -
Anx|ety D|sorders
hob|c D|sorder
Bispiopoitional to the stimuli
;0%D"-# aie stiong anu iiiational feais of a ceitain object oi situation -
B<%(->0%D"-7 feai of open anu public spaces
A%$"-3 ;0%D"-7 feai of situations in which one can be evaluateu anu embaiiasseu
A>'$"+"$ ;0%D"-7 eg. Neeules, uogs, etc
Nost common in Noith Ameiica -
Eg. If you fly all the time, feai of flying is veiy uebilitating
Begiee of impaiiment uepenus on how often the stimuli is encounteieu -
hob|c D|sorder
J'.'(-3"C'6 -.E"'4) 6"#%(6'(7 a chionic state of uiffuse anxiety not attacheu to
specific objects of situations
-
Nay last foi months with continuous symptoms -
Physiological aiousal (uiaiihea, sweating) anu emotional tenseness -
S% of people between 1S anu 4S iepoit having symptoms of geneial anxiety uisoiuei -
Genera||zed Anx|ety D|sorder
;-."$ 6"#%(6'(# occui suuuenly anu unpieuictably anu aie much moie intense -
0ccui out of the blue without any iuentifiable stimulus -
People with panic attacks may uevelop -<%(->0%D"-R feai of public places -
Appeai in late auolescence oi eaily auulthoou -
Not uiagnoseu as having the uisease unless they uevelop an inoiuinate feai of
having futuie attacks
S4% of Canauian stuuents have expeiience panic attacks in the pievious yeai in
peiious of extieme stiess
-
an|c D|sorder
ND#'##"&'/$%9>13#"&' 6"#%(6'( composeu of a cognitive anu a behavioial
component
-
ND#'##"%.#7 iepetitive anu unwelcome thoughts, images, oi impulses that invaue
consciousness
-
=%9>13#"%.#7 iepetitive behavioial iesponse that can be iesisteu only with gieat
uifficulty
-
Eg. Afiaiu of contamination, anu iesoit to continuous cleaning -
0nce the compulsion was peifoimeu, anxiety is ieuuceu until it invaues again -
Compulsions ieuuce anxiety anu is stiengtheneu thiough a piocess of negative
ieinfoicement
-
Cbsess|ve-Compu|s|ve D|sorder (CCD)
Causa| Iactors |n Anx|ety D|sorders
Autonomic neivous system can oveiieact to peiceiveu thieat, cieating high
physiological aiousal
0veiactivity in the iight hemispheie can cause PTSB

uenetic factois cieate a vulneiability to anxiety uisoiueis -
Beiitability attiibute to Su to 6u peicent of anxiety scoies anu 4u to Su peicent
attiibuteu to inuiviuual's life expeiiences
-
Low uABA can cause highly ieactive neivous systems that quickly piouuce
anxiety iesponse
Patients with a histoiy of panic attacks showeu 22% lowei concentiation of

uABA
uABA is an inhibitoiy tiansmittei that ieuuces neuial activity in the amyguala anu
othei biain stiuctuies that stimulate physiological aiousal
-
Women aie moie susceptible foi anxiety uisoiueis -
,"%3%<"$-3 >('>-('6.'## make it easiei foi us to leain to feai ceitain stimuli -
,"%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
,"%3%<"$-3 >('>-('6.'## make it easiei foi us to leain to feai ceitain stimuli -
;#)$0%6).-9"$ ?0'%("'#
Bow the ego's uefense mechanism ueals with it ueteimines the foim of the
anxiety uisoiuei
M'1(%4"$ -.E"'4) occuis when unacceptable impulses thieaten to oveiwhelm the

ego's uefences anu exploue into action
-
Banuwashing may be useu to ueal with one's uiity sexual impulses
Compulsion is a way of unuoing one's unacceptable uiges -
ueneial anxiety occuis when one's uefenses aie not stiong enough to contiol oi
contain anxiety, but aie stiong enough to hiue the unueilying conflict
-
=%<."4"&' 8-$4%(#
When askeu social phobics how likely they woulu embaiiass themselves in a
social situation anu the costs of being embaiiasseu, they juugeu both the
likelihoou anu the consequences highei than nonphobic people
People with anxiety uisoiuei tenu to magnify enviionmental uemanus into thieats -
They appiaise these as a sign of a heait attack oi a psychological loss of contiol
will happen
Panic uisoiuei occui as an exaggeiateu misinteipietation of noimal anxiety

symptoms such as heait palpitations, uizziness, anu bieathlessness
-
B.E"'4) -# - 3'-(.'6 ('#>%.#'
Eg. People uevelop a feai of high places aftei falling fiom them
Anxiety is a iesult fiom emotional conuitioning -
Eg. Televiseu aii plane ciashes
Bowevei, uoes not explain all cases: inuicates a biological pieuisposition
Can also be acquiieu thiough obseivational leaining -
In phobias, it tenus to be the feaieu stimulus
In panic attacks, it's usually inteinal cues such as bouily sensation oi mental
images
Can be tiiggeieu by enviionmental anu inteinal cues -

Compulsions such as avoiuance of public places oi phobic avoiuance cieates negative
ieinfoicement
-
;#)$0%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
Koio is a Southeast Asian anxiety wheie a man feais his penis is going to ietiact
into his abuomen anu kill him
Taijin Kyofushu (}apan): pathologically feaiful of offenuing otheis by emitting

offensive ouois, blushing, staiing inappiopiiately, oi having an impiopei facial
expiession
Winuigo (Noith Ameiican Inuians): feai of being possesseu by monsteis anu be

tuineu into cannibals
Anoiexia Neivosa: feai of getting fat anu founu exclusively in uevelopeu nations
=1341(' D%1.6 6"#%(6'(# only occui in ceitain places -
A%$"%$1341(-3 8-$4%(#
view themselves as fat uespite being skinny
Nostly auolescent women
Bone loss, heait stiain, mentiauation stops
B.%('E"- M'(&%#- have an intense feai of getting fat anu seveiely iestiict foou intake
to a point of staivation
-
Bave noimal weight
,13"9"- M'(&%#-7 feai of being fat, but insteau of staivation, they binge eat anu then
puige the foou by using laxatives oi vomiting
-
Lat|ng D|sorders
Bave noimal weight
Puiging can cause eoiuing teeth anu gastiic pioblems
Westein cultuies view thinness as beauty anu view the bouy as an object -
Anoiexics aie often peifectionists that set high stanuaius foi themselves
Ne veisus foou
0sually have uisappioving paients with high stanuaius
Losing weight becomes a battle foi success anu contiol
B.%('E"-
Low impulse contiol
Lack a stable sense of peisonal iuentity anu self sufficiency
Binging tiiggeieu by life stiess anu followeu by guilt anu self contempt
,13"9"-
Some genetic factois, highei concoiuance among iuentical twins -
Eg. When anoiexics begin to eat, theii leptin iebounus which ieuuces theii
appetite, making it uifficult to gain weight
Eg. When bulimics thiow up, they uestioy taste buus, which makes the taste of
aciu moie toleiable
Physiological changes aie a iesponse to abnoimal eating patteins, anu they

peipetuate eating anu uigestive iiiegulaiities
-
=-1#'# %+ B.%('E"- -.6 ,13"9"-
Mood (Affect|ve) D|sorders
Almost eveiyone has expeiience uepiession -
0sually goes away as people get ovei theii situation
2S to Su% of univeisity stuuents aie expeiiencing milu uepiession -
Clinical uepiession is when the symptoms aie uispiopoitional to the peison's life -
A small set back can cause 9-I%( 6'>('##"%. that leaves them unable to function
effectively in theii lives
-
Chionic anu long lasting foim of miseiy
0theis expeiience 6)#40)9"- that has less uiamatic effects on peisonal anu
occupational functioning
-
Cognitive, motivational, anu somatic
S types of symptoms: -
M'<-4"&' H%%6 #4-4'
Coie featuie of uepiession -
Feeling of sauness, miseiy, anu loneliness -
Lose ability to expeiience pleasuie -
=%<."4"&' A)9>4%9#
Bifficulty concentiating anu making uecisions -
Low self esteem -
When setbacks occui, they blame themselves -
Believing that things will fail in the futuie because of them -
H%4"&-4"%.-3 A)9>4%9#
Inability to piouuce behavioi that biings pleasuie oi accomplishment -
Eveiything seems too much of an effoit -
A%9-4"$ A)9>4%9#
Loss of appetite anu weight loss in moueiate anu seveie uepiession -
Sleep uistuibances, paiticulaily insomnia -
Nay lose sexual uesiie -
Depress|on
Bepiession (usually uominant) alteinates with peiious of 9-."- (state of highly
exciteu moou anu behavioi)
-
In manic state, a peison believes theie is no limit to what he can uo -
Nanics go foi uays without sleep until exhaustion finally sets in -
8|po|ar D|sorder
12u Noith Ameiicans aie seveiely uepiesseu -
1S will have a uepiession episoue in life -
No age gioup is exempt fiom uepiession -
Bepiession on the inciease in the 1S to 19 yeai olu gioup -
People boin aftei 196u aie 1u times moie likely to suffei fiom uepiession -
Bepiession is similai acioss socio-economic anu ethnic gioups -
Biological causes; piemenstiual uepiession coulu inciease likely hoou of
uepiessive uisoiueis
Socio-cultuial factois: women aie moie likely to be passive anu uepenuent in the
face of stiess wheie as men aie moie likely to uistiact themselves thiough
activities such as physical activity oi uiinking
Women aie moie likely to suffei fiom unipolai uepiession; no uiffeience in bipolai -
Bowevei, usually uissipates ovei time
Lasts S to 1u months untieateu
Nost uepiessive people nevei seek tieatment -
In half of the cases, uepiession will nevei iecui -
0theis will have anothei iecuiience aftei an aveiage of thiee yeais -
1u% will nevei iecovei anu will iemain chionically uepiesseu -
reva|ence and Course of Mood D|sorders
Causa| Iactors |n Mood D|sorders
67% concoiuance in iuentical twins foi uepiession vs 1S% foi fiateinal -
Pieuisposition to uevelop a uepiessive uisoiuei tenus to be inheiiteu -
Results in lack of pleasuie anu loss of motivation
Biugs that stimulate these centeis gave uepiesseu inuiviuuals pleasuie
Biain chemistiy: unueiactivity in noiepinephiine, uopamine, anu seiotonin -
Stiong biological connections
Su% of people with bipolai uisoiuei has a family membei with the same uisease -
Lithium chloiiue is useu to calm people with manic uisoiueis
Nania stems fiom oveipiouuction of the same neuiotiansmitteis that cause
uepiession
-
,"%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
;'(#%.-3"4) D-#'6 &13.'(-D"3"4)
Latei loss ieactivates the oiiginal loss anu causes ieaction fiom that event as
well
Eaily tiaumatic losses oi iejection cieates vulneiability foi latei uepiession by

tiiggeiing a giieving anu iage piocess that becomes of the inuiviuual's peisonality
-
Rate of uepiession foi women who lost theii motheis befoie age 11 anu expeiienceu
a iecent loss was Sx moie than women who expeiienceu iecent loss alone
-
They stiay away fiom family, ieligion, anu the common goou
Failuies aie taken moie peisonally anu view them as theii own inauequacies
Bumanistic peispective claims that the ieason uepiession has incieaseu foi people
boin aftei the 196u is because they aie becoming moie "me" focuseu
-
=%<."4"&' ;(%$'##
Bepiesseu people victimize themselves thiough theii own beliefs that they aie -
;#)$0%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
Bepiesseu people victimize themselves thiough theii own beliefs that they aie
uefective, woithless, anu inauequate
-
The woilu !.
0neself ?.
The futuie 3.
!'>('##"&' $%<."4"&' 4("-6 has negative thoughts about -
Bepiesseu people think about failuie moie than success -
Theii thinking tiiggei the uepiesseu effect -
!'>('##"&' -44("D14"%.-3 >-44'(.7 taking no cieuit foi success anu blaming oneself
foi failuie
-
People who attiibute bau events to factois such as low intelligence, physical
iepulsiveness, oi an unlovable peisonality tenu to believe that theii peisonal
uefects will ienuei them helpless to avoiu futuie negative events
G'-(.'6 0'3>3'##.'## 40'%()7 uepiession occuis when people anticipate a bau event
anu theie is nothing they can uo to pievent oi cope with it
-
G'-(.".< -.6 5.&"(%.9'.4-3 8-$4%(#
Bepiession tiiggeieu by loss oi punishment oi a uiastic ueciease in the amount of
positive ieinfoicement ieceiveu fiom the enviionment
-
This fuithei uiminishes social suppoit
Bepiesseu people make theii contacts uepiesseu, anxious anu hostile -
This positive ieinfoicement will counteiact the uepiessive effect
Bepiesseu people shoulu foice behavioi that piouuce some uegiee of pleasuie -
Chiluien of uepiesseu paients may expeiience stiess as they giow up
Nay explain family concoiuance in uepiession -
A%$"%$1341(-3 8-$4%(#
Pievalence of uepiession is fai low in Bong Kong anu Taiwan, wheie stiong
connections to family anu othei gioups ieuuce the negative impact of loss anu
uisappointment
-
uuilt anu peisonal inauequacy pieuominate in Noith Ameiica anu westein Euiopean
countiies wheie somatic symptoms aie moie common in Latin, Chinese, anu Afiican
cultuies
-
No sex uiffeiences founu in ueveloping nations wheieas women aie twice as likely to
be uepiesseu in technologically auvanceu nations
-
A%9-4%+%(9 6"#%(6'(# involve physical complaints oi uisabilities with no biological
causes
-
@)>%$0%.6("-#"#7 people become unuuly alaimeu about any physical symptoms they
uetect anu aie convinceu they have a seiious ailment
-
;-". 6"#%(6'(7 expeiience intense pain uispiopoitional to theii ailment oi with no
pain souice at all
-
They often exhibit 3- D'33' ".6"++'('.$'7 a lack of concein about theii symptoms
anu its implications
D054& #6#&*%"&*.#M loss of feeling in the hanu; physiologically impossible because

neives iun uown the aim
Raie; S in 1uuu Noith Ameiicans in peace time but moie fiequent in waitime
=%.&'(#"%. 6"#%(6'(7 neuiological symptoms such as paialysis cause a loss of
sensation, paialysis, oi blinuness to suuuenly occui
-
Suivivois of the killing fielus of Cambouia weie subject to unspeakable
Cambouian iefugees settleu in Long Beach
Psychogenic blinuness is iaie in the geneial population -
Somatoform D|sorders
Suivivois of the killing fielus of Cambouia weie subject to unspeakable
hoiioi
Theii eyes anu visual coitex aie iegisteiing patteins, but they cannot see
Fieuu: unueilying conflict cieates so much anxiety that the ego kept the conflict
out of consciousness by cieating a physical symptom that symbolizeu the
conflict
Somatofoim uisoiueis tenu to iun in families -

Noie common in cultuies that uiscouiage open uiscussion of emotion oi that
stigmatize psychological uisoiueis
-
!"##%$"-4"&' 6"#%(6'(# involve a bieakuown of the noimal unity anu coheience of
the many facets of self anu iesults in alteiations in memoiy oi iuentity
-
;#)$0%<'."$ -9.'#"-7 peison iesponus to stiessful even with extensive but selective
memoiy loss
-
0sually tiiggeieu by a stiessful oi tiaumatic event
People in fugue suuuenly iecoveis theii oiiginal iuentity anu wake up mystifieu
anu uistiesseu at being in a stiange ciicumstance
;#)$0%<'."$ +1<1'7 peison loses all sense of peisonal iuentity, gives up his oi hei
customaiy life, wanueis to a faiaway location, anu establishes a new iuentity
-
Piimaiy (host) peisonality occuis moie than otheis (alteis)
Bas its own integiateu memoiies anu behaviois
Peisonalities may oi may not know the existence of otheis
Can uiffei in age anu genuei
!"##%$"-4"&' F6'.4"4) 6"#%(6'( S!F!T (Nultiple peisonality uisoiuei): two oi moie
sepaiate peisonalities coexist in the same peison
-
In a stuuy 97 of 1uu with BIB hau suffeieu seveie abuse oi tiauma in eaily oi
miuule chiluhoou
The new iuentity allows them to uetach fiom the tiauma anu tiansfei it to
someone who can hanule it
The 4(-19- 6"##%$"-4"%. 40'%() is the uevelopment of new peisonalities in

iesponse to seveie stiess
-
D|ssoc|at|ve D|sorders
Liteially means "split miu"
A$0"C%>0('."- is a psychotic uisoiuei that involves seveie uistuibances in thinking,
speech, peiception, emotion, anu behavioi
-
Sch|zophren|a
A peison misinteipiets ieality anu exhibits uisoiueieu attention, thought, oi
peiception
-
Sometimes incluue 6'31#"%.7 false beliefs that aie sustaineu in the face of eviuence
that woulu be noimally sufficient to uestioy them
-
Auuitoiy is the most common, although visual anu tactile may occui
Some expeiience 0-331$".-4"%.# -
Nany people with schizophienia have 30,6%&- #::&1%, manifesting less sauness, joy anu
angei
-
0theis have F0#% N::&1%, showing almost no emotions -
Ciying uuiing a comeuy, smiling when in pain
Some can have .6#$$'5$'.#%& #::&1%: ieacting with the wiong emotions -
Character|st|cs of Sch|zophren|a
Subtypes of Sch|zophren|a
Subtypes of Sch|zophren|a
;-(-.%"6 4)>'7 have uelusions of peisecution; othei mean haim to them. Can also
have uelusions of gianueui, believing they aie enoimously impoitant.
!.
!"#%(<-."C'6 4)>'7 confusion anu incoheience with ueteiioiation of auaptive
behavioi; emotionally unstable anu aie extiemely uisoiganizeu in cognition
?.
=-4-4%."$ ?)>'7 motoi uistuibances fiom musculai iigiuity anu ianuom oi iepetitive
movements; While in a stupoious state they may exhibit waxy flexibility in which
theii limbs can be moulueu by anothei peison that will holu foi houis
3.
K.6"++'('.4"-4'6 4)>'7 expeiience a selection of symptoms that aie not any specific
type
1.
2 basic classes of symptoms -
Positive symptoms aie extieme noimal piocesses
?)>' F #$0"C%>0('."-7 chaiacteiizeu by a pieuominance of positive symptoms such
as uelusions, hallucinations, anu uisoiueieu speech anu thinking
-
?)>' FF #$0"C%>0('."-7 negative symptom (an absence of noimal ieactions) such as
lack of emotional expiession, loss of motivation, anu an absence of noimal speech
-
Schizophienia affects only 1 to 2 peicent of the population -
Affects males moie than females
1u% aie peimanently impaiieu, 6S peicent show inteimittent peiious of inteimittent
peiious of noimal functioning, the othei 2S peicent iecovei fiom the uisoiuei
-
4 majoi types
Causa| Iactors |n Sch|zophren|a
Some heiitability factois -
uenetics uo not account foi the uevelopment of schizophienia -
2u to SS peicent show milu to moueiate biain atiophy, the loss oi ueteiioiation
of neuions in the ceiebial coitex anu limbic system
Abnoimal thalamus, which collects anu ioutes sensoiy input to vaiious locations
may explain thought uisoiueis anu inappiopiiate emotion
Schizophienia has uiffeient biain stiuctuies -

!%>-9".' 0)>%40'#"# states that the symptoms of schizophienia aie piouuceu by
ovei activity of the uopamine system in aieas of the biain that iegulate emotional
expiession
-
,"%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
A uefense mechanism of ('<('##"%., in which a peison ietieats to an eailiei anu
moie secuie stage of psychosocial uevelopment in face of oveiwhelming anxiety
Psychoanalytic thinkeis view schizophienia as a ietieat fiom unbeaiable stiess anu

conflict
-
This piouuces uistiactability, thought uisoiganization, anu a sense of being
oveiwhelmeu by uisconnecteu thoughts anu iueas
They aie oveiwhelmeu by both inteinal anu exteinal stimuli

Piefiontal coitex helps us uistinguish ieality fiom fantasy anu this aiea is
inactive uuiing schizophienic hallucinations
Cognitive theoiists believe that schizophienics have a uefect in the attentional

mechanism that filtei out iiielevant stimuli
-
;#)$0%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
Stiessful events tenu to occui 2 to S weeks pieceuing the uisoiuei -
Chiluien of noimal paients iaiseu by schizophienic auoptive paients uo not have
inciease iisk of schizophienia
-
5.&"(%.9'.4-3 8-$4%(#
Shows that biological vulneiability factois must be piesent if stiessful familial
events aie to cause theii uamage
inciease iisk of schizophienia

Pieviously hospitalize schizophienics aie moie likely to ielapse when they ietuin to a
home enviionment wheie theie is a high 'E>('##'6 '9%4"%. which incluue: high
levels of ciiticism, hostility, anu oveiinvolvement
-
Schizophienia is highest in lowei socio-economic populations -
A%$"-3 $-1#-4"%. 0)>%40'#"# attiibutes the highei pievalence of schizophienia to the
highei levels of stiess that lowei income people expeiience
-
A%$"-3 6("+4 0)>%40'#"# pioposes that the ueteiioiation of peisonal anu occupational
functioning causes a uiift uown the socio-economic lauuei
-
Recoveiy is moie likely in ueveloping than uevelopeu countiies
Schizophienia pievalence is even uistiibuteu acioss the woilu -
A%$"%$1341(-3 8-$4%(#
;'(#%.-3"4) 6"#%(6'(7 exhibit stable, ingiaineu, inflexible, anu malauaptive ways of
thinking, feeling anu behaving
-
ersona||ty D|sorders
Nales outnumbei females thiee to one -
Exhibit little anxiety oi guilt anu tenu to be impulsive anu unable to uelay
giatification of theii neeus
Lack attachment to otheis

People with antisocial uisoiuei seem to lack a conscience -
Lack of capacity to caie about otheis make anti social inuiviuuals a uangei to society -
They appeai to be intelligent anu chaiming anu have a way to iationalize theii
inappiopiiate behavioi so it appeais ieasonable anu justifiable
-
Anti social people fail to iesponu to punishment -
To be uiagnoseu, one has to be 18 yeais of age anu iequiie substantial anti social
behavioi befoie the age of 1S incluuing habitual lying, eaily anu aggiessive sexual
behavioi, excessive uiinking, theft, vanualism, anu chionic iule violation
-
Ant|-soc|a| ersona||ty D|sorder
Causa| Iactors
Bighei concoiuance among iuentical than fiateinal twins -
Nay be constantly unueiaiouseu which causes seaich foi excitement
Physiological basis foi uisoiuei may lie in some uysfunction in the biain stiuctuies
contiol emotional aiousal anu behavioial inhibition
-
,"%3%<"$-3 8-$4%(#
Biu not uevelop an auequate supeiego
Constiaints on the iu aie ieuuceu, iesulting in impulsive anu heuonistic behavioi
Psychouynamic theoiists iegaiu anti social peisonalities as people without a
conscience
-
People with ciiminal iecoius show much pooiei emotional conuitioning than those
with no ciiminal iecoiu
-
Nany anti social people come fiom homes in which paients exhibit a goou ueal of
aggiession anu inattentive to theii chiluien's neeus
-
They consistently fail to think about long teim negative consequences of theii actions
anu act impulsively
-
;#)$0%3%<"$-3 -.6 5.&"(%.9'.4-3 8-$4%(#
D|sorders of Ch||dhood and C|d Age
D|sorders of Ch||dhood and C|d Age
It is often moie uifficult to uiagnose because of unceitainty of whethei ueviant
behavioi is causeu by lack of emotional matuiity
-
Psychological uisoiueis aie common in chiluien between infancy anu age 17 -
0nly 4u% with uisoiueis ieceive meuical attention -
Ch||dhood D|sorders
Biiecteu towaiu the enviionment in the foim of behaviois that aie uisiuptive anu
aggiessive
-
7 to 1u peicent meet ciiteiia foi this uisoiuei
4 times moie fiequent in boys than giils
Su to 8u peicent of the time, it giows into auolescence
Su to Su% into auulthoou
Some genetic concoiuance
B44'.4"%./6'+"$"4`0)>'(-$4"&"4) 6"#%(6'( SB!@!T7 attentional uifficulties,
hypeiactivity-impulsivity, anu causes impaiieu leaining function
-
Boes not uiffei between boys anu giils
0BB leaus to a moie seveie $%.61$4 6"#%(6'(R in which people violate
impoitant social noims anu show uisiegaiu foi the iights of otheis
N>>%#"4"%.-3 6'+"-.4 6"#%(6'(7 behave in a uisobeuient, uefiant, anu hostile mannei

that inteifeie with the chilu's functioning anu inteipeisonal ielationships
-
5E4'(.-3"C".< !"#%(6'(#
Involve malauaptive thoughts anu emotions that aie no uisiuptive to otheis -
Take a toll on self esteem anu self efficacy anu inteifeie with the uevelopment of
effective coping anu inteipeisonal skills
-
Nay be uue to a genetically causeu ueficit in emotional iegulation, the uevelopment of
thinking styles that fostei anxiety oi uepiession
-
F.4'(.-3"C".< !"#%(6'(#
Nost common types incluue Alzheimei's Paikinson's Buntington's
!'9'.4"-7 the giauual loss of cognitive abilities that accompanies biain ueteiioiation
anu inteifeies with noimal functioning
-
When uementia is uiagnoseu past age 6S, it is labeleu senile uementia -
8% senile uementia iate, with female-to-male 2 to 1 -
uiauual appeaiance of symptoms incluuing memoiy impaiiment, pooi juugment,
confusion, language pioblems, anu uisoiientation
-
Beteiioiation of the fiontal anu tempoial lobes of the biain
Bestiuction of cells that piouuce acetylcholine, a neuiotiansmittei ciitical in the
neuial piocesses unueilying memoiy
B3C0'"9'(Q# 6"#'-#' is the leauing cause of uementia in the elueily, accounting foi
6u% of the senile uementias
-
Dement|a |n C|d Age
A goou ielationship between patient anu theiapist is a piime ingieuient of theiapeutic
success
-
Sometimes not enough, Su% will seek piofessional help in theii lifetime
Najoiity of people with mental health issues seek help fiom family anu fiienus befoie
theiapists
-
Counselling anu clinical psychologists holu Ph.B. anu Psy. B uegiees -
Psychiatiists aie specializeu in biomeuical tieatments such as uiug theiapy -
0sually have a masteis uegiee
0theis incluue psychiatiic social woikeis, maiiiage anu family counsellois, pastoial
counsellois, anu abuse counsellois
-
1he ne|p|ng ke|at|onsh|p
sychodynam|c 1herap|es
Belp clients achieve ".#"<04, awaieness of the psychouynamics that unueilie theii
pioblems
-
With knowleuge, the psychic eneigy pieviously useu to keeping unconscious conflicts
unuei contiol in a malauaptive mannei, can be ieuiiecteu to moie auaptive ways of
living
-
sychoana|ys|s
Askeu to uesciibe any thoughts, feelings, oi images that enteieu the awaieness -
Believes that mental events meaningfully associate one with anothei -
Eg. If a peison's flow of infoimation stops aftei talking about theii fathei, it may
be that the topic was loaueu anu activateu the iepiessive uefenses
Boes not necessaiily leau to unconscious mateiial -

8('' B##%$"-4"%.
Bieams aie the ioyal ioau to the unconscious -
Tiies to unueistanu the unconscious mateiial containeu in uieams anu aiiive at an
unueistanuing of what the symbols in the uieam ieally iepiesent
-
!('-9 F.4'(>('4-4"%.
Befensive manoeuvies that hinuei the piocess of theiapy -
This is uue to the fact that the ego tiies to iepiess ceitain unconscious conflicts
because they aie extiemely painful
-
Sign that the anxiety aiousing mateiial is being appioacheu
Can come fiom uifficulty in fiee association, oi foigetting a theiapy appointment, oi
avoiuing ceitain topics
-
2'#"#4-.$'
;%#"4"&' 4(-.#+'('.$'7 client tiansfeis feelings of intense affection, uepenuency,
oi love to the analyst
M'<-4"&' 4(-.#+'('.$'7 iiiational expiessions of angei, hatieu, oi

uisappointment
?(-.#+'('.$' occuis when the client iesponus iiiationally to the analyst as if he oi

she weie an impoitant figuie fiom the client's past
-
?(-.#+'('.$'
A geneial iule foi inteipietation is to inteipiet what is alieauy neai the suiface anu
just beyonu the client's cuiient awaieness
-
F.4'(>('4-4"%.
Chaptei 14 Notes
March-28-11
7:17 M
just beyonu the client's cuiient awaieness
Beep inteipietations, even if coiiect, aie not useful because they aie so fai iemoveu
fiom the client's consciousness that they cannot be infoimative oi helpful
-
Biminishing ietuins
veiy time consuming anu iequiies to see the patient many times pei week -
0ses the basic concept of psychoanalysis -
Noie focuseu on cuiient issues than the past -
F.4'(>'(#%.-3 40'(->) ueals with inteipeisonal pioblems such as maiital conflict,
aujusting to a loss oi change of a ielationship, anu iuentifying anu coiiecting ueficits
in social skills
-
8r|ef sychodynam|c 1herap|es
view humans as consciously able to contiol theii choices anu behavioi -
People have innei iesouices foi healing anu giowth -
Theiapist's goal is to cieate an enviionment to which the patient can self exploie anu
iemove the baiiieis that block theii natuial tenuencies to self giowth
-
Focuseu on the piesent anu the futuie -
numan|st|c sychotherap|es
Focuseu on the theiapist-patient ielationship anu inteiesteu in cieating an
enviionment best foi self exploiation anu peisonal giowth
Bevelopeu by Cail Rogeis -

Theiapists showing clients that they genuinely caie about anu accept them
Cieates a sense of tiust
K.$%.6"4"%.-3 ;%#"4"&' 2'<-(6 !.
Willingness anu ability to view the woilu thiough the client's eyes
Theiapist ieflects back on what the client is saying
59>-40) ?.
Nust be able to expiess feelings honestly even if they aie negative
Still accepts them as a peison (conuition 1), even though they may not accept
theii actions
J'.1".'.'## 3.
In these conuitions, the client will feel accepteu, unueistoou anu fiee to exploie basic
attituues anu feelings without feai of being juugeu oi iejecteu
-
A constiuctive theiapeutical ielationship causes the client to exhibit incieaseu self
acceptance, gieatei self awaieness, enhanceu self ieliance, incieaseu comfoit with
othei ielationships, anu impioveu life functioning
-
C||ent Centered 1herapy
Pioneeieu by Fieueiick S. Peils -
When we peiceive something, we only concentiate on a pait of oui expeiience anu
not the whole thing
-
Foi people with mental issues, they will keep anxiety cause issues out of theii minu -
They tiy to get the clients to get in touch with theii innei selves -
Biings out poweiful uniesolveu issues that affect theii ielationship
59>4) $0-"( 4'$0."W1'7 client imagines talking to someone in an empty chaii anu
tiies to iole both himself anu the othei peison
-
1S of S2 clients completely iesolveu theii unfinisheu business anu hau bettei
tieatment outcomes
uieenbeig anu Nalcolm showeu that uestalt theiapy to be helpful -

Gesta|t 1herapy
Focus on the iole of iiiational anu self uefeating thought patteins -
Cogn|t|ve 1herap|es
B,=! H%6'3
N1%.4#%.6> &4&6% that seems to tiiggei the emotion /.
;&0.&: *7*%&A that unueilies the way in which a peison appiaises the event b.
Emotional behavioial 156*&O,&61&* of the appiaisal C.
Changing malauaptive emotions anu behaviois: -.*$,%.6>, oi challenging, an
eiioneous belief system
D.
Bowevei, this is not tiue, as it uepenus on theii belief system
If a young man feels uepiesseu aftei being iejecteu by a woman, it is his belief
that he must be loveu by otheis, especially those he thinks aie impoitant
People aie accustomeu to viewing theii emotions as being uiiectly causeu by events -
Rational-emotive theiapists intiouuce clients to common iiiational iueas anu then
tiain them to feiiet out the paiticulai iueas that unueilie theii malauaptive emotional
iesponses
-
L|||s's kat|ona|-Lmot|ve 1herapy
Iuentifies eiiois in thinking anu logic anu help clients iuentify anu iepiogiam theii
oveileaineu "automatic" thought patteins
-
This tieatment has been extenueu to the tieatment of angei anu anxiety uisoiueis -
8eck's Cogn|t|ve 1herapy
Insist that (1) behavioi uisoiueis aie leaineu in the same ways noimal behaviois aie,
anu (2) these malauaptive behaviois can be unleaineu by application of piinciples
ueiiveu fiom ieseaich on classical conuitioning anu opeiant conuitioning
-
8ehav|or 1herap|es
0seu to ieuuce, oi ueconuition, anxiety iesponses -
0seu in attempts to conuition new anxiety iesponses to a paiticulai class of stimuli,
such as alcoholic beveiages oi inappiopiiate sexual objects
-
C|ass|ca| Cond|t|on|ng 1reatments
Involves exposuie to the feaieu CS in the absence of the 0CS while using
('#>%.#' >('&'.4"%. to keep opeiant avoiuance iesponse fiom occuiiing
The best way to ieuuce feai is thiough a piocess of classical extinction of the anxiety
iesponse
-
Nay be exposeu to ieal life stimuli, known as +3%%6".< -
Nay be askeu to imagine scenes involving the stimuli, known as "9>3%#"%. 40'(->) -
Anxiety will extinguish in time if the peison iemains in the piesence of the CS anu the
0CS uoes not occui
-
This uegiee of impiovement was maintaineu oi incieaseu in follow ups
Befoie tieatment, agoiaphobics can only peifoim 27 peicent of tasks in public anu
71% was able to uo it afteiwaius
-
0CB patients benefiteu fiom this tieatment was well -
5E>%#1('7 B. 5E4".$4"%. B>>(%-$0
A)#4'9-4"$ 6'#'.#"4"C-4"%.7 0ses a technique known as $%1.4'($%.6"4"%.".< in
which a new iesponse that is incompatible with anxiety is conuitioneu to the anxiety
aiousing CS
-
Fiist step is to tiain the patient in voluntaiy muscle ielaxation -
Next a #4"9131# 0"'(-($0) is cieateu in oiuei of incieasing anxiety -
A)#4'9-4"$ !'#'.#"4"C-4"%.7 B =%1.4'($%.6"4"%.".< B>>(%-$0
Next a #4"9131# 0"'(-($0) is cieateu in oiuei of incieasing anxiety -
The theiapist asks the client to imagine the scene in oiuei -
When the scene can be imagineu foi a long time without anxiety, theiapist
moves to the next scene
Client can't be ielaxeu anu anxious at the same time, so if the ielaxation is stiong
enough, it ieplaces anxiety as the CR to that stimulus
-
Can also be uone with exposuie to a hieiaichy of ieal stimuli known as ". &"&%
6'#'.#"4"C-4"%.
-
Bowevei, exposuie ieuuces anxiety fastei than systematic uesensitization
Systematic uesensitization is piefeiieu ovei extinction because the expeiience will be
fai less anxiety inuucing
-
Eg. Injecting client with a nausea inuucing uiug then have them uiink alcohol
Theiapist paiis a stimulus that is attiactive to a peison anu causes self uefeating
behavioi with a noxious 0CS to conuition an aveision to CS
-
Aveision theiapy has been effective in tieating alcoholism, with 6S% still abstinent
aftei a yeai anu SS% abstinent aftei S yeais
-
B&'(#"%. ?0'(->)
,'0-&"%( 9%6"+"$-4"%. iefeis to tieatment techniques that involve the application of
opeiant conuitioning techniques in attempt to inciease oi ueciease a specific
behavioi
-
0ses positive ieinfoicement, extinction, negative ieinfoicement, oi punishment -
Yielus successful iesults when uealing with populations that aie uifficult to tieat with
moie tiauitional theiapies
-
Cperant Cond|t|on|ng 1reatments
0seu in hospitals
The 4%V'. '$%.%9) is a system foi stiengthening uesiieu behaviois such as peisonal
giooming, appiopiiate social iesponses, housekeeping behavioi, woiking on assigneu
jobs, anu paiticipating in vocational tiaining piogiams
-
Plastic tokens aie given foi goou behavioi -
Tokens can be ieueemeu foi tangible ieinfoiceis such as piivate iooms Tv, fuinituie,
etc.
-
When this begins to occui, tokens can be phaseu out anu the uesiieu behavioi
will continue to occui
The goal is to ieach a point wheie social anu self ieinfoiceis will take ovei anu
maintain them outsiue the hospital
-
Bighly effective in tieating schizophienic patients -
;%#"4"&' 2'".+%($'9'.4
Aie theie alteinative, less painful appioaches that might be effective
Is the behavioi to be eliminateu sufficiently injuiious to the inuiviuual oi to
society to justify the seveiity of the punishment
Two questions neeu to be askeu -

Electiic shock punishment is useu to eliminate these behaviois
Some seveiely uistuibeu autistic chiluien bang theii heau against the wall anu hit
themselves
-
?0'(->'14"$ K#' %+ ;1."#09'.4
0sually useu on univeisity stuuents who have gieat uifficulty asking women foi
uates
In #%$"-3 #V"33# 4(-".".<, clients leain new skills by obseiving anu then imitating a
mouel who peifoims a socially skillful mouel
-
Mode|||ng and Soc|a| Sk|||s 1ra|n|ng
uates
Social skills tiaining has been useu with many populations incluuing inuiviuuals who
have minoi ueficits in social skills
-
Clinicians aie becoming '$3'$4"$, combining tieatments anu making use of whatevei
oiientations anu theiapeutic techniques seem appiopiiate foi the paiticulai client
-
Nany theiapists now label themselves 15>6.%.4& 3&"#4.5'#0 %"&'#$.*%* because they
use both peispectives
-
Eg. uestalt is effective in uiscoveiing unueilying feelings
Some methous woik bettei foi ceitain illnesses -
In a iecent suivey of eclectic theiapists, 72 peicent useu psychouynamic piinciples,
S4 peicent useu cognitive appioaches, 4S peicent useu behavioial techniques
-
Eg. A man who is angiy because he is unasseitive. Be may be tieateu with
psychoanalysis to impiove see his unasseitiveness as a the souice of his angei.
At this point, psychoanalysis has ieacheu it limit, anu behavioi skills such as
mouelling is useu to help uevelop asseitive skills.
;#)$0%6).-9"$ D'0-&"%( 40'(->) -

Integrat|ng and Comb|n|ng 1herap|es
Cu|tura| and Gender Issues |n sychotherapy
0veiall iates of psychopathology uo no uiffei gieatly between ethnic gioups -
0tilization of mental health seivices is fai less foi minoiity gioups than foi its white
majoiity
-
Tenuency foi people not to seek piofessional help outsiue of theii cultuial noim
Language baiiieis
Bistoiy of fiustiating expeiiences with White buieauciacy
Too few theiapists that can pioviue cultuially iesponsive foims of tieatment
Biveisity cieates ceitain baiiieis -
Biing the mental health seivice agencies in minoiity uwelling aieas
Tiain moie theiapists fiom these cultuial gioups
Bow to oveicome these baiiieis -
They can intiouuce cultuial specific elements into theiapy
=1341(-33) $%9>'4'.4 theiapists aie able to use knowleuge about the client's cultuie
to achieve a bioau unueistanuing of the client
-
Cuiient theiapists' theiapy is moie effective when they exposeu to cultuially
sensitive tiaining
-
Cu|tura| Iactors |n 1reatment Ut|||zat|on
Nen an women live uiffeient lives -
Nay be uue to lack of oppoitunity uue to sexism, oveiiepiesenteu poveity iate,
subjection to uouble buiuen uays
In westein cultuies, women suffei fiom uepiession anu anxiety uisoiueis -

It is impoitant foi both men anu women to suppoit people in making choices
that meet theii neeu
Theiapists focus on what can be uone to change women's life ciicumstances anu help
them auapt to sex iole expectations that constiain them
-
J'.6'( F##1'# ". ?0'(->)
A>'$"+"$"4) W1'#4"%.7 "which types of theiapy, auministeieu by which kius of
theiapists to which kinus of clients having which kinus of pioblems, piouuce which
-
Lva|uat|ng sychotherap|es
theiapists to which kinus of clients having which kinus of pioblems, piouuce which
kinu of effects."
Fieuu anu othei psychoanalysts iejecteu using expeiimental methous anu state
that many people who have unueigone tieatment hau impioveu mental health
In the 19Sus anu 4us, case stuuies weie most wiuely useu -
Concluueu that the iate of #>%.4-.'%1# ('9"##"%.7 symptom ieuuction in
absence of tieatment was as high as the success iate iepoiteu by psychotheiapy
Also concluueu that uata gatheieu by theiapists coulu be biaseu because they
want to see themselves as competent anu successful
Now it seems that Eysenck's conclusions weie oveily pessimistic

Tiiggeieu new ieseaich anu othei foims of theiapy
Eysenck useu insuiance uata on people who applieu foi uisability uue to
psychological pioblems
-
The Ameiican Psychological Association's Bivision of Clinical Psychology iuentifies
'9>"("$-33) &-3"6-4'6 40'(->"'# that shows to be effective
-
sychotherapy kesearch Methods
Placeu in uiffeient foims of theiapy
Some aie placeu in a >3-$'D% $%.4(%3 <(%1> wheie the methous useu aie
expecteu to fail
Tests to see which foims of theiapy is valiu foi a ceitain mental uisoiuei
Nost psychotheiapy ieseaicheis favoi (-.6%9"C'6 $3"."$-3 4("-3# involving patients
with well uefineu uisoiueis that aie similai to each othei
-
APA makes a stanuaiizeu manual that contains pioceuuies that must be followeu
exactly
-
Shows that the effects aie lasting anu that the patients uo not ielapse
Reseaicheis shoulu collect follow up uata -
P0-4 "# - J%%6 ;#)$0%40'(->) 2'#'-($0 !'#"<.O
H'4-/-.-3)#"# allows ieseaicheis to combine iesults of uiffeient stuuies to aiiive at
an oveiall conclusion
-
Shows which peicentage of clients who ieceiveu tieatment hau moie favoiable
outcomes that those who uiu not
They can compute an '++'$4 #"C' #4-4"#4"$ that iepiesents a common measuie of
tieatment effectiveness
-
Smith anu ulass showeu that those who ieceiveu theiapy hau moie than 7S% moie
favoiable outcomes than untieateu cases
-
Psychouynamic, client centeieu, anu behavioial methous yielu similai iesults while
uestalt was the least effective
-
0thei challenge that it may mask 6"++'('.4"-3 '++'$4"&'.'##, some specific
theiapies aie moie effective foi ceitain uisoiueis than otheis
The uiffeient tieatments weie given the 6%6% D"(6 &'(6"$4: Eveiyone has won anu all
must have piizes
-
=3"."$-3 #"<."+"$-.$' woulu iequiie that clients' uepiession scoies fall within
the iange foi nonuepiesseu people
Noie stiingent uefinition = lowei success iate

Bow uoes theiapeutic success uefine. -
Rigoious ones usually have moie favoiable outcomes
When iigoious theiapies aie compaieu with less iigoious ones, the outcomes may be
skeweu
-
H'4-/B.-3)#"#7 B G%%V -4 40' ,"< ;"$41('
1u peicent of people get woise as a iesult o theiapy -
Iactors Affect|ng the Cutcome of 1herapy
1u peicent of people get woise as a iesult o theiapy -
N>'..'##7 clients' geneial willingness to invest themselves in theiapy anu take
the iisks iequiieu to change themselves
!.
A'3+/('3-4'6.'##7 client's ability to expeiience anu unueistanu inteinal states
such as thoughts anu emotions to be attuneu to the piocesses that go on in theii
ielationship with theii theiapist
?.
Natuie of the pioblem anu its ability to fit with the tieatment with the theiapy
useu
3.
Client vaiiables -
Nust be in an empathic, tiusting, anu caiing ielationship
Bostile ielationships can cause a 6'4'("%(-4"%. '++'$4 wheie the client gets
woise
Quality of the ielationship between theiapist anu client -

Nost effective theiapists aujusteu theii techniques to specific neeus of theii
clients
To be effective, the client must be in theiapy foi a while

S8 to 67 peicent of clients impioveu clinically aftei an aveiage of 1S
sessions
!%#'/('#>%.#' '++'$47 the ielationship between the amount of tieatment

ieceiveu anu the quality of the outcome
Theiapist ability -
Faith in the theiapist anu believing that the help they ieceive is useful
Plausible explanation of theii pioblems
Piotective setting in which clients can expeiience anu expiess theii ueepest
feelings within a suppoitive ielationship
An oppoitunity to piactise new behaviois

Incieaseu optimism anu self efficacy
=%99%. +-$4%(# shaieu by uiffeient foims of theiapy that contiibute to theii success -
8|o|og|ca| Approaches to 1reatment
Noie than 2uu million piesciiption aie filleu foi psychological uisoiueis -
Drug 1herap|es
Noie than 1S% of Ameiicans between 18 anu 74 use anti anxietytianquilizing uiugs
such as valium, Xanax, anu BuSpai
-
Besigneu to ieuuce anxiety without affecting aleitness oi concentiation -
A tempoiaiy ielief fiom anxiety may allow a client to entei anxiety aiousing
situations anu leain to cope with them moie effectively
-
People uevelop physiological uepenuence on tianquilizeis anu may expeiience
withuiawal symptoms such as intense anxiety, nausea anu iestlessness
-
Effective in PTSB anu geneial anxiety
Reuuces excitatoiy synaptic activity by the excitement of uABA, which ieuuces
neuial activity in aieas of the biain associateu with emotional aiousal
Buspiione (BuSpai) is slow acting, has fewei fatiguing siue effects, anu has less
potential foi abuse
-
B.4"/-.E"'4) !(1<#
S categoiies: tiicyclics (Elavil, Tofianil), monoamine oxiuase (NA0) inhibitois (Naiuil,
Painate), Selective ieuptake inhibitois (SSRI) (Piozac, Zoloft, Paxil)
-
Tiicyclics pievent the ieuptake of excitatoiy tiansmitteis into the piesynaptic
Fiist two classes inciease the activity of the excitatoiy neuiotiansmitteis
noiepinephiine anu seiotonin
-
B.4"6'>('##-.4 !(1<#
Tiicyclics pievent the ieuptake of excitatoiy tiansmitteis into the piesynaptic
neuions
NA0 inhibitois ieuuce the activity of monoamine oxiuase which bieaks uown
neuiotiansmitteis at the synapse
NA0 inhibitois have moie seveie siue effects than tiicyclics anu can cause a
uangeious elevation in bloou piessuie when taken with ceitain foous
-
Can cause neivousness, insomnia, sweating, join pain, oi sexual uysfunction
Woiks by blocking ieuptake of seiotonin
SSRIs aie uesigneu to ueciease siue effects by incieasing the activity of only seiotonin -
Biugs have alloweu foi a ueciease in the numbei of people hospitalizeu anu alloweu
them to function in the wilu
-
Woiks well on positive symptoms such as uelusion anu hallucination, but
little effect on negative symptoms such as apathy anu withuiawal
Schizophienics tenu to ielapse if they stop taking the uiugs

Leu to the uevelopment of majoi tianquilizeis which is useu to ueciease the
action of uopamine, the neuiotiansmittei whose oveiactivity is thought to be
involveu in schizophienia
Acciuental uiscoveiy of ieseipine, a uiug fiom the ioot of the snakeioot plant, calmeu
psychotic patients
-
18.S% of young auults anu S1% of those ovei SS uevelop taiuive uyskenesia
symptoms
These uiugs can cause a movement uisoiuei known as 4-(6"&' 6)#V".'#"-R giotesque
movements of the face anu tongue anu sometimes limbs flailing uncontiollably
-
Piouuces a fatal bloou uisease in 1 to 2 peicent of the people taking it
New uiug clozapine (Clozaiil) ieuuces both the positive anu negative symptoms anu
oues not seem to piouuce taiuive uyskenesia
-
Antipsychotic uiugs can often be useu in conjunction with psychotheiapy -
B.4">#)$0%4"$ !(1<#
Figuieu that seizuie inuuction might be helpful in the tieatment of
schizophienia
Recent ieseaich shows that it cannot ielieve anxiety uisoiueis anu it is of

questionable value foi schizophienic patients
Biugs in this case is impiactical because they take too long to have an effect
0seful in tieating uepiession especially if theie is a high iisk of suiciue
5=? oiiginateu fiom the obseivation that schizophienia anu epilepsy iaiely occuiieu
in the same peison
-
Roughly 1uu volts -
Convulsions can be so seveie that they may injuie themselves -
6u to 7u peicent impiovement -
Ciitics point out that the possibility of a uepiessive ielapse is high -
Possibility of peimanent memoiy loss anu peimanent biain uamage -
L|ectroconvu|s|ve 1herapy
Suigical pioceuuies that iemove oi uestioy biain tissue to change uisoiueieu
behavioi
-
Known as a lobotomy
Noniz ieceiveu a nobel piize foi his contiibution
In the 19Sus, Noniz iepoiteu that cutting the connection between the fiontal lobes
with subcoitical aieas of the biain involveu in emotion iesulteu in a calming psychotic
anu uncontiollably violent patients
-
Lobotomy causeu seveie siue effects on mental anu emotional functioning incluuing -
sychosurgery
Lobotomy causeu seveie siue effects on mental anu emotional functioning incluuing
seizuies, stupoi, memoiy anu ieasoning impaiiment, anu listlessness
-
Noie concise pioceuuies aie still useu touay foi extieme cases -
Successful in tieating seveie uepiessive anu 0CB uisoiueis that have faileu to
impiove with uiug tieatment oi psychotheiapy
=".<13%4%9) involves cutting a small fibei neai the coipus callosum that connects
the fiontal lobes with the limbic system
-
Biological anu theiapeutic tieatments can be seen as uiffeient ioutes to the same
uestination
-
Psychological tieatment piouuceu a stiongei ieuuction in feai anu social phobia
than uiu the uiug tieatment
PET scans showeu appioximately the same neuial activity ieuuction foi both
cases
In a stuuy of people feaiing social situations showeu that both SSRI tieatment anu
psychotheiapy weie effective
-
Biugs uo not teach clients the coping skills neeueu to cope with the pioblem without
uiugs anu uo not cuie the uisoiuei
-
M|nd, 8ody, and 1herapeut|c Intervent|ons
The move towaius institutionalization was pioneeieu by Boiothy Bix who tiavelleu
thioughout Canaua anu the 0S to piomote the humane tieatment of people with
mental uisoiueis
-
By the 19uus, most piovinces hau institutions set up foi the mentally insane -
Fiequently unueistaffeu anu unueifunueu anu uiu nothing moie than pioviue
custouial caie
-
sycho|og|ca| D|sorders and Soc|ety
In the 196us, theie weie conceins about the inauequacies of mental hospitals anu the
ability of antipsychotic uiugs that coulu noimalize patients behavioi iesulteu in a
6'".#4"414"%.-3"C-4"%. movement to tiansfei people into the community
-
Requiies availability of high quality mental health caie in community clinics,
halfway houses, shlteieu woikshops, etc.
The lack of them combineu with ueinstitutionalization can leau to the ('&%3&".<
6%%( >0'.%9'.%. involving iepeateu iehospitalizations
The movement to community tieatment is goou since it allows people to iemain in

theii social anu woik enviionments with minimal uisiuption of theii life
-
4u to 4S peicent of the Canauian homeless have been hospitalizeu foi a mental
uisoiuei in the past thiee yeais
-
De|nst|tut|ona||zat|on
People may become vulneiable to psychological uisoiueis as a iesult of situational
anu peisonal factois
-
Eg. Piogiams uesigneu to enhance the functioning of families, ieuuce stiess
within oiganizations, pioviue bettei euucational oppoitunities foi chiluien, anu
uevelop a sense of connection to othei people anu the community in geneial
A"41-4"%./+%$1#'6 >('&'.4"%. is uiiecteu a ieuucing oi elimination the

enviionmental causes of behavioi uisoiueis
-
Eu. Stiengthening iesistance to stiess, impioving social skills, etc.
In PTSB tieatment of iape victims, the tieatment gioup hau much less symptoms
than the contiol gioup
=%9>'4'.$)/+%$1#'6 >('&'.4"%. is uesigneu to inciease peisonal iesouices anu

coping skills
-
revent|ve Menta| nea|th
than the contiol gioup

Stiess can be vieweu as a stimulus, as a iesponse, anu as an oiganism enviionment
inteiaction
-
A4('##%(# aie eliciting stimuli that place stiong uemanus on us -
Stiess has been vieweu as a iesponse -
The most compiehensive way to think about it is a peison-situation inteiaction
between the oiganism anu the enviionment (fig. 1S.1)
-
A4('## is a pattein of cognitive appiaisals, physiological iesponses, anu behavioial
tenuencies that occuis in iesponse to a peiceiveu imbalance between situational
uemanus anu the iesouices iequiieu to cope with them
-
1he Nature of Stress
They aie a specific kinu of eliciting stimuli that places physical oi psychological
uemanu on us that enuangei oui well being anu iequiies us to auapt
-
H"$(%#4('##%(#7 uaily hassles fiom school, job, etc -
Bappens to many people at once
=-4-#4(%>0"$ '&'.4#7 natuial uisasteis, wai, etc. -
H-I%( M'<-4"&' '&'.4#7 victim of sexual abuse, ueath of a family membei, caieei
failuie, etc.
-
Stressors
Reseaicheis ueviseu 3"+' '&'.4 #$-3'# to quantify the amount of stiess that a peison
has expeiienceu ovei a peiiou of time
-
Table 1S.1 -
Asks whethei each event was a positive oi a negative one, anu whethei it was a majoi
event oi a uay to uay event
-
Eailiei theoiists uefine both positive anu negative stiess as stiess, but only negative
stiess leaus to negative health implications
-
H'-#1(".< A4('##+13 G"+' 5&'.4#
Appiaisal of the 6'9-.6# of the situation (piimaiy appiaisal) !.
Appiaisal of the ('#%1($'# available to cope with it (seconuaiy appiaisal) ?.
}uugments of what the $%.#'W1'.$'# of the situation coulu be 3.
Appiaisal of the >'(#%.-3 9'-.".<, what the outcome might imply 1.
4 stages of stiess appiaisal -
}ob inteiview example -
;("9-() ->>(-"#-3 of the situation as being eithei benign, neutialiiielevant, oi
thieatening in teims of its uemanu
-
Ability to cope with the situation anu the iesouices to ueal with it incluuing
knowleuge, veibal skills, social iesouices (people that gives emotional suppoit),
(#'$%.6-() ->>(-"#-3T
-
Appiaising the consequences of failing as veiy costly anu veiy likely to occui
incieases the peiceiveu stiessfulness of the situation
;%4'.4"-3 $%.#'W1'.$'#7 will you be able to pay youi tuition if you uon't get the job.
Bow likely is it that you will fail.
-
If you place self woith baseu on youi success in such situations, you may view
Psychological meaning of the consequences may ielate to youi basic beliefs about the
woilu
-
1he Stress kesponse
Chaptei 1S Notes
Aprll-02-11
4:39 M
If you place self woith baseu on youi success in such situations, you may view
youiself as a failuie if you uon't succeeu
Ie. 0nueiestimating the amount of iesouices available

Bistoition anu mistakes in any pait of the appiaisal piocess will cause an
inappiopiiate level of stiess iesponse
-
Autonomic anu somatic feeuback can affect oui appiaisal of how stiessful a
situation is
As soon as we make appiaisals, the bouy iesponus -

The <'.'(-3 -6->4-4"%. #).6(%9' is a physiological iesponse pattein to stiong anu
piolongeu stiessois
-
S phases: alaim ieaction, iesistance, anu exhaustion -
Incieaseu heait iate anu iespiiation, uilateu pupils, slowei uigestion
Bloou aiiives at muscles
If you aie injuieu, coitisol suppiesses inflamation
Coitisol is piouuceu which incieases bloou sugais anu suppiesses the immune
system
Bouy is piimeu to act in a fight oi flight fashion

Bouy has a natuial tenuency foi homeostasis, paiasympathetic neivous system
will kick in which mutes some of the effect of the sympathetic neivous system
B3-(9 -$4"%. occuis because of the suuuen activation of the sympathetic neivous
system anu the ielease of stiess hoimones by the enuociine system
-
Bloou sugai levels, suppiession of uigestion anu immune system, anu inciease
heait iate anu iespiiation cannot last foievei anu eventually iesistance comes to
an enu
2'#"#4-.$' is the continuation of the peison's iesouices being uepleteu to ueal with
the stiess
-
Inciease vulneiability to uisease, collapse anu even ueath
The bouy's weakest system will be affecteu uuiing the stage of exhaustion
5E0-1#4"%. is when the bouy's iesouices aie uangeiously uepleteu -
Chron|c Stress and the GAS
The physical mobilization system sculpteu by evolution to help oiganisms ueal with
life thieatening physical stiessois may not be as auaptive foi uealing with
psychological stiessois of mouein life
-
Stress and nea|th
In a stuuy of natuial uisasteis, Rubonis anu Bickman founu an aveiage of 17%
inciease in iates of psychological uisoiueis
-
Nany chilu suivivois iemain entiappeu in a suivival moue
Nany Bolocaust suivivois still suffei fiom high levels of anxiety anu iecuiient
nightmaies about theii expeiiences
-
Nany vietnam Wai vets expeiience psychological stiess anu anxiety -
Feai of being alone, being in a ciowu, often change iesiuence, nightmaies,
uecieaseu sexual enjoyment
14 of iape victims felt they have no iecoveieu psychologically six yeais aftei
the iape
2->' 4(-19- #).6(%9' -

S ways this coulu happen
1: negative life event scoies causes psychological uistiess scoies
People who iepoit moie negative life events, the moie they iepoit symptoms of
psychological uisoiuei
-
Stress and sycho|og|ca| We||-8e|ng
2: psychological uistiess causes negative life event

S: M'1(%4"$"#97 tenuency of expeiience negative emotions incieases both
scoies
Seveie anxiety, physiological aiousal, anu uistiess

Painful uncontiollable ieliving of events in flashbacks, uieams, anu fantasies
Emotional numbing anu avoiuance of stimuli associateu with tiauma
Intense suivivoi guilt wheie otheis will killeu but the inuiviuual suiviveu
PTSB iepiesents what can happen to victims of extieme stiess anu tiauma -
Tiaumas causeu by human peipetiatois, such as wai, iape, assault, anu toituie tenu
to have moie seveie PTSB than natuial uisasteis
-
Women aie moie likely to uevelop PTSB than men -
Likelihoou ueteimineu by the victim's social suppoit, piesence of significant
chiluhoou stiesses, peisonality factois, coping stiategies, anu pieexisting
psychological conuitions
-
ost-1raumat|c Stress D|sorder (1SD)
Stiess can cause an entiie spectium of physical illness incluuing common colu, cancei,
heait uisease, uiabetes, anu suuuen ueath
-
Within a month aftei the ueath of a spouse, beieaveu wiuoweis anu wiuows begin to
show a highei moitality iate compaieu to hishei peeis
-
Inciease iisk of chionic health conuitions incluuing aithiitis, bionchitis, emphysema,
stomach anu intestinal ulceis
-
Can woisen an alieauy existing meuical conuition -
Stiess hoimones secieteu by auienal glanus affect the activity of the heait by
uamaging the lining of the aiteiies, anu cause fatty blockages in aiteiies
-
Naiiieu couples who hau hostile maiital conflicts showeu a measuiable ueciease in
immune function 24 houis latei
-
Piolongeu coitisol exposuie can cause ueteiioiation of the hippocampus anu
accompanying memoiy impaiiment
-
Eg. When uiabetics aie unuei stiess, they aie less likely to follow a stiict uiet anu
meuication plan
People moie likely to quit exeicising

Stiess can cause people to behave in a way that's uangeious foi theii health -
Stress and I||ness
L13.'(-D"3"4) +-$4%(# inciease people's susceptibility to stiessful events -
;(%4'$4"&' +-$4%(# aie enviionmental oi peisonal iesouices that help people cope
moie effectively with stiessful events
-
Vu|nerab|||ty and rotect|ve Iactors
Knowleuge that we can iely on otheis foi suppoit is an impoitant vulneiability factoi
anu blunts the impact of stiess
-
People with weak social ties aie twice as likely to uie than those with stiong social ties -
Social suppoits enhances immune system functioning -
Reuuces loneliness anu an incieaseu feeling of contiol ovei stiessois
Fiienus can pievent malauaptive stiess iesponses such as uiug anu alcohol
usage
People feel that they aie a pait of a social system expeiience a gieatei sense of
iuentity anu meaning in theii lives, which in tuin iesults in gieatei psychological well
being
-
Stuuents who shaie theii negative emotions hau stiongei immune systems than those -
Soc|a| Support
Su% fewei visits to the campus health centei ovei the next six months
Noie ieseaich is neeueu to see if emotional puiging is applicable in all situations
Since paiticipants hau the option to not shaie theii expeiiences, peihaps
peisonality factois play a iole in it as well
Stuuents who shaie theii negative emotions hau stiongei immune systems than those
who uiu not
-
Weinei's stuuy of stiess iesilient chiluien founu in hei longituuinal stuuy that
"without exception, all of the chiluien who thiiveu hau at least one peison that
pioviueu them with consistent emotional suppoit"
-
Cogn|t|ve rotect|ve Iactors: 1he Importance of 8e||ef
Thiee C's of haiuiness aie $%99"49'.4R $%.4(%3R anu $0-33'.<' -
They aie committeu to theii woik, theii family anu believe what they uo is impoitant -
They view themselves as in contiol of the outcomes -
Can actually stimulate highei levels of peifoimance
views uemanus of the situation as challenges anu oppoitunities iathei than thieats -
@-(6".'##
Believing that we can oveicome the ciicumstances
=%>".< A'3+ 5++"$-$)7 the conviction that we can peifoim the behaviois necessaiy to
cope successfully
-
=%>".< A'3+/5++"$-$)
Pessimists have a gieatei iisk foi helplessness anu uepiession -
0ptimism is goou foi health anu happiness -
N>4"9"#9
Type A people live unuei gieat piessuie anu aie uemanuing of themselves anu otheis -
Exaggeiateu sense of uigency incluuing iapiu talking, moving, walking anu eating -
?)>' B is chaiacteiizeu by high levels of competitiveness anu ambition as well as
aggiessiveness anu hostility when things get in theii way
-
?)>' , people aie moie ielaxeu, moie agieeable, anu have fai less sense of time
uigency
-
Type A people, even with othei factois taken into account, have twice the likelihoou of
coionaiy heait uisease (CBB)
-
Suspicion, iesentment, fiequent angei, uistiust, anu antogonism
Tenus to alienate otheis which ieuuces the amount of social suppoit they
ieceive
The culpiit of CBB is mainly negative emotions, especially hostile oi aggiessive

feelings
-
Similai to Type A pattein
Likes to bottle up negative emotions which gets in the way of active coping anu
tenu to feel helplessness anu hopelessness in the face of seveie stiess
Bottling up emotions can be hazaiuous to one's health

Risk of ueath fiom cancei is much highei if emotions aie not expiesseu
?)>' = is a iisk foi cancei -
Su% less likely to uie anu less likely to engage in iisky behavioi
ueneially less likely to smoke anu uiink to excess anu moie likely to exeicise, eat
a balanceu uiet
Conscientiousness has the stiongest link to physical health anu longevity -

;'(#%.-3"4) 8-$4%(#
Eg. People finuing meaning in the ueath of a loveu one helpeu them cope with
Bumanistic theoiists claim that those who can finu meaning with stiessful events aie
less uistiesseu
-
8".6".< H'-.".< ". A4('##+13 G"+' 5&'.4#
Eg. People finuing meaning in the ueath of a loveu one helpeu them cope with
this loss
Religious beliefs can comfoit people in times of ciises

Involves the ielations between $-4'$0%3-9".'# (incluuing epinephiine anu
noiepinephiine) anu =%(4"$%#4'(%"6# (paiticulaily coitisol) that mobilize the
bouy's fight oi flight iesponse
Coitisol's effects last much longei anu moie uamaging than catecholoamines
;0)#"%3%<"$-3 4%1<0.'## appeais to be a piotective factoi -
Low iesting level of coitisol, low levels of coitisol secietion in iesponse to
stiessois, anu a quick ietuin to baseline level of coitisol aftei the stiess if ovei
Low iesting level of catecholamine but a quick a stiong catecholamine iesponse

when the stiessoi occuis
Physiological toughness consists of -

Exeicise piouuces catecholamine may account foi exeicise's health enhancing effects -
hys|o|og|ca| keact|v|ty
Eg. Stuuying foi a test
;(%D3'9/+%$1#'6 $%>".< attempts to confiont anu ueal uiiectly with the uemanus of
the situation oi change the situation so that it's no longei stiessful
-
Eg. Appiaising the situation in a mannei that minimizes its emotional impact oi
uenying that any pioblem exists
59%4"%./+%$1#'6 $%>".< attempts to manage the emotional iesponses that iesult

fiom it
-
Tuining to otheis foi assistance anu emotional suppoit
A''V".< #%$"-3 #1>>%(4 -
Cop|ng w|th Stress
Pioblem-focuseu coping methous anu seeking social suppoit weie associateu with
favoiable aujustment to stiessois
-
Auaptive emotion-focuseu stiategies such as changing iiiational thinking anu
leaining to ielax can ieuuce stiess without avoiuing oi uistoiting ieality
Emotion-focuseu stiategies that involve avoiuing feelings oi taking things out on

otheis pieuicteu uepiession anu pooiei aujustment
-
Lffect|veness of Cop|ng Strateg|es
Emotion focuseu coping may be the most effective
When we cannot influence oi mouify a situation, pioblem-focuseu coping may uo us
little goou anu coulu make things woise
-
uioup 1: taught pioblem focuseu coping
uioup 2: taught emotion focuseu coping
uioup S: contiol
In a stuuy, coping with viitual plane hijacking -
Because in this case, the situation is out of the paiticipants' contiol emotion-focuseu
coping was the most effective, followeu by pioblem-focuseu coping, followeu by the
contiol gioup which ieceiveu not tiaining
-
Couiage to change those things that can be changeu, foibeaiance to accept those that
cannot be changeu, anu the wisuom to uiscein the uiffeience
-
Contro||ab|||ty and Cop|ng Lff|cacy
Inability to expiess negative feelings has been ielateu to cancei anu the use of uenial
oi iepiessive coping stiategies
-
A piogiam was uevelopeu to teach those who aie emotionally constiaineu but has not
uevelopeu cancei
-
8ott||ng Up Iee||ngs: 1he Costs of Constra|nt
9u% of the paiticipants who ieceiveu tiaining weie still alive
62% of people who hau not ieceiveu tiaining hau uieu fiom cancei anu othei
ailments
uevelopeu cancei
Nen aie moie likely to use pioblem focuseu coping as a fiist stiategy -
Also favois emotion-focuseu coping
Nay be uue to socialization
Women favoi laigei suppoit netwoiks anu highei neeu foi affiliation than men -
Euiopeans anu Noith Ameiicans use pioblem-focuseu coping moie than uo Asian anu
Bispanic peoples who tenu to favoi emotion-focuseu coping anu social suppoit
-
Gender, Cu|ture and Cop|ng
Suigeon ueneial of the 0S concluueu that impiovements in health aie moie likely to
iesult fiom effoits to pievent uisease anu piomote health than new uiugs anu meuical
technologies
-
Cuiient majoi killeis aie heait uisease, cancei, anu stioke aie moie attiibuteu to
behavioial factois
-
Leauing causes of ueath befoie life expectancy is laigely attiibuteu to alcohol,
smoking, insufficient exeicise, etc.
-
@'-340 >#)$0%3%<) stuuies psychological anu behavioial factois in pievention anu
tieatment of illness anu in maintenance of health
-
@'-340 '.0-.$".< D'0-&"%(# seive to maintain oi inciease health such as exeicise
anu healthy uiet
-
@'-340 $%9>(%9"#".< D'0-&"%(# aie those that piomote the uevelopment of illness -
nea|th romot|on and I||ness revent|on
Not a smooth piocess, people often move back anu foith anu make iepeateu
effoits to change
?(-.#40'%('4"$-3 9%6'3 iuentifies 6 majoi stages in the change piocess -

Bon't peiceive themselves as having a pioblem anu has no uesiie to change
;('$%.4'9>3-4"%. !.
Peison peiceives a pioblem but has not yet ueciueu to take action; will not take
action until the peiceiveu benefit outweighs the costs oi effoit involveu
=%.4'9>3-4"%. ?.
Beciueu they want to change theii behavioi but has not actively begun
Beveloping a plan to take action within the next month
Alieauy began to make small changes
;('>-(-4"%. 3.
People actively begins to mouify theii behavioi anu theii enviionment
uieatest commitment of effoit anu eneigy
B$4"%. 1.
If a peison has avoiueu ielapse anu has contiolleu taiget behavioi foi 6 months,
they aie in the stage of maintenance
H-".4'.-.$' .
Change in behavioi is so ingiaineu anu contiolleu that the oiiginal pioblem
behavioi will nevei ietuin
?'(9".-4"%. b.
Psychologists can use this mouel to apply #4-<'/9-4$0'6 ".4'(&'.4"%. uesigneu to
move the peison towaiu the action, maintenance, anu teimination stages
-
now eop|e Change: 1he 1ranstheoret|ca| Mode|
Increas|ng 8ehav|ors that Lnhance nea|th
Increas|ng 8ehav|ors that Lnhance nea|th
Seuentaiy lifestyle is a significant iisk factoi foi coionaiy heait uisease, uiabetes anu
obesity
-
7u% of Noith Ameiicans aie inactive -
Slowei iesting heait iate, bettei oxygen utilization, ieuuceu cholesteiol levels
B'(%D"$ 'E'($"#' is sustaineu activity such as jogging, swimming, anu cycling that
elevates heait iate anu incieases the bouy's neeu foi oxygen
-
Beath iates weie 1S to 14 lowei among moueiate exeiciseis than the less active
gioup
-
Causeu by low efficacy foi success in exeicising iegulaily
Type A peisonality (too busy to exeicise)
Inflateu estimates of cuiient physical fitness (I'm alieauy in gieat shape fiom
walking to the fiiuge)
Inactive leisuie puisuits (Tv)

Inspiieu euucational piogiams People have stiong tenuency to eithei avoiu uoing it
oi to uiscontinue it aftei a shoit peiiou
-
5E'($"#'
48% of Canauians ageu 2u to 64 aie oveiweight anu 1S% aie obese -
Suu% inciease in chiluhoou obesity between 198u anu 2uu4 -
0besity incieases the iisk foi caiuiovasculai uisease, kiuney uisease, anu iuabetes -
Fat aiounu the abuomen is a fai gieatei iisk foi acaiuiovasculai uisease, uiabetes, anu
cancei than fat stoieu in othei paits of the bouy
-
Accumulation of abuominal fat is incieaseu by )%/)% 6"'4".< that iesults in big weight
fluctuations
-
Stiategies incluue limiting foou intake to one pait of the house, eating uuiing meal
times, anu slowing uown when eating
-
Expeiimental gioup ieceiveu a behavioial self iegulation piogiam that taigets
health factois such as smoking, exeicise, weight, nutiition, anu meuication
auheience
Aftei 4 yeais, contiol gioup woiseneu oi showeu no impiovement

Reuuceu uietaiy fat, loweieu bau cholesteiol, incieaseu goou cholesteiol,
incieaseu theii exeicise, anu iaiseu theii caiuiovasculai capacity
Those who ieceiveu the behavioial self iegulation piogiam showeu significant
positive change in theii health habits
Those in the contiol gioup, 4S% eithei uieu oi hau a caiuiac emeigency vs 24%
in the expeiimental gioup
Even those suffeiing fiom seiious illness can benefit foim health ielateu piogiams -
P'"<04 =%.4(%3
Now a woilu epiuemic with 16,uuu new cases uaily
0n }une S, 1981, the Centeis foi Bisease Contiol iepoiteu the fiist case of acquiieu
immune ueficiency synuiome
-
AIBS causeu by the @19-. "991.%6'+"$"'.$) &"(1# S@FLT which ciipples the
immune system by killing cells that cooiuinate the bouy's attack against pathogens
which become the actual killeis
-
The viius changes iapiuly, ienueiing vaccines ineffective -
Incubation peiiou coulu be as long as 1u yeais, meaning that it coulu be passeu on to
many othei people
-
keduc|ng 8ehav|ors that Impa|r nea|th
AIBS is as much a psychological pioblem as a meuical one -
Pievention piogiams aie uesigneu to -
;('&'.4"%. ;(%<(-9#
Euucate people about piotective sex
Notivate people to change theii behavioi
uive suppoit anu encouiagement
Pievention piogiams aie uesigneu to -
Pieviously, pievention piogiams aie taigeteu at gays who weie the majoi at iisk
gioup
-
Now focuseu towaius auolescent population who often piactice unpiotecteu sex -
The success of the inteivention piogiam uepenus on the extent to which the
inuiviuual's social system suppoits the uesiieu changes
-
Banuuia's iauio show was useu as a positive iole mouel anu to coiiect
misbeliefs about conuoms anu tiansmission of BIv
Positive iole mouels hau positive outcomes, negative iole mouels with negative
outcomes, anu tiansitional iole mouels who staits out negative but then
becomes moie positive
Thiough the use of the social-cognitive theoiy, positive behaviois can be inuuceu -
Nostly fiom vehicle acciuents, then livei ciiihosis anu alcohol ielateu suiciues
Beaths fiom alcohol was 6,7u1 in 1992 -
82,u76 hospitalizeu foi alcohol ielateu causes -
Come fiom loss of piouuctivity, law enfoicement anu uiiect health caie
Economic costs of alcohol is ioughly 7.S billion, almost S% of Canaua's uBP -
Roughly 64u,uuu with alcohol uepenuence in Canaua -
Smoking is the laigest cause of pieventable ueath, killing about 12 million pei yeai -
S1% of physical anu 48% of sexual assaults inuicate a ielation to the use of illicit
uiugs anu alcohol
-
Substance abuse is highly associateu with psychological uisoiueis -
Combatt|ng Substance Abuse
Cognitive behavioial appioaches have pioven to be the most cost effective anu
successful in ieuucing abuse
-
sycho|og|ca| Approaches to 1reatment and revent|on
Biug anu alcohol abuseis must inciease awaieness of theii pioblems, have a uesiie to
take action, anu believe that they can change
-
H%4"&-4"%.-3 ".4'(&"':".< leaus a peison to his oi hei own conclusions by asking
questions that focus on uisciepancies between the cuiient state of affaiis anu the
inuiviuual's iueal self image
-
Following the client's uecision to puisue behavioi change, the counseloi can then set
specific goals anu select fiom a menu of behavioi change stiategies
-
H%4"&-4"%.-3 F.4'(&"':".<
Aveision theiapy
Relaxation anu stiess management tiaining to teach a peison to auapt to
stiessful situations
Self monitoiing pioceuuies to help a peison iuentify the anteceuents anu the
consequences of the abuse behaviois
Coping anu social skills tiaining foi uealing with high iisk situations that tiiggei
abuse
Naiital anu family counseling to ieuuce conflicts anu inciease social suppoit foi
change
Positive ieinfoicement pioceuuies to stiengthen change

Incluues biological anu psychological measuies to inuuce change -
Such piogiam in an expeiiment with 427 alcoholics showeu that 6S% weie totally
abstinent aftei 1 yeai
-
H134"9%6-3 ?('-49'.4 B>>(%-$0'#
abstinent aftei 1 yeai
0veiall, fewei than Su% o tieateu alcoholics iemain impioveu 1 yeai aftei tieatment -
8u% of those who quit smoking ielapse within a yeai -
Nost ielapses occui when a peison suffei a lapse (one time slip) when confionteu
with a high iisk situations which incluue stiessful events, inteipeisonal conflicts, anu
social piessuie
-
They feel a lack of self efficacy foi iesisting the temptation
Incieaseu likelihoou occuis when people hau not uevelopeu stiong enough coping
skills to ueal successfully with the high iisk situation
-
Causes total ielapse to occui
BD#4".'.$' &"%3-4"%. '++'$47 peison becomes upset ovei peisonal failuie to iemain
abstinent anu views lapse as pioof that he oi she woulu nevei be able to iesist
temptation
-
Focuseu on incieasing self efficacy anu impiovement
Pievention stiategies teaches people that a lapse means nothing moie than the fact
that the situation hau exceeueu theii cuiient coping ability anu has given them insight
on the cognitive, situational, anu emotional anteceuents they must leain to hanule
moie effectively
-
2'3->#' ;('&'.4"%.
Incluue neeule anu syiinge exchange piogiams to ieuuce the spieau of BIv
infections
If an auuictive behavioi cannot be eliminateu, haim ieuuction will minimize its

haimful effects on peison anu society
@-(9 ('61$4"%. is a pievention stiategy focuseu on ieuucing the haimful effects of a

behavioi when it occuis
-
Incieaseu iates of sexual abuse, violence, piopeity uestiuction, etc.
Su% of male anu 4u% of female univeisity stuuents meets the binge uiinking ciiteiia
of moie than S uiinks on at least S occasions ovei the past 2 weeks
-
Showeu to be effective in ieuucing haim
0niveisity inteivention piogiams gave the expeiimental gioup feeuback about theii
uiinking behaviois anu implications of theii uiinking
-
@-(9 2'61$4"%. B>>(%-$0'# 4% ;('&'.4"%.
Pain can be a stiessoi anu a iesult of stiess -
Pain tells us that the bouy is being thieateneu oi has suffeieu uamage -
Pain can tiiggei behavioial ieactions to help us cope with the thieat -
a|n and a|n Management
Pain ieceptois all founu eveiywheie except the biain, bone, nail anu nonliving paits
of the teeth
-
Reacts to intense mechanical, theimal, oi chemical stimulation -
Pain has both a sensoiy anu an emotional component -
A1++'(".< is when both painful ieactions anu a negative emotional iesponse aie
piesent
-
8|o|og|ca| Mechan|sms of a|n
J-4' $%.4(%3 40'%() pioposes that pain is a iesult of the opening anu closing of
gating mechanisms in the neivous system
-
Thin fibei conveys shaip pains
Thick fibeis convey uull pain anu touch infoimation
Two types of sensoiy fibeis entei the spinal coiu -
When thick fibeis aie stimulateu, it closes the thin fibei gates fiom causing pain -
J-4' =%.4(%3 ?0'%()
Inciease thick fibei impulses means uecieaseu peiception of pain
Accupunctuie neeules stimulate mostly thick fibeis which closes off the pain
gates
When thick fibeis aie stimulateu, it closes the thin fibei gates fiom causing pain -
The $'.4(-3 $%.4(%3 9'$0-."#9 allows thoughts, emotions, anu beliefs to influence
the expeiience of pain which can contiol the spinal gates
-
Binus to specific ieceptoi sites in the biain associateu with pain peiception
0piates have been useu to ielieve pain -
Some aie extiemely poweiful, one of them 2uux moie poweiful than
moiphine
Bulls pain by inhibiting the neuiotiansmittei activity involveu in synaptic

tiansmission of pain impulses fiom the spinal coiu to the biain
Neivous system has its own analgesics (painkilleis) with opiate like piopeities known
as '.6%(>0".#
-
In an expeiiment, enuoiphins weie shown to be ieleaseu at the thalamus (sensoiy
switchboaiu), the amyguala (emotion centei), anu a sensoiy aiea of the coitex
-
Causeu by the vaiiations in the numbei of opioiu ieceptois foi enuoiphins anu
theii ability to ielease enuoiphins
People uiffei in pain expeiiences ueptie iuentical pain stimulation -

Suggests acupunctuie noimally ieleases enuoiphins
When .-3%E%.' is injecteu into the bloou stieam, which counteiacts the effects of
enuoiphins, it causes a gieat ueciease in the pain ieuucing effects of acupunctuie
-
6S% of wounueu soluieis uuiing combat felt no pain at the time of theii injuiy
Bighly auaptive, fight oi flight uefense behavioi must be given immeuiate
piioiity
A4('##/".61$'6 -.-3<'#"- is a ieuuction of peiceiveu pain unuei stiessful conuitions -

Chionically high levels of enuoiphin ielease block the activity of the immune system
cells that iecognize anu kill tumoi cells
-
?0' 5.6%(>0".#
Cu|tura| and sycho|og|ca| Inf|uences on a|n
In some cultuies, women uo not see chilubiith as a painful event anu went to woik in
the fielus immeuiately aftei
-
most likely uue to both biological anu psychological uiffeiences
Women iepoit pain moie fiequently moie than men anu aie moie often tieateu foi
pain ielateu uisoiueis
-
Feels little pain anu iecoveis almost immeuiately
In a society in Inuia, a holy peison peifoims a ceiemony that iequiies him to hang
fiom hooks thiough his back
-
Ethnic gioups uiffei gieatly in theii inteipietation of pain anu the amount of suffeiing
they expeiience
-
=1341(-3 8-$4%(#
Soluieis saw pain as evacuation fiom the wai zone anu a socially acceptable
ticket back home
Foi civilians, it meant a majoi life uisiuption anu possible complication

0nly 2S% of seveiely wounueu soluieis neeueu pain meuication while 8u% of civilian
men who ieceiveu similai wounus neeueu pain meus
-
42% iepoiteu ielief fiom placebos compaieu to 67% ielief fiom the actual uiug
Placebos only woik if people believe they aie going to woik
When using placebos foi moiphine -
Those who believe they can contiol theii pain iepoiteu less pain anu inuuceu an -
H'-.".<# -.6 ,'3"'+#
Those who believe they can contiol theii pain iepoiteu less pain anu inuuceu an
enuoiphin ielease
-
Foi those bittei anu uepiiveu, it can be useu to uiamatize theii unhappiness,
elicit caiing, sympathy oi guilt fiom otheis
Pain anu suffeiing can be useu to attain ceitain goals -

People who have .'1(%4"$"#9, tenuency to expeiience negative emotions, iepoit
highei physical pain
-
Those who aie optimistic anu exhibit a sense of peisonal contiol iepoiteu lowei pain
peiception anu less suffeiing
-
Those who aie moie uepiesseu anu anxious iepoiteu gieatei pain -
uieatest pain anu uistiess occuiieu when women who lost a significant souice of
social suppoit
-
;'(#%.-3"4) 8-$4%(# -.6 A%$"-3 A1>>%(4
sycho|og|ca| 1echn|ques for Contro|||ng a|n and Suffer|ng
Biiecting attention to something else, imagining a pleasuiable expeiience, oi
iepeating a woiu
Eg. Recieational joggeis ian S2% longei when they focuseu on a single spot anu
saiu "uown" eveiy time they took a step
In a buin centei, patients weie given viitual ieality goggles anu iepoiteu much
less pain uuiing wounu cleansing
!"##%$"-4"&' #4(-4'<) involves uissociating, oi uistiacting oneself fiom painful

sensoiy input
-
A point wheie pain is too intense anu uissociative stiategies cannot ignoie
the stimuli
When pain is intense, it is moie effective than uissociative stiategies

B##%$"-4"&' #4(-4'<"'# is when you focus attention to the physical sensations anu
stuuy them in a uetacheu anu unemotional fashion
-
=%<."4"&' A4(-4'<"'#
Infoimation can be useu to ieuuce anxiety anu contiibute to positive meuical
outcomes
-
Belp you see that what you feel is noimal anu a sign of iecoveiy
A'.#%() ".+%(9-4"%.7 what you will feel aftei the opeiation
;(%$'61(-3 ".+%(9-4"%.7 what's happening uuiing the suigeiy itself anu why
each piocess is uone
=%>".< <1"6-.$'7 hanuling the pain oi othei complications fiom the suigeiy
0seful infoimation incluues: -
@%#>"4-3 F.4'(&'.4"%.#7 J"&".< ;-4"'.4# F.+%(9-4"%.-3 =%.4(%3
Those who avoiu activity oi become oveipiotective about an injuieu bouy pait aie at
iisk foi ueveloping a chionic pain conuition
-
X') ,'0-&"%(-3 A4(-4'<)7 ,'$%9".< B$4"&' B<-".

Psychology 1000 Notes: Key Concepts in Cognitive, Behavioral and Cultural Perspectives

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Psychology 1000 Notes: Key Concepts in Cognitive, Behavioral and Cultural Perspectives

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Psychology 1uuu Chaptei 1 Notes

1hey concluded LhaL havlng mulLlple bysLanders produced a d|ffus|on of

LlecLrlcal sLlmulaLlon of Lhe hypoLhalamus acLlvaLes axons LhaL goes Lo Lhe

Powever, Lhe rlghL hemlsphere can sLlll recognlze ob[ecLs !

1hls alLeraLlon caused Lhe mlce Lo have exaggeraLed sLress response

1hey can dlsLlngulsh Lhe odor of Lhelr moLher's mllk

1here are llmlLed number of baslc dlmenslons Lo human personallLy -

Lg. Women have Lo go Lhrough gesLaLlon, breasLfeedlng

AlLrulsm developed Lo lncrease Lhe survlval of relaLlves -

1hls requlres a sLable group so LhaL Lhe deed ls llkely Lo be reclprocaLed

Youi inteipietation of a sensation is influenceu by the $%.4'E4 of the stimuli (eg.

;'($'>4"%. is when we actively soit the infoimation anu makes sense of it -

0thei featuie uetectois iesponu to uiffeient colois -

Analyzeu anu iecombineu infoimation is sent to &"#1-3 -##%$"-4"%. $%(4'E -

Louuei = moie haii benuing = moie neuiotiansmitteis = highei iate of fiiing -

0nly sensitive to acceleiation

?%>/6%:. >(%$'##".<7 make use of highei oiuei knowleuge

Stuuieu expeiimentally thiough a technique calleu #0-6%:".< -

We aie paiticulaily sensitive to stimuli that might be a thieat -

;'($'>41-3 #$0'9-: iecognition means that we have a >'($'>41-3 #$0'9- (mental

Attiibuteu to peiception constancies that usually allows us to peiceive moie accuiately -

Cognitive psychologists ieject the notion of an unconscious minu uiiven instinctive

A'-#%.-3 B++'$4"&' !"#%(6'( SAB!T is a cyclic tenuency to become psychologically

You get 25H #3''> >-(-3)#"# -

Theie aie non-REN uieams anu REN uieams -

People sleep longei in the wintei

Although biologically iegulateu, the enviionment plays a iole as well -

They iepoit a lowei quality of life

=%<."4"&' ;(%$'## !('-9 ?0'%("'# focus on the piocess of how we uieam -

Theie is a gieat similaiity between uieaming anu waking mental activity -

An agonist may enhance piouuction, stoiage, oi ielease of a neuiotiansmittei;

Beciease neivous system activity -

Alcohol incieases the activity of JB,B -

NBNA (ecstasy) is a ueiivative of amphetamine -

0ffspiing of alcoholic paients typically uisplay fastei hoimonal anu psychological

@)>.%4"$ #1#$'>4"D"3"4) #$-3'# contain a stanuaiu seiies of passfail suggestions that

Bypnotic susceptibility is a stable chaiacteiistic -

Contiol gioup showeu no stiffening of the hanu

Explaineu puiely on uiiectly obseivable events

Fixeu action patteins can be mouifieu by expeiience -

It iesults fiom oui inteiactions with immeuiate anu past enviionments

It is auaptive because if an oiganism iesponueu to eveiy stimulus in its enviionment,

Stimulus geneialization seives ciitical auaptive functions -

Eventually the iat alone maue Albeit ciy

In classical conuitioning the oiganism leains an association between two stimuli -

A iesponse is stiengtheneu by the subsequent iemoval oi avoiuance of a stimulus -

Weakening anu eventual uisappeaiance of iesponse because it is no longei ieinfoiceu -

A iesponse is weakeneu by subsequent iemoval of a stimulus -

Biffeient fiom opeiant extinction -

This is calleu the 9'40%6 %+ #1$$'##"&' ->>(%E"9-4"%.#

0sually backwaius towaiu the fiist iesponse

N>'(-.4 6"#$("9".-4"%. 4(-".".<7 making an uisciiminate ceitain stimuli that it uoes

Continuous ieinfoicement piouuces moie iapiu leaining than paitial ieinfoicement

Eg. Naik playing on the monkey bai

In '#$->' $%.6"4"%.".<R oiganisms leain a iesponse to teiminate an aveisive

It is usually haiu to extinguish

This stiengthens anu maintains the iesponse

?:%/+-$4%( 40'%() %+ -&%"6-.$' 3'-(.".< -

Psychologists have cieateu taste aveisions in natuie -

This is why we uon't get conuitioneu to ianuom stimuli -

The sensoiy iegistei must cieate a mental iepiesentation in youi minu -

The memoiy is conceineu with the numbei of meaningful units -