General computer architecture

Computer Architecture
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! Muhammad Hafiz Abu Bakar
! mhab@upm.edu.my; mhab@ieee.org

! Credit: 3 (3+0)
! Learning outcomes:
Explain the characteristics of computer system
Discuss the differences of computer systems and their
performance in groups
Differentiate various latest computer architectures
! This course covers general architecture of
digital computer control logic and micro
programmed control, Central processing Unit
(CPU), memory organization and Input and
Output organization. It also emphasizes
peripheral devices and interfacing technique,
reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) and
case studies of various computer systems.
! Main reference:
! Computer Organization & Architecture, William
Stallings
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The operational units
and their
interconnections that
realize the architectural
specifications
Hardware details
transparent to the
programmer, control
signals, interfaces
between the computer
and peripherals, memory
technology used
Instruction set, number
of bits used to represent
various data types, I/O
mechanisms,
techniques for
addressing memory
Attributes of a system
visible to the
programmer
Have a direct impact on
the logical execution of
a program
Computer
Architecture
Architectural
attributes
include:
Computer
Organization
Organizational
attributes
include:
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COMPUTER
Storage
Processing
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Figure 1.3 The Computer
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! Based on hierarchical system (set of interrelated
subsystems)
! Allows designer to deal only with a particular level of
system at a time
Structure
The way in
which
components
relate to each
other
Function
The operation
of individual
components as
part of the
structure
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! A computer has 4 basic
functions
! Data processing
! Data storage
! Data movement
! Control
Data
Movement
Apparatus
Operating Environment
(source and destination of data)
Control
Mechanism
Data
Storage
Facility
Data
Processing
Facility
Figure 1.1 A Functional View of the Computer
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Movement
Control
(a)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(b)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(c)
Figure 1.2 Possible Computer Operations
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(d)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(a)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(b)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(c)
Figure 1.2 Possible Computer Operations
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(d)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(a)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(b)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(c)
Figure 1.2 Possible Computer Operations
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(d)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(a)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(b)
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(c)
Figure 1.2 Possible Computer Operations
Storage Processing
Movement
Control
(d)
Storage Processing
Movement
Storage
Processing
Control
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Figure 1.4 A Top-Down View of a Computer
Main
memory
I/O
CPU
COMPUTER
System
Bus
ALU
Registers
Control
Unit
CPU
Internal
Bus
Control Unit
Registers and
Decoders
CONTROL
UNIT
Sequencing
Logic
Control
Memory
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! CPU controls the
operation of the computer
and performs its data
processing functions
! Main Memory stores data
! I/O moves data between
the computer and its
external environment
! System Interconnection
some mechanism that
provides for communication
among CPU, main memory,
and I/O
! Major components of CPU:
! Control Unit
! Controls the operation of the
CPU and hence the
computer
! Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU)
! Performs the computers
data processing function
! Registers
! Provide storage internal to
the CPU
! CPU Interconnection
! Some mechanism that
provides for communication
among the control unit, ALU,
and registers
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Vacuum tubes
ENIAC
EDVAC
UNIVAC
IBM
Transistors
Integrated circuits
;<=>!
Weighed
30
tons
Occupied
1500
square
feet
of
floor
space
Contained
more
than
18,000
vacuum
tubes
140 kW
Power
consumption
Capable
of
5000
additions
per
second
Decimal
rather
than
binary
machine
Memory
consisted
of 20
accumulators,
each
capable
of
holding
a
10 digit
number
Major
drawback
was the need
for manual
programming
by setting
switches
and
plugging/
unplugging
cables
Main
Memory
(M)
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Arithmetic-
Logic
Unit (CA)
Program
Control
Unit (CC)
Figure 2.1 Structure of the IAS Computer
I/O
Equip-
ment
(I, O)
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! The memory of the IAS consists of 1000 storage locations (called words)
of 40 bits each
! Both data and instructions are stored there
! Numbers are represented in binary form and each instruction is a binary
code
(a) Number word
sign bit
0 39
(b) Instruction word
Figure 2.2 IAS Memory Formats
opcode address
left instruction
0 8 20 28 39
1
right instruction
opcode address
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AC
IBR PC
IR
Control
circuits
Addresses
Control
signals
Instructions
and data
MAR
MBR
MQ
Arithmetic-logic
circuits
Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU)
Program control unit
Figure 2.3 Expanded Structure of IAS Computer
Input-
output
equipment
Main
memory
M
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Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit
Memory buffer register
(MBR)
Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or
read into the MBR
Memory address
register (MAR)
Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed
Instruction register (IR)
Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a word
in memory
Instruction buffer
register (IBR)
Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from
memory
Program counter (PC)
Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU
operations
Accumulator (AC) and
multiplier quotient (MQ)
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! Smaller
! Cheaper
! Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube
! Is a solid state device made from silicon
! Introduced second generation computers with:
! More complex arithmetic and logic units and control units
! The use of high-level programming languages
! Provision of system software which provided the ability to:
- load programs
- move data to peripherals and libraries
- perform common computations
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CPU
Memory
Figure 2.5 An IBM 7094 Configuration
Data
channel
Mag tape
units
Card
punch
Line
printer
Card
reader
Drum
Disk
Disk
Hyper-
tapes
Teleprocessing
equipment
Data
channel
Data
channel
Data
channel
Multi-
plexor
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! 3
rd
generation computer
! Previously, discrete component is used
! Single, self-contained transistor
! Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and
soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards
! Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome (numbers
come up to 10000 transistors!)
! Exploits the fact that such components as transistors,
resistors, and conductors can be fabricated from a
semiconductor such as silicon
! Many transistors can be produced at the same time on a
single wafer of silicon
! Transistors can be connected with a processor
metallization to form circuits
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! Data storage provided by memory cells
! Data processing provided by gates
! Data movement the paths among components are used to move data
from memory to memory and from memory through gates to memory
! Control the paths among components can carry control signals
Boolean
logic
function
Input
Activate
signal
(a) Gate
Figure 2.6 Fundamental Computer Elements
Output
Binary
storage
cell
Input
Read
Write
(b) Memory cell
Output
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! The consequences of Moores law are profound:
! The cost of computer logic and memory circuitry has fallen at a dramatic rate.
! The electrical path length is shortened, increasing operating speed.
! The computer becomes smaller, making it more convenient to place in a variety
of environments.
! There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements.
! The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much more reliable than
solder connections.
Figure 2.8 Growth in Transistor Count on Integrated Circuits
(DRAM memory)
1
1947
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50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 11
10
100
1,000
10.000
100,000
10 m
100 m
1 bn
10 bn
100 bn
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! Advancement to circuit integration leads to
! Large scale integration (LSI) 1000 components/chip
! Very LSI (VLSI) 10000 components/chip
! Ultra LSI (ULSI) 1 billion components/chip
! Major components benefitting from circuit integration
! Semiconductor memory
- Non destructive
- Nanosecond access
- Took off once price/bit of SC memory went lower than price/bit of core memory
- Each generation has provided four times storage density of previous generation
! Microprocessor
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! The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
! More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer
chips were needed to construct a single computer processor
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Pipelining
Branch
prediction
Data flow
analysis
Speculative
execution
Processor moves data or instructions
into a conceptual pipe with all stages
of the pipe processing
simultaneously
Processor looks ahead in the
instruction code fetched from
memory and predicts which
branches, or groups of instructions,
are likely to be processed next
Processor analyzes which
instructions are dependent on each
others results, or data, to create an
optimized schedule of instructions
Using branch prediction + data flow
analysis, some processors
speculatively execute instructions
ahead of their actual apperance,
holding the results in temporary
locations, keeping execution engines
as busy as possible
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! Definition of computer architecture and computer
organization
! Definition of structure and function
! Structure The way components relate
! Function Operations performed by components
! Basic functions involve data processing, data storage,
movement and control
! Structure includes CPU, I/O, main memory and system
interconnection
! Main component is CPU
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! First generation computers
! Vacuum tubes
! Second generation computers
! Transistors
! Third generation computers
! Integrated circuits
! Advancement in microprocessors and semiconductor
memory